Review of Electromagnetics

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
 Contents
• Coordinate Systems
• the Cartesian coordinate system
• the cylindrical coordinate system
• the spherical coordinate system.
• Static fields
• Electrostatics
• Coulomb’s law
• Electric field intensity and flux density
• Potential
• Steady magnetic felds
• Ampere’s law
• Biot Savart’s law
• Maxwell’s laws
• Time varying fields: Maxwell’s laws
• Vector Operators and operations 2
 Coordinate Systems
• There are three common systems used to represent
vectors in space:
• the Cartesian coordinate system
• the cylindrical coordinate system
• the spherical coordinate system.

3
Cartesian Coordinate System
• There are three mutually
perpendicular axes:
x, y and z axes
• A point in space is located by its x,y
and z coordinates.
• The point being the intersection of
three surfaces, the x=constant plane,
the y=constant plane and the
z=constant plane.
• The differential surfaces and volume
as shown.
• The differential length is

4
Unit Vectors in Cartesian Coordinate System

• Three mutually perpendicular unit vectors: ax , ay and az

• Along x , y and z axes.
• ax normal to yz plane
• ay normal to zx plane
• az normal to xy plane 5
Cylindrical Coordinate System
• Three dimension version of polar
coordinate system
• The three coordinates are ρ,ϕ and z.
• A point in space is located by
intersection of three mutually
perpendicular surfaces: a circular
cylinder (ρ=constant), a plane
(ϕ=constant), and a plane (z=constant)
• The differential surfaces have the
areas ρdρdϕ, ρdϕdz and dρdz
• The differential volume is ρdρdϕdz
• The relation to cartesian coordinates
is:

6
Unit Vectors in Cylindrical Coordinate System
• No fixed axes exist
• Three mutually perpendicular unit
vectors: aρ , aϕ and az
• The direction of az is always same
while that of aρ , aϕ are not and vary
with change location of point.
• az is normal to the z=constant
plane, points upwards and is same to
az of cartesian system

• aρ is radially outward, normal to the cylindrical surface and lies

in z=constant and ϕ=constant planes
• aϕ is normal to the ϕ=constant plane, points towards increasing
ϕ , tangent to ρ=constant and lies in z=constant surfaces
7
Cylindrical Coordinate System
• The three coordinates are r,θ and ϕ.
• A point in space is located by intersection
of three mutually perpendicular surfaces: a
sphere (r=constant), a cone (θ=constant),
and a plane (ϕ=constant)
• The differential surfaces have the areas
rdrdθ, rsinθdrdϕ and r2sinθdθdϕ
• The differential volume is r2sinθdrdθdϕ
• The relation to cartesian coordinates is:

8
Unit Vectors in Cylindrical Coordinate System
• No fixed axes exist
• Three mutually perpendicular unit
vectors: ar, aθ , and aϕ
• The directions of unit vectors are not
constant and vary with change in
location of point.
• ar is radially outward, normal to the
sphere (r=constant ) and lies in the
cone (θ=constant) and plane (ϕ=constant)

• aθ is directed towards increasing θ, normal to the conical

surface (θ=constant) and lies in the plane (ϕ=constant )and
tangent to the sphere (r=constant )
• aϕ is normal to the ϕ=constant plane, points towards increasing
ϕ , tangent to both cone (θ=constant) and sphere (r=constant ) 9
Vector Conversion Between Different Systems

10
 Static and Time Varying Fields
• Static Electric Fields
• Time Varying Electric Fields
• Steady Magnetic Field:
• May be produced by: permanent magnet, linearly time
varying electric field and direct current carrying
conductor

11
 The Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
• Force (attraction or repulsion)between two charged particles
spaced at distance R in free space is:

• The force exerted by the electric field on a unit test charge is called
the electric field intensity. For an electric field due to a point charge
Q,

• For a distributed volume charge distribution,

12
 Electric Flux Density and The Gauss’s Law
• The total flux passing through a closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by the surface.

• The electric flux density is the lines per square meter.

• In free space,
• For a field due to a point charge,

• For volume charge distribution,

• Integral form and point form of Gauss’s Law:

13
 The Scalar Electric Potential
• Energy is expended while moving some charge from one point to
another in electric field.
• The amount of work done while moving a unit charge from one
point to another against the field is equal to the potential difference
between two points.
• The absolute potential of a point in the field is equal to the work
done against the field while bringing a unit test charge from infinity
(zero reference potential) to that point.
• For a field due to point charge ,

• The relation between electric field intensity and potential is:

14
 Magnetostatics
• The magnetic field intensity produced by a current carrying
conductor is:

•In terms of current density,

• The line integral of H about a closed path is equal to the current

enclosed

• Point form of Ampere’s Law:

• The magnetic flux density is given as:

15
 Maxwell’s Equation for static fields
• The set of equations describing static electric and steady magnetic
fields in free space:

• Auxiliary equations:

16
 Magnetic Potentials
• The electric fields are described using scalar electric potentials
• A similar definition exists for scalar magnetic potentials

•The vector magnetic potential is defined as:

• The vector magnetic potential due to a current carrying conductor

is:

17
 Time varying fields
• Time varying magnetic fields give rise to electric fields
• Time varying electric fields give rise to magnetic fields.
• Time varying fields can be represented by following set of Maxwell’s
equations

18
 Time Varying (Retarded) Potentials
• For time varying fields, scalar electric potential and vector magnetic
potentials have definitions as:

• For the time varying potential field, it is logical to think that

potential at any point is not due to the value of charge density at
some distant point at same instant but due to its value at some
previous time, because the effect propagates at a finite velocity

19
 Vector Operators and Operations
• Divergence

• Gradient

20
 Vector Operators and Operations
• Curl

21
Fundamentals of Radiation Mechanism and
Some Basic Radiators

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
 Contents:
• Introduction to radiation and antennas
• Region of fields around antennas
• Alternating Current Elements
• Fields
• Power
• Dipoles of practical lengths
• Short dipoles and monopoles
• Fields and power
• Dipoles of finite lengths
• Half wave dipoles: Fields and power
• Quarter wave monopoles: Fields and power
• Near Fields due to half wave dipole
• Small loop antennas
• Fields and power
2
EM Spectrum

3
EM Spectrum

4
 When radiation occurs?

To create radiation, there must be either and or:

• time varying current
• acceleration or deceleration of charges

So,
• A static (not moving) charge does not radiate : No Current
• A charge moving with uniform velocity along a straight
and infinitely long wire also does not radiate: Constant current
However,
• A charge moving with uniform velocity along a curved,
bent, discontinuous, terminated or truncated wire radiates.
• If the charge is oscillating in time, it radiates even if wire
is straight. 5
 When radiation occurs?
• Consider, a pulse of electric charge moving along a straight
conductor in the x direction. If q is charge per unit length and v the
velocity , the momentary electric current is: dx
I = q = qv
dt
If l is the total length of the pulse, the total charge Q=ql and,
Also, 2
dx dx dI d x
Il = ql = Q = Qv l = Q 2
= Qa
dt dt dt dt
• Cleary, since accelerated charge is equivalent to time varying
current, they are capable of radiation.
• For transients and pulses we focus on charge while for steady state
harmonic variations, we focus on current.
• As known, a pulse radiates a broad spectrum (wide bandwidth)
while smooth sinusoidal current results in a narrow bandwidth.
(Ideally zero bandwidth) 6
 Radiating Wire Configurations

Charge is accelerated Charge is accelerated

Charge is accelerated as it
changes direction at ends
Charge is accelerated

Charge is accelerated as it
changes direction at ends

Time varying current

7
 Release of Field Lines

Field lines in transmission line, antenna and free space

8
 Antenna Field Regions

The region around antenna may

be divided into three zones:
• reactive near field region
• radiating near field region
(Fresnel zone)
• radiating far field region
(Fraunhofer zone)

Fig: Three regions around an antenna

9
 Antenna Field Regions
Reactive Near Field:
• Phases of electric and magnetic fields are often in near quadrature.
• Highly reactive wave impedance
• High content of non propagating stored energy
Radiating Near Field:
• Fields are predominantly in phase
• Fields do not display spherical wavefront
• Pattern varies with distance
• power flow not completely radial
Radiating Near Field:
• Fields have spherical wavefront
• Pattern does not vary with distance
• Electric and magnetic field components are in phase
• Wave impedance ideally real
• Power dominantly real and flow directed radially outward 10
 Antenna: Introduction
• The radio antenna is an essential component of many radio
communication system.
• The transmission of electromagnetic energy may be done using
guiding structures or through transmit and receive antennas with no
guiding structures in between.
• At low frequencies and short distances, transmission lines are
practical.
• As the frequencies become high and distances large, use of antenna
is favored.
• Antennas are also very advantageous in broadcast situations.
• Many non communication applications like RADAR also employ
antennas.
• Security and reliability are two concerns in wireless communication
over guided communication.
11
 Antenna: Definition
• A radio antenna is a device that provides a means for radiating or
receiving radio waves.
• A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with
the region of transition between a guided wave and free space wave
or vice versa.

• Where a transmission line is a device for transmitting or guiding

radio frequency energy from one point to another, antennas are
devices for radiating energy.

• A transmission line when opened out, acts like an antenna.

• The currents on the transmission line flow out on the transmission

line and end there, but the fields associated with them keep on
going. 12
 Antenna: functions
An antenna has thus these roles:
• A transducer: converting electrostatic energy to electromagnetic
wave energy and vice versa
• Impedance matching device: allowing maximum power to be
transferred from source to space

An antenna have following basic functions:

• An antenna should radiate RF energy developed in the
transmitter
• An antenna act as impedance matching device for matching the
impedance of the transmission line with the impedance of space.
• An antenna should radiate energy in specified direction
• An antenna should suppress the radiation in specified
(unwanted) direction
13
Spherical Co-ordinate System

14
 Alternating Current Element
• Also Called:
• Oscillating Electric Dipole
• Elementary Dipole
• Hertzian Dipole
• Infinitesimal Dipole
• The most simple radiating configuration
• Filamentary current I flowing along elemental length dl
• The wire in addition to being very small (l << λ ) , is very thin (a << λ )

15
Geometrical Arrangement: Alternating Current Element
• The current element is located at origin
of the reference coordinate axis.
• The current element is aligned along
the z axis.
• The current is uniform throughout
the length of the current element
• The current varies sinusoidally with
time.I = I 0 Cosωt

16
 Field due to alternating current element
r 1 ∂ ∂Aθ 
(∇ × A) r =
rSinθ  ∂θ ( SinθAφ ) − ∂φ  = 0
 
r 1 ∂Ar 1 ∂ (rAφ )
(∇ × A)θ = − =0
rSinθ ∂φ r ∂r
r 1  ∂ (rAθ ) ∂Ar ) 
(∇ × A)φ =  −
r  ∂r ∂θ 
1  ∂ (−rAz Sinθ ) ∂ ( Az Cosθ ) 
=  − 
r ∂r ∂θ
Now,
∂ ∂  µ I 0 dl Cosωt ' Sinθ 
(−rAz Sinθ ) = −  r 
∂r ∂r  4π r 
µ ∂
=− I 0 dl Sinθ [Cosω (t − r v )]
4π ∂r 17
 Field due to alternating current element
µ   − ω 
=− I 0 dl Sinθ − Sinω (t − v )
r

4π   v 
µω
=− I 0 dl Sinθ Sinωt '
4πv
And ,
∂ ∂  µ I 0 dl Cosωt 'Cosθ 
( Az Cosθ ) =  
∂θ ∂θ  4π r 
µ I 0 dl Cosωt ' (− Sinθ )
=
4πr
r 1  µω µ I dl Cos ω t '
Sinθ 
(∇ × A)φ = − I 0 dl Sinθ Sinωt +
' 0

r  4πv 4πr 
µ I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt Cosωt ' 
= − + 
4π  rv r 2
 18
 Field due to alternating current element
r r
As we know, ∇ × A = B
So, Br = 0, Bθ = 0 and ( r
Bφ = ∇ × A φ )
r µ I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt Cosωt ' 
B= − +  aˆφ
4π  rv r 2

r 1 r
Also, H = B
µ
I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt Cosωt ' 
So, H r = 0, H θ = 0 and Hφ = − + 
4π  rv r 2

r I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt Cosωt ' 
H= − +  aˆφ
4π  rv r 2

Clearly, magnetic field intensity (H) has only ϕ component which
in addition , is independent of ϕ coordinate of the point. 19
Field due to alternating current element
r ∂ r ∂ r
Again, ∇ × H = D = ε E
∂t ∂t
( )
r 1 r
So, E = ∫ ∇ × H dt
ε
r 1∂ ∂H θ 
(∇ × H ) r =  ∂θ ( Sinθ H φ ) − ∂φ 
rSinθ
 
1 ∂ 
=  ( Sinθ H φ )
rSinθ  ∂θ 
1  ∂  I 0 dl Sin 2θ  − ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
=    + 
rSinθ  ∂θ  4π  rv r 2

1  I 0 dl  − ω Sinωt ' Cosωt '  
=   + 2Sinθ Cosθ 
rSinθ  4π  rv r 2
  20
Field due to alternating current element
I 0 dl Cosθ  − ω (−Cosωt ' ) Sinωt ' 
∫( )
r
∇ × H dt =  + 
r 2π r 2  ω v ω r 

I 0 dl Cosθ  Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 

=  + 2 
2π r  r v ω r 

2 I 0 dl Cosθ  Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 

=  2 + 3 
4π  r v ω r 

2 I 0 dl Cosθ  Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 

Er =  2 + 3 
4πε  r v ω r 
21
 Field due to alternating current element
r 1 ∂H r 1 ∂ (rH φ ) 1 ∂ (rH φ )
(∇ × H )θ = − =−
rSinθ ∂φ r ∂r r ∂r
1 ∂   I 0 dl Sinθ  − ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
=− r   + 
r ∂r   4π  rv r 2

1  I 0 dl Sinθ ∂  − ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
=−   + 
r  4π ∂r  v r 
   −ω  ' 
1  I 0 dl Sinθ
 r ( )
 − Sinωt − Cosωt 
'

 − ω Cosωt  − ω  +  v 
'
=−  
r  4π  v  v  r2 
  
  

− I dl Sinθ  ω 2 Cosωt ' ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 

= 0  + − 
4πr  v 2
rv r 2

22
 Field due to alternating current element
I 0 dl Sinθ  ω 2 Cosωt ' ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
=  − − + 
4π  rv 2 2
r v r 3

I 0 dl Sinθ ( )
 ω 2 Sinωt ' ω − Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 
∫( )
r
∇ × H dt =  − − + 3 

θ 4π  ωrv 2
ωr v
2
ωr 

Eθ =
I 0 dl Sinθ
 − −
( +
)
 ω Sinωt ' − Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 

3 
4πε  rv 2 2
r v ωr 
Finally ,
r 1  ∂ (rH θ ) ∂H r )  Eφ = 0
(∇ × H )φ =  −  =0
r  ∂r ∂θ 
Clearly, electric field intensity (E) has only r and ϕ component
which in addition , is independent of ϕ coordinate of the point. 23
 Field Terms
• The observation of the expressions for H and E show that, there are
three type of terms.
• The terms inversely proportional r3 represent electrostatic field.
These terms are present in expressions of Er and Eθ.
• It is the electrostatic field assuming the current element as a charge
I Sinωt d
Q= Q Q = I Cosωt
ω dt
• This term decays very rapidly with increasing r.
•The terms inversely proportional r2 represent induction field. These
terms are present in expressions of Hϕ, Er and Eθ.
• They are also called near field and they dominate in locations near
the current element.
• Induction term in H is similar to that given by Biot-Savart law for
current element in steady field case.
• Induction field represents energy storage. 24
 Field Terms
• The terms inversely proportional r represent radiation field. These
terms are present in expressions of Hϕ, and Eθ.
• These terms are responsible for field at some far distance and
hence for long distance transmission.
• At far distance, other terms are negligible compared to this term.
• This term accounts for the flow of energy away from antenna.
• Induction term and radiation term in Hϕ become equal when,
1 ω v λ λ
= ∴r = = ≈
r 2 rv ω 2π 6

25
 Far Field due to Alternating Current Element
Magnetic Field Intensity
I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
Hφ = − + 
4π  rv r 2

For far field,
− I 0 dl ω Sinθ Sinωt ' r − I dl ω Sin θ Sin ωt '

Hφ = H = 0
aˆφ
4π r v 4π r v
Electric Field Intensity
Er =
2 I 0 dl Cosθ  Cosωt ' Sinωt '  E = I 0 dl Sinθ
+ −
( )
 ω Sinωt ' − Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 
 − + 
 2 3  θ 3 
4πε  r v ω r  4πε  rv 2 2
r v ωr 

For Far field, I 0 dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt ' 

Er = 0 Eθ =  − 
4πε 
2
rv 
r − I 0 dl ω Sinθ Sinωt '
E= aˆθ
4π ε r v 2
26
 Far Field: In Phasors
Magnetic Field Intensity
β I 0 dl Sinθ 1 1  − jβ r
Hφ = j  r + jβ r 2  e
4π  
For far field,
β I 0 dl Sinθ e − jβ r
Hφ = j
4π r
Electric Field Intensity

I 0 dl Sinθ 1 1  − jβ r β I 0 dl Sinθ 1 1 1  − jβ r
Er = η  r 2 + jβ r 3  e Eθ = jη + −
 r jβ r 2 β 2 r 3  e
2π   4π  
For Far field,
Er = 0

β I 0 dl Sinθ e − jβ r
Eθ = jη
4π r
27
 Power Radiated by Current Element
• The power flow per unit area in space due to an e-m wave is given
by the Poynting vector.
r r r
P = E × H = (Er aˆ r + Eθ aˆθ )× H φ aˆφ
= − Er H φ aˆθ + Eθ H φ aˆ r
Pθ = − Er H φ
− 2 I 0 dl 2 Cosθ Sinθ  − Cosωt 'ω Sinωt ' Cos 2ωt ' ω Sin 2ωt ' Cosωt ' Sinωt ' 
2
=  + − + 
16 π ε
2
 r 3 2
v r 4
v ω r 4
v ω r 5

− I 0 dl 2 Sin 2θ  − ω Sin 2ωt ' Cos 2ωt ' Sin 2ωt ' 
2
=  + + 5 
16 π ε
2
 2 r 3 2
v r 4
v 2ω r 
I 0 dl 2 Sin2θ  ω Sin2ωt ' Cos 2ωt ' Sin2ωt ' 
2
=  − − 5 
16 π ε
2
 2 r 3 2
v r 4
v 2ω r 
28
 Power Radiated by Current Element
Also,
Pr = Eθ H φ
 ω 2 Sin 2ωt ' ω SinωtCosωt ' ω Sinωt 'Cosωt ' 
2 
− − 
I 0 dl Sin θ  r v
2 3 3 2
2 2
r v r 3 v2 
=
16 π 2ε  Cos 2ωt ' ω Sin 2ωt ' Sinωt 'Cosωt ' 
+ − + 

4
r v ωr v
4
ωr 5


I 0 dl 2 Sin 2θ  ω 2 Sin 2ωt ' ω Sin 2ωt ' Cos 2ωt ' Sin 2ωt ' 
2
=  − + + 5 
16 π ε
2
 r 2 3
v r 3 2
v r 4
v 2 ω r 

I 0 dl 2 Sin 2θ  ω Sin 2ωt ' Cos 2ωt ' Sin 2ωt ' ω2 ω 2 Cos 2ωt ' 
2
= − + + + 2 3− 
16 π 2ε  r 3 2
v r 4
v 2 ω r 5
2 r v 2 r 2 3
v 

29
 Power Radiated by Current Element
The above expressions provide instantaneous power per unit area.
When average power is computed, the terms with Cos 2ωt ' and Sin 2ωt '
contribute zero.
So, for average power per unit area,
(P ) = 0
avg θ
2 2
θ
2
 ω 2
 2 2
ω 2 2
θ
(P ) = I 0 dl Sin
 2 3=
I 0 dl Sin
16 π ε π ε
avg r 2 2 2 3
 2 r v  32 r v
Thus net power flow occurs only in r direction
2
η  I 0 dl ω Sinθ 
(P ) =  
2  4 π rv 
avg r

where,η =
1
;η 0 =
µ 0 = 120π and v0 =
1
εv ε 0 µ 0ε 0 30
 Power Radiated by Current Element
Total radiated power is, ds = r dφ rdθ Sinθ = 2π r 2 Sinθ dθ
(P )
avg rad = ∫ Pavg ds
π 2
η  I 0 dl ω Sinθ 
(P ) = ∫   2π r 2 Sinθ dθ
2  4 π rv 
avg rad
0
2 π
η I 0 dl ω
2 2
= ∫ θ dθ
3
Sin
16 π v 2 0

η I 0 2 dl 2 ω 2 π 1
= ∫ (3Sinθ − Sin3θ ) dθ
16 π v 2
0
4
π
η I 0 dl ω 
2 2 2
Cos3θ 
= 2 
3Cosθ − 
4 ×16 π v  3 0
31
 Power Radiated by Current Element
η I 0 dl ω 16 η I 0 dl 2 ω 2
2 2 2 2
∴ Prad = =
4 ×16 π v 3
2
12 π v 2
• In above expressions, peak current have been used. In terms of the
effective (rms) values, For Sinusoidal variations,
η I eff dl 2 ω 2
2
I peak
∴ Prad = I eff =
6π v2 2
For free sapce,
120 π I eff dl 2 ω 2 4π 2
2
dl 2
∴ Prad = = 80 π 2
2
I eff
6 π λ2ω 2 λ2

dl 2
and , Rrad = 80 π 2
2
Comparing with P=I2R, ∴ Prad = Rrad I eff λ2 32
 Power Radiated by Current Element

# Evaluate the radiation resistance of a radiating element having

length 5m at frequency 30 kHz. If it carries effective current of 0.25
amp, compute the radiated power.

33
 Finite Length Short Dipoles
• For the very short linear antennas
(dipoles), the current can be assumed to
be uniform throughout the length of the
dipole.
• Such assumption is satisfactory only for
very short dipoles (usually l ≤ λ 50 ).
• For practical dipoles with finite length,
Dipole of length l
more complicated distribution are needed.
• For short dipoles (usually λ 50 < l ≤ λ 10),
the current is assumed to vary linearly
throughout the length with maximum at
feed points and zero at ends.
 z 
I = I 0 1 −  for z > 0
 H
 z  Monopole of length l/2
I = I 0 1 +  for z < 0
 H 34
 Fields Due to Short Dipoles
• For the short dipole antennas with assumed linear current
distribution, the field at any point in space will be half of the field
that obtained with uniform current distribution.
• So, I 0 l Sinθ  ω Sinωt ' Cosωt ' 
Hφ = − + 
8π  rv r 2

The far field, r − I 0 l ω Sinθ Sinωt '
H= aˆφ
8π r v

And,
I 0 l Cosθ  Cosωt ' Sinωt '  I l Sinθ  ω Sinωt ' 
Er =  2 + Eθ = 0  − 
4πε  r v ω r 3  2πε 2
rv 

The far field, r − I 0 l ω Sinθ Sinωt '
E= aˆθ
Er = 0 2π ε r v 2

35
 Power Radiated by Short Dipoles
• Since the fields at point are halved, total radiated power is one
quarter of that when uniform distribution is assumed.

η I 0 l ω 16 η I 0 l 2 ω 2
2 2 2 2
∴ Prad = =
16 ×16 π v 3
2
48 π v 2
η I eff l ω 2 2 2

∴ Prad =
24 π v 2

120 π I eff l 2 ω 2 4π 2
2
l2
= 20 π 2
2
∴ Prad = I eff
24 π λ2ω 2 λ2
l2
and , Rrad = 20 π 2
2
∴ Prad = Rrad I eff
λ2 36
 Fields Due to Short Monopoles
• For the short monopole with length l 2 and assumed linear current
distribution, the field at any point in space above earth will be same
to the field due to short dipole of length l with similar current
distribution.
r − I 0 l ω Sinθ Sinωt '
• So, Far fields H = aˆφ
8π r v
r − I 0 l ω Sinθ Sinωt '
E= aˆθ
2π ε r v 2

However, there is no fields below earth and hence the total power
radiated is half due to that radiated by a short dipole,

120 π I eff l 2 ω 2 4π 2
2
l2 l2
∴ Prad = = 10 π 2
2
I eff Rrad = 10 π 2
12 π λ2ω 2 λ2 λ2
37
 Current Distribution on Finite Length Dipoles
• For the longer linear antennas
(dipoles), the uniform or linear
current distribution is not
appropriate.
• The more accurate
approximation is the sinusoidal
current distribution with null at
ends.
•

I = I 0 Cosωt

I 0 = I m Sinβ (H + z ) for z < 0

I 0 = I m Sinβ (H − z ) for z > 0
38
 Finite Length Dipole

-H

39
Finite Length Dipole

40
 Field Due To Finite Length Dipole
 R
I 0 dz Cosω  t − 
µ  v
dAz = Time domain and phasor
4π R
• In phasor representations,
{
E (r , t ) = Re E x (r )e jωt }
µ I 0 dz e − jβR
dAz = Where R is distance of the point P from the
4π R differential element dz
• Total potential is then:
µ  0 I m Sinβ (H + z ) e − jβR H
I m Sinβ (H − z ) e − jβR 
Az = ∫ dz + ∫ dz 
4 π − H R 0
R 
• When the point P is significantly far, the distance r and R are nearly equal.
Hence in the inverse distance term, R can be replaced by r. However in
phase term, R = r − z Cosθ
41
 Field Due To Half Wave Dipole
µ Im  0 H

 ∫ Sinβ (H + z ) e dz + ∫ Sinβ (H − z ) e
− j β r jβ z Cosθ − j β r jβ z Cosθ
Az = e e dz 
4 π r − H 0 

µ I m e− j β r  0 H

 ∫ Sinβ (H + z ) e dz + ∫ Sinβ (H − z ) e
jβ z Cosθ jβ z Cosθ
= dz 
4 π r − H 0 
λ
For half wave dipole, H =
4
Sinβ (H + z ) = Sinβ (H − z ) = Cosβ z
− jβ r H
µ Im e
∴ Az =
4π r ∫ Cos β z e (
jβ z Cosθ
+ e − jβ z Cosθ
)
dz
0
− jβ r
µ Im e H
= 2 ∫ Cosβ z Cos(β z Cosθ ) dz
4π r 0
42
 Field Due To Half Wave Dipole
µ I m e− j β r H
=
4π r ∫ [Cos{β z (1 + Cosθ )}+ Cos{β z (1 − Cosθ )}]dz
0
Q2CosA CosB = Cos( A + B ) + Cos( A − B )
λ
µ Im e − jβ r
 Sin{β z (1 + Cosθ )} Sin{β z (1 − Cosθ )} 4
=  + 
4π r  β (1 + Cos θ ) β (1 − Cos θ ) 0

=
( ) (
µ I m e − j β r  (1 − Cosθ )Cos π 2 Cosθ + (1 + Cosθ )Cos π 2 Cosθ  )
4π r β  Sin 2θ 
 

=
µ Im e − jβ r
 2
(
 Cos π Cosθ )
2π r β  Sin 2θ 
 
 Field Due To Half Wave Dipole
• Now by the symmetry already discussed, only ϕ component of H is
present. 1 r 1  ∂ (rAθ ) ∂Ar 
H φ = (∇ × A)φ =  −
µ rµ  ∂r ∂θ 
1  ∂ (−rAz Sinθ ) 
Hφ =
rµ  ∂r 

Hφ =
 ( π
1  ∂ µ I m e − j β r  Cos 2 Cosθ )
 
rµ  ∂r 2 π β  Sin 2θ 
 

Hφ = −
( 2
)
I m Cos π Cosθ ∂ − j β r
e
2 rπ β Sinθ ∂r

Hφ = −
( )
I m Cos π Cosθ (− jβ ) e − j β r
2
2 rπ β Sinθ
 Field Due To Half Wave Dipole

Hφ = j
( π
I m e − j β r Cos 2 Cosθ )
2 rπ Sinθ
• Now for radiation field,

Eθ = η H φ = j
( π )
I m e − j β r Cos 2 Cosθ
120π
2π r Sinθ

Eθ = j
(
π
60 I m e − j β r Cos 2 Cosθ )
r Sinθ
• Since E and H are in time phase, the maximum value of Poynting
vector is the product of maximum values of E and H.

P=
ηI m (
2 Cos 2 π
2
Cosθ )
4π 2r 2 Sin 2θ
 Power Due To Half Wave Dipole

Pavg =
(
ηI m 2 Cos π 2 Cosθ
2
)
• The average value is half of the product 8π 2r 2 Sin 2θ
π

• The total power radiated is rad ∫ avg

= = ∫ avg π Sinθ dθ )
2
P P ds P ( 2 r

( )
0
2 π
π
ηI m Cos
2 Cosθ
Prad =∫ 2 2 2 ( 2π r 2
Sinθ ) dθ
8π r Sin θ
2

( )
0
2 π
ηI m2 πCos Cosθ
2
Prad =
4π 0∫ Sinθ
dθ

• The integral is complicated to evaluate analytically and hence is

numerically computed to be equal to 1.218.
ηI m 2 ηI eff 2 η
Prad = 1.218 Prad = 2.436 Rrad = 2.436 = 73.08Ω
4π 4π 4π
 Quarter Wave Monopole
• A monopole is effectively a single
vertical conductor.
• Its radiation characteristics are
similar to that of a dipole.
• With assumption that earth
works as infinite conducting plane,
it reflects the waves directed towards it.
• This creates a virtual image and the system works similar to a dipole. The
field due to quarter wave monopole (length l/2=λ/4) is same as that by half
wave dipole. But power radiated is half.
( )
π
2 π
ηI m
2 Cos
2 Cosθ
2
Prad =
4π 0∫ Sinθ
dθ

ηI2
ηI eff 2 η
Prad = 0.609 m Prad = 1.218 Rrad = 1.218 = 36.54 Ω
4π 4π 4π
 For Thin Dipoles of any Length l=2H
I m e − j β r  Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H ) 
Hφ = j
2 rπ  Sinθ 

I m e − j β r  Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H )

Eθ = η H φ = jη
2 rπ  Sinθ 

With η = 120π 60 I m e − j β r  Cos (β H Cosθ ) − Cos (β H ) 

= j  
r  Sinθ 
• The average power density:

 Cos (β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H ) 

2
ηI m 2
Pavg =  
8π 2r 2 Sinθ
 For Thin Dipoles of any Length l=2H
The total power radiated
ηI m 2 π
[Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H )] 2 dθ
Prad =
8π 2 ∫
0
Sinθ
 1 
ηI m 2 
C + ln (2 β H ) − C i (2 β H ) + Sin (2 β H ){S i (4 β H ) − 2 S i (2 β H )}
2
Prad =  
4π  1 
+ Cos(2 βH ){C + ln (βH ) + Ci (4 βH ) − 2Ci (2 βH )}
 2 
The radiation resistance is thus:
 1 
η 
C + ln (2 β H ) − C i (2 β H ) + Sin (2 β H ){S i (4 β H ) − 2 S i (2 β H )}
2
Rrad =  
2π  1 
+ Cos(2 βH ){C + ln (βH ) + Ci (4 βH ) − 2Ci (2 βH )}
 2 
Where x
Cos y
x
Si (x ) = ∫
Sin y
Ci ( x ) = ∫ dy dy
∞
y and 0
y are cosine and sine integrals
 Near Field: Dipole
• In most applications, only radiation fields are required to be
computed.
• However in some situations, when several antennas are located to
each other, it is required to compute the fields in the neighborhood
of the antenna. Such fields are also needed to compute the mutual
impedances between the antennas.
 Near Field: Dipole
• In above discussed situations, the most important is the component
of the field parallel to the antenna.
• As already known, for the dipole aligned along z axis, the symmetry
suggests that the fields do not vary with ϕ. Thus an arbitrary point P
may be assumed to be located in y-z plane (ϕ=90°) without the loss
of any generality.
r = z2 + y2

R = ( z − h) 2 + y 2
R1 = ( z − H ) 2 + y 2

R2 = ( z + H ) 2 + y 2
 Near Field: Dipole
• The current distribution is:
I = I m Sinβ (H − h ) for h > 0
I = I m Sinβ (H + h ) for h < 0
• The vector magnetic potential as discussed in previous sections:
µ I m  0 Sinβ (H + z ) e − jβR H
Sinβ (H − z ) e − jβR 
Az = ∫ dh + ∫ dh
4 π − H R 0
R 
But,
e j β ( H + h ) − e − jβ ( H + h ) e jβ ( H − h ) − e − jβ ( H − h )
Sinβ (H + h ) = and Sinβ (H − h ) =
2j 2j

 jβ H 0 e − jβ ( R − h ) 0
e − jβ ( R + h )

∫ ∫
− jβ H
e dh − e dh 
µ Im  −H
R −H
R 
Az =
8 π j  jβ H H e − jβ ( R + h ) H − jβ ( R − h )
e 
+ e ∫ dh − e − jβ H
∫ dh
 0
R 0
R 
 Near Field: Dipole
• Now, ∂
µ H φ = (∇ × A)φ = − Az
∂ρ
When P is in y-z plane,
∂
µ H φ = − µ H x = − Az
∂y
 jβ H 0 ∂ e − jβ ( R − h ) 0
∂ e − jβ ( R + h ) 
∫ ∫
− jβ H
e dh − e dh 
Im  −H
∂y R −H
∂y R 
Hφ = −
8 π j  jβ H H ∂ e − jβ ( R + h ) H
∂ e − jβ ( R − h ) 
+ e ∫ dh − e − jβ H ∫ dh
 0
∂y R 0
∂y R 

The third of four integral is:

− jβ ( R + h ) − jβ ( R + h ) − jβ ( R + h )
H
∂ e
H
 − j β y e y e 
e ∫
jβ H
dh = e ∫ 
jβ H
− dh
0
∂y R 0 
R 2
R 3

 Near Field: Dipole
• Integrating by parts,
− jβ ( R + h ) − jβ ( R + h ) H
H
∂ e  ye 
∫0 ∂y R
jβ H jβ H
e dh = e  
 R ( R + h − z ) 0
− jβ ( R1 + H ) − jβ r
jβ H  e e 
= ye  − 
( )
 R1 R1 + H − z r r − z  ( )
jβ H
= ye 
 ( R − H + z )e − jβ ( R1 + H )
−
(r + z )e − jβ r

[ ]
1
2 
 R1 R1 − (H − z )
2 2
r r 2
− z  ( )
• using,
R1 − (H − z ) = r 2 − z 2 = y 2
2 2

∂
H
e − jβ ( R + h )
e jβ H
 H − z  − jβ ( R1 + H )  z  − jβ r 
e jβ H ∫ dh = 1 − e − 1 + e 
0
∂y R y  R1   r 
 Near Field: Dipole
• Similarly other integrals yield:
e − jβ H  H − z  − jβ ( R1 − H )  z  − jβ r 
1 + e − 1 − e 
y  R1   r 

e jβ H  H + z  − jβ ( R2 + H )  z  − jβ r 
1 − e − 1 − e 
y  R2   r  
e − jβ H  H + z  − jβ ( R2 − H )  z  − jβ r 
1 + e − 1 − e 
y  R 2   r  
• So,
I m  e − jβR1 e − jβR2 2CosβHe − jβr 
Hφ = −  + − 
4π j  y y y 
 Near Field: Dipole
• The electric field intensities
∂ ∂
Ez =
1
(y Hφ ) and Ey = −
1
(Hφ )
jωε y ∂y jωε ∂z
• Finally,
− jβ I m  y e − jβR1 y e − jβR2 2CosβHe − jβr 
Ez =  + − 
4πεω y  R1 R2 r 
 e − jβR1 e − jβR2 2CosβHe − jβr 
E z = − j 30 I m  + − 
 1 R R 2 y r 

 z − H e − jβ R1 z + H e − jβ R2 2 zCosβHe − jβ r 
E y = j30 I m  + − 
 y R 1 y R 2 y r 
 Near Field: Half Wave Dipole
•Among these three terms, the first term represents a spherical
waveform the originating at the top of antenna.
• The second term represents a spherical waveform originating at the
other end of the antenna.
• The third term represent the wave originating at the center of the
antenna. For a half wave dipole or quarter wave monopole, this term
is zero.
 The Small Loop Antenna
• A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of
wire, tubing, or other electrical conductor with its ends connected to
a balanced transmission line.

Loop Antenna Array of Loop Antenna

 The Small Loop Antenna
• The small loop (magnetic loop) antenna has dimensions much
smaller than the wavelength.
• Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving
antennas at low frequencies
• AM broadcast receiving, radio direction finding, amateur radio are
some of applications.
• Also used in TV for UHF signals.
• Can be of any shape, but circle, square and rectangle are mostly
 The Small Circular Loop Antenna
• For small loops, current can be assumed uniform throughout the
loop.
• Consider a small circular loop antenna with radius ρ 0 and current
I = I 0Cosωt
• The loop may be assumed to
be the combination of infinite
differential elements dl.
• The total vector magnetic
potential is
 r r
r µ I 0Cosω  t − dl
A=∫  v
L 4π r '
− jβ r '
r
r µ I0 e dl
In phasor, A=
4π ∫
L r'
 The Small Circular Loop Antenna
• By symmetry, only ϕ component is present. Also for far distance,
r=r’
• A = µ I 0 S (1 + jβ r )e − jβ r Sinθ where S is loop area
φ
4π r 2
jωµ I 0 S 1 1  − jβ r
Hr = Cosθ  2 − 3
e
2π η r βr 
jωµ I 0 S  jβ 1 1  − jβ r
Hθ = Sinθ  + 2− 3
e
4π η  r r βr 

− jωµ I 0 S  jβ 1  − j β r
Eφ = Sinθ  + 2  e
4π  r r 
 The Small Circular Loop Antenna
• The far fields,
− ωβµ I 0 S
H r = Hφ = 0 Hθ = Sinθ e − jβ r
4π η r
ωβµ I 0 S − jβ r 120 π 2 I 0 S − jβ r
Er = Eθ = 0 Eφ = Sinθ e = Sin θ e
4π r r λ2

• Proceeding in similar manner, we can obtain

320 π 4 S 2
Rrad =
λ4
• Clearly, radiation resistance depends on area of the loop. For Loops
with N turns, S is replaced by NS.
• The radiation resistance can be increased also by introducing a
ferrite core.
 The Small Circcular Loop Antenna
•
64
Antenna and Propagation
ETEG 402

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
Fall 2020
Fundamental Parameters of Antenna

2
 Contents
• Directional Properties of Antenna
• Radiation Intensity, Directive gain, Directivity and Power gain
• Radiation Pattern
• Terms related to Radiation Patterns
• Beamwidth, Nulls, Major lobe, Minor lobe
• 3D Pattern, Polar plots and Principal Patterns
• Bandwidth
• Polarization
• Impedance
• Equivalent Circuit
• Impedance Matching
• Antenna Apertures
• Effective Aperture, Loss and Scattering Apertures
• Antenna Effective Lengths
• Equivalent Noise Temperature 3
Antenna: a transition device

4
Antenna: a transition device

5
Directional Properties of Antenna

6
 Steradian
• There are 4π steradians subtended by an sphere at its center

7
 Radiation Intensity
• Power Density:
• Power per unit area in a particular direction

• Radiation Intensity
• Power per unit solid angle in a particular direction

Pr = ∫ U (θ , φ )dΩ

8
 Radiation Intensity

A hypothetical isotropic antenna is radiating in free space. At a
distance of 100 m from the antenna, the total electric field (Eθ) is
measured to be 5 V/m. Find the power density and power radiated.
Solution:
E2 25
Power Density (W ) = = = 0.033157 w / m 2
2η 2 × 120π
2π π
Total Radiated Power ( Prad ) = ∫ W ds = ∫ ∫ 0.033157 r 2 Sinθ dθ dφ
s 0 0
2π π
=∫ ∫ 0.033157 ×10000 Sinθ dθ dφ
0 0
π
= 0.033157 × 10000∫ 2π Sinθ dθ
0

= 2π × 0.033157 ×10000 × 2
= 4165.75 watts 9
 Radiation Intensity

• The Poynting vector

r gives
r the
r power per unit area.
W = E × H
• Since the unit solid angle subtends an area of r2 , power
per unit solid angle is equal to:
U (θ , φ ) = r 2W
Also, for
E = η H
r2E2
U (θ , φ ) =
η
• Average radiation intensity
– Power per unit solid angle if the radiator had been
radiating equally in all directions Pr
U avg=
4π 10
 Directive Gain and Directivity
• Directive gain in a given direction is defined as the ratio of
the radiation intensity in that direction to the average
radiation intensity.
U (θ , φ ) 4πU (θ , φ )
g d (θ , φ ) = =
U avg Pr
• In dB, G d = 10 log10 g d
• Directive gain is the function of direction. So, an antenna has
a separate value of directive gain towards each direction
• Directivity is the maximum value of directive gain
U max
D = max( g d ) =
U avg
• For an antenna D is a constant
11
Directivity Examples

12
Directivity: Some common cases

13
 Power Gain
• Power gain (or simply gain) in a given direction is defined as
the ratio of the radiation intensity in that direction to the
average radiation intensity computed considering total
accepted power.
U (θ , φ ) 4πU (θ , φ )
G (θ , φ ) = =
U avg Pin

• Usually maximum gain is of importance

14
 Example

The radiation intensity of a lossless antenna is
U = B0Cos 3θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π 2, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π

If the antenna radiates 10 W of power, find the maximum power density

at a distance of 1000 m, directive gain of the antenna, directivity and
power gain of the antenna.
Solution:
2π π 2 2π π 2
Prad = ∫∫U dΩ = ∫ ∫ U Sinθ dθ dφ = ∫ ∫ B0 Cos 3θ Sinθ dθ dφ
0 0 0 0
Ω
π 2
= 2π B0 ∫ Cos 3θ Sinθ dθ dφ
0
π 2
= 2π B0 ∫ Cos 3θ d (−Cosθ )
0
π 2
Cos θ  0 − 1 π B0
4
= −2π B0 = −2π B0   =
4 0  4  2
15
 Example
But radiated power is 10 Watts.
π B0 20 20
= 10 ⇒ B0 = Thus, U= Cos 3θ
2 π π
U 20 20
Power Density is :W = = Cos 3
θ At 1000 m, W = Cos 3θ
r 2
πr 2
π 1000000
20
The maximum value is Wmax = = 6.366 × 10 −6 = 6.366 µW / m 2
π 1000000
The maximum value occurs at , θ = 0°
U 4 π U 80 π Cos 3θ
gd = = = = 8 Cos 3θ
U0 Prad π ×10
Finally, Directivity is
D = gd max
=8
For Lossless antennas, Power gain is same to directivity
16
 Radiation Pattern
• A graphical representation of the radiation of an antenna as
a function of direction.
• The radiation properties (usually amplitude of fields or
power) of an antenna are plotted across angular space
coordinatesθ , φ

17
 Radiation Pattern
• Any radiation pattern is in fact a three dimensional figure.
• Radiation pattern is obtained by assuming the antenna at
the origin and field or power strength is specified at points
on the spherical surface of radius r.
• When the fields have both θ and ϕ components, separate
patterns for theta and phi polarizations may be used.
• The shape of radiation pattern is independent of r as long as
r is chosen sufficiently large.
• However, it is often represented in 2D by figures generated
by plane cuts through the main lobe. Principal plane
patterns.
• The cross sections most frequently used are the horizontal
plane (θ =90°) and vertical planes (ϕ=constant) resulting in
horizontal pattern and vertical patterns.
18
 Radiation Pattern

Typical Radiation Pattern (2D)

Typical Radiation Pattern: 3-D plot 19
 Terms Related to Radiation Pattern
• The main beam is the region around the direction of maximum
radiation
• The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main
beam.
• These sidelobes are usually radiation in undesired directions
which can never be completely eliminated.
• Nulls are the directions in which the radiation is zero.
• Backlobe is the region in opposite direction to the main beam.
• Sidelobe Level is the maximum value of the side lobes away
from the main lobe usually specified in dB.
• For an example, sidelobe level of -14 dB means that the largest
sidelobe is -14 dB below the main lobe.

20
 Radiation Pattern

Typical Radiation Pattern: linear plot

21
 Radiation Pattern
• Dividing the field or power by its maximum value, normalized
patterns are obtained.

22
 Radiation Pattern of elementary dipole
The Vertical Dipole:
60πIdl
E = Eθ = sin θ
rλ
The horizontal pattern is a circle as the radiation is constant for
all ϕ.
The vertical pattern is a figure eight shape.

23
 Radiation Pattern of elementary dipole
• The Horizontal Dipole:
• The horizontal pattern is a figure eight shape
• The vertical pattern depends upon the angle which the
vertical plane makes with the horizontal axis.
• The pattern for the vertical plane perpendicular with axis is
a circle while that for the plane parallel to axis is a figure
eight shape.

24
Radiation Pattern: example

25
Radiation Pattern:example

26
Omnidirectional Pattern

27
 Isotropic Antenna
• The antenna which radiates equally in all directions.
• Not a practical antenna
• However is used as reference to compare directiveness of
other practical antennas
• Radiation pattern in 3D is a sphere
• 2D radiation pattern in all principal planes are circle

28
 Beamwidths
• Beamwidth are the parameters
closely associated with the radiation
pattern.
• Beamwidths provide the measure to
indicate how wide the major beam of
the antenna is.
• They also determine the resolution
capability of the antenna to distinguish
between two sources.
• The resolution criteria is usually
considered to be equal to HPBW or
half of FNBW.
• There is often a trade off between
beamwidth and side lobe level. 29
 HPBW and FNBW
• Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW)
• Defined as: In a plane containing the direction of the maximum
of the beam, the angle between the two directions in which the
radiation intensity is one half the maximum value of the beam.
• Also known by 3-dB beamwidth

• First Null Beamwidth (FNBW)

• This is the angular separation from which the magnitude of
the radiation pattern decreases to zero (negative infinity dB)
away from the main beam.

30
 Beam Efficiency
• Provides the measure of how much percentage of total power is
concentrated within a particular angle in the direction of major lobe.
• For an antenna with its major lobe directed along θ = 0 , the beam
efficiency is defined as:
Power transmitted (received ) within cone angle θ1
BE =
Total power transmitted (received ) by the antenna
where, θ1 is the half angle of the cone within which the
percentage of the total power is to be found.

• In terms of radiation intensity,

2π θ1

∫ ∫ U (θ , φ ) Sinθ dθ dφ
BE = 0 0
2π π

∫ ∫ U (θ , φ ) Sinθ dθ dφ
0 0 31
 Beam Efficiency
• Usually, θ 1 is chosen as the angle where the first null occurs.
• In such case, the beam efficiency indicates the percentage of
power in the major lobe.

• In directive applications and in the applications in which

reception or transmission through minor lobes must be
minimized, a high value of BE (usually above 90) is desired.

• Radiometry, astronomy and RADAR are some of such

applications.

32
Other Parameters of Antenna

33
 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth describes the range of frequencies over which the
antenna can properly radiate or receive energy.
• Defined as the range of frequencies within which the antenna
characteristics conforms to a specific standard.
• Range of frequencies on either side of center frequency where
the deviation in antenna parameters like input impedance,
radiation pattern, efficiency, gain, side lobe levels etc. from that
at center frequency are within an acceptable value.
• Since different parameters vary with frequency in different
manner, different bandwidths may be defined. Pattern
bandwidth and impedance bandwidth are two major
considerations.
34
 Bandwidth
• Many antennas perform satisfactorily only within a small range
of frequencies (narrowband antennas) while some antennas work
in a wider range (broadband antennas).
• Bandwidth may be specified in different ways. As an ratio
(usually for broadband antennas), as percentage of frequency or
fraction of frequency (usually for narrowband antennas).
• A 5:1 bandwidth means upper frequency is 5 times greater than
the lower frequency.
• 5% bandwidth means frequency range (upper – lower) is 5% of
the center frequency. Fractional bandwidth of 0.05 is same to 5%
bandwidth.
• Antennas with very large bandwidth are called frequency
independent antennas. 35
 Bandwidth
• The following table shows typical bandwidth values for some
popular antennas. (Source: antenna-theory.com)

• Bandwidths are also specified using VSWR. As an example, we

can say the antenna bandwidth is 100-400 MHz with VSWR<1.5.
It means of the total power delivered to antenna 4% or less is
reflected back to transmitter for the frequency range 100-400
MHz.
• Similarly, when impedance is of interest, antenna Q may be
used to define bandwidth.
• When polarization is of interest, axial ratio may be used.
36
 Polarization of Plane Waves
• Polarization is the figure that the E-field traces out while
propagating.
• If the E-field oscillates back and forth in magnitude, always
directed along the same line, it is called linear polarization.
• If the line is parallel to the ground, horizontal polarization.
• If the line is normal to the ground, vertical polarization.
• For general linear polarization, field may have both x and y
components but
they must be in
phase

Linear Polarization Linear Polarization at an37

angle
 Polarization of Plane Waves
• If the E-field has both x and y components which have same
magnitude but are 90° out of phase, then path rotates in a
circle, so called circular polarization.
• If the E-field rotates in counter clockwise direction, Right
Hand Circular (RHCP).
• If the E-field rotates in clockwise direction, Left Hand
Circular (LHCP).
• If the E-field has two perpendicular
components that are out of phase
by 90 degrees but are not equal in
magnitude, the field will end up
Elliptically Polarized.

Circular Polarization 38
 Antenna Polarization
• The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the
radiated fields produced by an antenna, evaluated in the far
field.
• Since polarization varies with direction, different parts of the
pattern may have different polarization. However polarization
in general refers to that in the direction of maximum radiation.
• A vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically
polarized fields. Similarly for other polarizations.
• When the polarization of transmitting and receiving antennas
do not match, there occurs a loss called polarization mismatch
loss.

39
 Polarization Loss
• The polarization loss factor is given as

PLF = Cos 2φ
where ϕ is the angle between two polarizations.
• If a transmitter is horizontally polarized and receiver is
vertically polarized or vice versa, the PLF is equal to 0, which
indicates total loss.
• If both have horizontal or vertical polarization, PLF is 1,
indicating no loss.
• If a transmitter is linearly polarized and receiver is circularly
polarized, or vice versa, PLF is 0.5.
• When ever both have circular polarizations, no loss occurs.
• So circular polarization is often desired.
40
 Input Impedance
• The impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals.
• Also: the ratio of voltage to current at a pair of antenna
terminals.
• The input impedance is generally a function of frequency.
• Input impedance also depends on antenna geometry, method
and point of excitation, and other objects in antenna proximity.

Antennas in transmitting and receiving modes 41

 Input Impedance
• Input Impedance is complex and denoted as:
Z A = RA + j X A
• The resistive part consists of two components: RA = Rr + RL
• The real part of the antenna impedance represents power that
is either radiated away or absorbed within the antenna.
• The imaginary part of the impedance represents power that is
stored in the near field of the antenna.
• If input impedance is purely real, the voltage and current at
the terminals will be in phase.
• If the impedance is complex, the voltage will lead or lag the
current.
• Antenna input is very important in the sense that this
determines the matching with the transmission line or load and
hence the amount of power coupled. 42
 Radiation and Loss Resistance
• Radiation resistance is used to represent power radiated by
the antenna.
• The loss resistance is used to represent the conduction and
dielectric losses associated with the antenna.

43
 Equivalent Circuits in Transmitting Mode

Norton Equivalent

Thevenin Equivalent

• The antenna input impedance and generator impedances are:

Z A = (Rr + RL ) + jX A Z g = Rg + jX g
• The current through the circuit is:
Vg Vg Vg
Ig = = =
Zt ZA + Zg (R g + RL + Rr ) + j (X A + X g )
44
 Equivalent Circuits in Transmitting Mode
• The current magnitude is:
Vg Vg
Ig = =
Zt (R g + RL + Rr ) + (X A + X g )
2 2

• Power radiated by the antenna is:

1 2
Pr = I g Rr
2
• Power dissipated by the antenna is:
1 2
PL = I g RL
2
• Power dissipated by the generator is:
1 2
Pg = I g Rg
2
45
Maximum Power Transfer: Impedance Matching
• The maximum power is delivered to the antenna from
generator when conjugate matching occurs.
Vg Vg
Ig = =
4(RL + Rr )
2
Zt
• Power radiated by the antenna is:
2 2 2
Vg  Rr  Vg  Rr  Vg Rr
Pr =  2
=  2
=
2  4(Rr + RL )  8  (Rr + RL )  8 RA 2
• Power dissipated by the antenna is:
2 2 2
Vg  RL  Vg  RL  Vg RL
PL =  2
=  2
=
2  4(Rr + RL )  8  (Rr + RL )  8R 2 A
• Power dissipated by the generator is:
2 2 2 2
Vg  Rg  Vg  Rg  Vg R g V g
Pg =  2
=  2
= =
2  4(Rr + RL )  8  (Rr + RL )  8RA
2
8RA 46
Maximum Power Transfer: Impedance Matching
• Total power from the generator is:
Pt = Pg + Pr + PL

• Total Power coupled to the antenna is:

(Rr + RL )
2 2 2 2
Vg Rr Vg RL Vg Vg
PA = Pr + PL = 2
+ 2
= 2
= = Pg
8RA 8RA 8RA 8RA
• Thus, in the best case when impedance is matched, of the
total power generated by the generator, only half is coupled
and is available to antenna while half is lost at the generator
itself.
• Among the power available to antenna, how much is radiated
depends on the relative values of Rr and RL.
47
 Equivalent Circuits in Receiving Mode

• The antenna terminal impedance and Load impedances are:

Z A = (Rr + RL ) + jX A ZT = RT + jX T
• The current through the circuit is:
VT VT
IT = =
Zt (RT + RL + Rr )2 + ( X A + X T )2
48
 Equivalent Circuits in Receiving Mode
• Power delivered to the load is:
1 2
PT = I T RT
2
• Power dissipated by the antenna as heat is:
1 2
PL = I T RL
2
• Power radiated (reradiated or scattered) by the antenna is:
1 2
Pr = I T Rr
2

• Maximum power is delivered to load when conjugate

matching is achieved: R + R = R
r L T

X A = −XT 49
Maximum Power Transfer: Impedance Matching
• Power delivered to the load is:
2 2 2
VT  RT  VT RT VT
PT =  2
= =
2  4(Rr + RL )  8 RA
2
8RA
• Power dissipated by the antenna as heat is:
2 2
VT  RL  VT RL
PL =  2
==
2  4(Rr + RL )  8RA
2

• Power reradiated or scattered by the generator is:

2 2
VT  Rr  VT Rr
Pr =  2
=
2  4(Rr + RL )  8 RA 2

• Clearly, of the total power collected by the antenna, at best,

only half is delivered to load. Other half is dissipated as heat or
reradiated. 50
 Numerical Problem

A λ/2 dipole with total loss resistance of 1 Ω is connected to
a generator whose internal impedance is 50+j25 Ω. Assuming
the peak voltage of the generator is 2 V and the impedance of
the dipole excluding the loss resistance is 73+j42.5 Ω, find:
• Power supplied by the source
• Power radiated by the antenna
• Power dissipated by the antenna
• Solution:
The equivalent circuit is:

The peak current is: Ig =

2
=
2
(50 + 1 + 73) + j (25 + 42.5) 124 + j 67.5
= (12.442 − j 6.7724)×10 −3
51
 Numerical Problem
Vg 2 2
Ig = = = = 14.166 ×10 −3 A
Zt (50 + 1 + 73)2 + (25 + 42.5)2 124 2 + 67.52

Power radiated by the antenna:

1 2 1
(
Pr = I g Rr = 14.166 ×10
2 2
−3 2
)
× 73 = 7.325 ×10 −3W

Power lost at the antenna:

1 2
2
1
2
( 2
)
PL = I g RL = 14.166 ×10 −3 ×1 = 1×10 − 4 W

Power lost at the generator (source):

Pg =
1 2
2
1
2
( 2
)
I g Rg = 14.166 ×10 −3 × 50 = 5 ×10 −3W

Total power supplied by the generator (source):

Pt = Pg + Pr + PL = 12.425 µW 52
 Antenna Apertures
• Antenna apertures (also called equivalent areas) are used to
describe the power capturing characteristics of antenna.
• Several apertures can be defined for antennas including
effective aperture, scattering aperture, loss aperture, capture
aperture, physical aperture and partial effective aperture etc.

53
 Effective Aperture
• Defined as the ratio of the available power (to the receiver) at
the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power density of a
plane wave incident on the antenna from the direction of
maximum radiation and matched polarization.

• For the provided incident power density Wi, the total power
available for load, PT is given by:
PT
PT = Wi Ae Ae = where, Ae is the effective aperture
Wi

• So, effective aperture is the area which when multiplied with

the available power density gives the power delivered to the
load (receiver). 54
 Maximum Effective Aperture
•Usually the value used is the maximum effective aperture that
occurs when impedances are matched.
2
PT (max) VT
Aem = =
Wi 8Wi RA
• Effective aperture can also be expressed in terms of directivity
λ2
Aem = D
4π
• Unless otherwise stated, effective aperture means maximum
effective aperture.
• If the antenna is lossy, λ2
Aem = ε cd D
4π
55
 Aperture Efficiency
• Effective aperture has particular significance for the antennas
that have well defined physical aperture such as horns and
reflectors.
• For such antennas, the ratio of effective aperture to the actual
physical aperture is the direct measure of the antenna’s
effectiveness. Aem
• The ratio is called aperture efficiency ε ap = A
p

• Typical aperture efficiency values for reflectors range from 45

to 75 percent.

56
 Scattering Aperture and Loss Aperture
• Scattering Aperture: Equivalent area which when multiplied by
the incident power density gives the scattered or reradiated
power. P V
2
R
As = r
= T
2
r

Wi 8Wi R A

• Loss Aperture: Equivalent area which when multiplied by the

incident power density gives the loss power.
2
PL VT RL
AL = =
Wi 8Wi RA2
• Capture Aperture: Equivalent area which when multiplied by
the incident power density gives the total intercepted power.
Pc VT
2
(RT + Rr + RL ) Ac = Ae + Ar + AL
Ac = = 2
Wi 8Wi R A 57
 Effective Length
• Another parameter used to indicate the
effectiveness of the antenna as radiator or
collector.
• Idea is similar to effective area however,
this parameter is more relevant for linear
antennas.
• For a transmitting antenna, the effective
length is that length of an equivalent linear
antenna that has a current I(0) at all point
along its length and that radiates the same
field strength as the actual antenna in the
direction normal to its length.

58
 Effective Length
• For a receiving antenna, effective length is that length which
when multiplied with the available field intensity gives the open
circuit voltage induced at the antenna terminals.
Voc
leff =−
E
• Effective lengths of same antenna when used as transmitter
and receiver are equal.
• Directivity of an antenna can be
computed in terms of effective lengths as
 leff 
D= 120π 2
 
 λ
Rr


59
Impedance Matching and VSWR

60
 Antenna Efficiency
• All the signal power generated by the transmitter is not
radiated by the antenna. Or In receiving mode, all signal
collected by antenna is not delivered to the load.
• The effectiveness of an antenna as radiator or collector is
defined by its efficiency.

• Total antenna efficiency takes into account both the losses at

input terminal and within the antenna structure.
• Reflection efficiency accounts for the loss due to reflection of
power back to transmission line. Which occurs due to mismatch
between antenna and transmission line.
• Conduction and dielectric efficiencies account for the I2R
losses in the antenna itself. 61
 Antenna Efficiency
• The overall efficiency is thus given by:
where ε r is reflection efficiency
ε 0 = ε r ε cε d ε c is conduction efficiency
ε d is dielectric efficiency
• Conduction and dielectric efficiencies are often considered
together and called radiation efficiency.
ε cd = ε cε d Thus ε 0 = ε r ε cd
• Radiation efficiency is used to relate radiated power and
power available for radiation at antenna input terminals.
Prad = ε cd Pin
Prad Pr Rr
ε cd = = =
Pin Pr + PL Rr + RL

62
 Antenna Efficiency

• The reflection efficiency can be computed in terms of

reflection coefficient Γ as:
2
εr = 1− Γ
• All power at the antenna terminals are not available for
antenna. Some are reflected.
Pin+ = ε r Pin−
• So,
+ − −
Prad = ε cd P = ε cd ε P = ε P
in r in 0 in

63
Antenna and Propagation
ETEG 402

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
Fall 2020
Antenna Theorems
and
Antenna Arrays

2
 Contents
• Antenna Arrays
• Definition and need
• Principle of Operation
• Array of two Isotropic Sources
• Total Field
• Array Factor
• Pattern Multiplication
• Uniform Linear of N isotropic elements
• Array Factor
• Major lobes, Minor lobes and Nulls
• Broad side and Endfire Arrays
• FRIIS Transmission Equation
• Reprocity Theorem for Antennas

3
 Antenna Arrays

The desired properties in an antenna can be obtained by

choosing different geometric configurations and
dimensions. However, it is always not convenient and
feasible to obtain the desired characteristics using a single
antenna. In such case, combination of multiple antennas
are used. Antenna array is an assembly of radiating
elements (usually of similar construction and orientation)
in an electrical and geometrical configuration.
4
 Why Antenna Arrays ?
• Antenna properties vary with dimension and shape.
• As an example, the directivity of a radiator in general can be
increased by increasing the dimension.
• However, increasing the physical dimension is not a very
convenient way to increase directivity.
• A more convenient way is to effectively increase the
dimension by adding more elements, thus forming an array.
• In many cases, antenna arrays are used to provide higher
directivity than can be provided by a single element. However,
they may be used to achieve other objectives as well:
• To obtain customized pattern with nulls towards particular
directions
• To provide diversity in reception
• To maximize SNR 5
 Antenna Arrays: Principle
• Antenna Arrays operate on the principle of wave interference
phenomena that occur between the radiations from the
different elements of the array.
• Arrays need to be designed such that the fields from the
elements of the array interfere constructively in the desired
directions and destructively in the remaining directions.
• The following parameters can be adjusted to obtain desired
characteristics in an array:
• the geometric configurations of elements
• the individual patterns of the elements in array
• the spacing between the elements
• the magnitude of excitation source of elements
• the phase of the excitation source of elements
6
 Arrays: Principle
• Geometrical configurations relates how elements are arranged
relative to each other. Common configurations include linear,
circular, rectangular and spherical. Linear arrays are common in
point to point communication links.
• The elements of array can be of any types. Pattern of
individual elements have an important role in determining the
overall pattern of the array.
• The spacing between elements cause different path lengths
and hence phase difference in fields due to individual elements.
• Magnitude and phase of excitation current directly changes
the magnitude and phases of the fields due to individual
elements and hence net field.

7
 Two Element Array of Isotropic Radiators
• Consider antenna A0 and A1 spaced at a distance d from each
other.
• Both radiators are assumed
to be isotropic or at least
omnidirectional in the plane r0
of consideration. r1
• For far field approximation:
φ ≈ φ1 d Cosϕ
r1 ≈ r0 − d cos φ for phase variations ϕ ϕ1
r1 ≈ r0 = r for amplitude variations A1 A0

8
 Two Element Array of Isotropic Radiators
Let E0 and E1 be the field due to A0 and A1 respectively.
The net field at the point is ET=E0+E1
If the excitation current are related as:
I1 = k I 0 ∠α
The net phase difference between E0 and E1 is
ψ = β d cos φ + α
E1 = kE0 e jψ
ET = E0 (1 + ke jψ )
The magnitude of the field is:
ET = E0 (1 + ke jψ )
ET = E0 (1 + k cosψ + j sinψ )
ET = E0 (1 + k cosψ ) 2 + k 2 sin 2 ψ 9
 Two Element Array: Array Factor
• The total field due to the array is equal to the field of a single
element positioned at the origin multiplied by a factor which is
called array factor of the array.
• In the above expression the array factor is:
AF = (1 + k cosψ ) 2 + k 2 sin 2 ψ
• When the amplitude of the excitations are equal,

ET = E0 (1 + cosψ ) 2 + sin 2 ψ
The normalized array factor is
= E0 2 + 2 cosψ
ψ
AFn = cos
= E0 2(1 + cosψ ) 2
ψ βd cos φ + α
= 2 E0 cos = cos
2 2
10
 Array Factor
• The net pattern of the array will be the product of individual
pattern and the array factor.
• The concept is valid for array of non directional as well as
directional antennas.

11
 Examples: Net Pattern for Two element Array
•

d=λ/2, α=0° d=λ/2, α=180° d=λ/4, α=-90° d=λ, α=0° 12

 Array of Two Infinitesimal Dipoles
A0 and A1 are infinitesimal dipoles.
Pattern of individual dipoles in horizontal plane is
omnidirectional. z
However, they are not constant in
vertical plane. r1
P
Let P be any point in y-z plane, θ1
A1
For far field,
r0=r
θ1 ≈ θ 0 ≈ θ d

r1 ≈ r0 ≈ r for amplitude variations A0

y

r0 ≈ r1 + d cos θ for phase variations

For a single infinitesimal dipole, x
I dl Sinθ  ω Sinωt ' 
Eθ =  −  β I dl Sinθ − jβ r
4π ε rv 2 In phasor , Eθ = jη e
  4π r
13
 Array of Two Infinitesimal Dipoles
If the current in two dipoles are related as:
I 1 = k I 0 e jα
then, β I 0 dl Sinθ − jβ r β I 0 dl Sinθ
E0 = jη e 0
= jη e − jβ r
4π r0 4π r
And
β k I 0 dl Sinθ − jβ r jα
E1 = jη e e 1

4π r1
β kI 0 dl Sinθ − j ( β r −α )
= jη e 1

4π r
β kI 0 dl Sinθ − j ( β ( r − dCosθ ) −α )
= jη e
4π r
The total field is:
β I 0 dl Sinθ − jβ r
ET = jη e [1 + k e − j ( β dCosθ +α ) ]
4π r 14
 Array Factor of Two Infinitesimal Dipoles
Using
ψ = β d Cosθ + α
The total field is:
β I 0 dl Sinθ − jβ r
ET = jη e [1 + k e − jψ ]
4π r
The array factor is:
AF = (1 + kCosψ )2 + k 2 Sin 2ψ
For k=1,
The normalized array factor is:
 βdCosθ + α 
AFn = Cos  
 2 
 βdCosθ + α 
ET = Sinθ Cos  

n
2
15
Array Factor for Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
For the horizontal dipoles the expressions z
Reduce to:
β I 0 dl Cosθ − jβ r
e [1 + k e − j ( β dCosθ +α ) ]
P
ET = jη r1
4π r θ1
A1
 βdCosθ + α 
ET n = Cosθ Cos   r0=r
 2  d
y
A0

16
Examples: Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
λ
d= and α = 0o
4
π 
ET n = Cosθ Cos  Cosθ 
4 
The nulls occur at: π 
Cosθ n Cos  Cosθ n  = 0
4 
π 3π
Cosθ n = 0 ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (0) = , , .......
2 2
π  π π 3π
Cos Cosθ n  = 0 ⇒ Cosθ n = Cos −1 (0) = ± , ± , .......
4  4 2 2
However, π Cosθ n = π ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (2) = does not exist
4 2
π π
Similarly, Cosθ n = − ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (−2) = does not exist
4 2
π 3π
Cosθ n = ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (6) = does not exist
4 2 17
Examples: Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
λ
d= and α = 0o
4
×

Unit Pattern

=
Array Factor

Net Pattern 18
 Examples: Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
λ π
d= and α =
4 2
π π
ET n = Cosθ Cos  Cosθ + 
4 4
The nulls occur at: Cosθ n Cos  π Cosθ n + π  = 0
4 4
π 3 π
Cosθ n = 0 ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (0) = , , .......
2 2
π π π π π 3π
Cos Cosθ n +  = 0 ⇒ Cosθ n + = ± , ± , .......
4 4 4 4 2 2
However, π Cosθ n + π = π ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (1) = 0, 2π ,.....
4 4 2
π π π −1
Similarly, Cos θ n + = − ⇒ θ n = Cos (−3) = does not exist
4 4 2
π π 3π
Cosθ n + = ⇒ θ n = Cos −1 (5) = does not exist
4 4 2 19
Examples: Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
λ π
d= and α =
4 2
×

Unit Pattern

=
Array Factor

Net Pattern 20
Examples: Two Horizontal Infinitesimal Dipoles
What happens for

λ π
d= and α = −
4 2

21
Examples of pattern Multiplication

22
Examples of pattern Multiplication

23
 Planar Array With Multiple Elements
• Two element arrays are limited in the type and variety of
radiation patterns that they can produce.
• In two element array, only two nulls can be specified and the
pattern must always be symmetrical about the plane through
the antennas.

24
 Uniform Linear Array
• A uniform linear array is an array of similar elements along a
straight line spaced equally and fed with currents of equal
magnitude as well as having progressive phase shifts.
• Usually used when a single narrow lobe is desired.

25
 Uniform Linear Array of N Elements
Consider an array of n elements forming uniform linear array
with spacing d and uniform phase shift of α. The elements are
considered to be non directional or at least in the plane of
consideration. P
For far field,
ψ = β d Cosφ + α
(
ET = E0 1 + e jψ + e j 2ψ + ..... + e j ( n −1)ψ )
1 − e jnψ
= E0
1 − e jψ ϕ
A0 A1 d A2 An-2 An-1
nψ nψ
Thus, jnψ j ( n −1)ψ Sin Sin
1− e 2 = 2
AF = =e 2
1− e jψ
ψ ψ
Sin Sin
2 2 26
 Uniform Linear Array: Principal Lobe
For small values of ψ, approximately, nψ
Sin
AF = 2
Principal Maximum of the array: ψ
2
The maximum value occurs when ψ=0 or , β d Cosφ + α = 0
The direction of principal maximum is:
 α 
−1
φ = Cos − 
The maximum value is:  βd 
nψ nψ ψ
Sin Sin
AFmax = lim 2 = lim 2 × nψ × 2 × 1 AFmax = n
ψ →0 ψ ψ →0 nψ 2 ψ ψ
Sin Sin
2 2 2 2
nψ
Sin
Normalized Array Factor: AFn = 1 2
n Sin ψ
2 27
 Uniform Linear Array: Minor Lobes
Secondary Maximum of the array:
The maximum value occurs when the numerator of AF is
maximum. nψ nψ π
Sin =1 ⇒ = ±(2m + 1) m = 1,2,3....
2 2 2
The first secondary maximum occurs at:
nψ 3π 3π
= ⇒ ψ =
2 2 n
3π  1  3π 
or , βdCosφ + α = ⇒ φ = Cos −1   − α 
n  βd  n 
The value is:
1 For large n, 2n
AF1s = AF1s ≈
3π 3π
Sin
2n
28
 Uniform Linear Array: Minor Lobes
The second secondary maximum occurs at:
nψ 5π 5π
= ⇒ ψ =
2 2 n
5π  1  5π
−1 
or , βdCosφ + α = ⇒ φ = Cos   − α 
The value is:
2  βd  n 

1
AF2 s =
5π
Sin
2n
For large n,

2n
AF2 s ≈
5π

29
 Uniform Linear Array: Nulls
Nulls of the Array:
The nulls occurs when the numerator is zero.
nψ 2kπ
Sin =0 ⇒ ψ =± k = 1,2,3........
2 n

2kπ  1  2kπ 
or , βdCosφ + α = ±
or, ⇒ φ = Cos −1   ± − α 
n  βd  n 

The first null occurs at: 2π  1  2π

−1 
ψ= ⇒ φ = Cos   − α 
n  βd  n 

The second null occurs at:

4π  1  4π 
ψ= ⇒ φ = Cos −1   − α 
n β
 d n 
30
 Uniform Linear Array: HPBW and FNBW
The half power points occurs when

nψ 2.782
= ±1.391 ⇒ ψ = ±
2 n
 1  2.782
−1 
φ = Cos  ± − α 
β d  n 
The HPBW is equal to:
 −1  α  −1  1  2.782  
HPBW = 2 Cos −  − Cos   − α  
  βd  β d  n  
The FNBW is equal to:
 −1  α  −1  1  2π  
FNBW = 2Cos −  − Cos   − α  
  βd  β d  n   31
 Broadside Array
• The maximum radiation occurs normal to the axis of the array.
• In previous expressions, for the uniform linear array to be
broadside, the AF must have principal maximum towards ϕ=90°
α π 
− = Cos   ⇒ α =0
βd 2
• Thus for a linear uniform array to be broadside, all its elements
must be excited by currents of equal magnitude and same
phase.
FNBW for broadside array:
π −1  λ 

FNBW = 2  − Cos  
2  n d 
π −1  2.782 

HPBW = 2 − Cos  
2  β n d  32
 Broadside Array
For small beamwidths,
λ
FNBW ≈ 2
nd
5.564 2.782 λ λ
HPBW ≈ = = 0.885
β nd π nd nd
The requirement α=0 only ensures that there is a principal
maximum along φ=90°. The array however may have multiple
principle maximums. There is a principal maximum for each
ψ = ±2nπ n = 1,2,3......
This situation occurs when α=0 and d=λ, 2λ, 3λ…….In this case,
array will have principal maximums along, φ=0°, 90°, 180°.
To avoid such grating lobes, d is usually kept below λ.
33
 Some Examples

For a 10 element uniform linear broadside array of
isotropic elements with separation of between the
elements, find the HPBW, FNBW and directivity of the array.

34
 Endfire Array
• The maximum radiation occurs along the axis of the array.
• In previous expressions, for the uniform linear array to be
endfire, the AF must have principal maximum towards ϕ=0° or
180 °
α
− = Cos[0 or180] ⇒ α = ± βd
βd
• −1  1 2π  −1  λ 
FNBW = −2Cos  + 1 = −2Cos  + 1
 βd n   dn 
−1  λ
or , alternatively, FNBW = 2Cos 1 − 
 dn 
−1  1.391λ 
HPBW = 2Cos 1 −  2λ
 π d n  FNBW ≈ 2
nd
35
 Some Examples
Broadside Array with n=10 and d=λ/4

36
 Some Examples
Broadside / Endfire Array with n=10 and d=λ

37
 Some Examples
Ordinary Endfire Arrays

n=10, d=λ/4 and α=-βd=-π/2 n=10, d=λ/4 and α=βd=π/2

38
Some Examples

39
 Some Examples

An antenna with its only maximum along is required.
Design a two element uniform array using isotropic sources
positioned along z-axis and separated by a distance of
assuming ordinary endfire conditions to meet above
requirement. (Find α, AF, and Directivity).

40
 Some Examples

Design an ordinary endfire uniform linear array with only
one maximum so that its directivity is 20 dB. The spacing
between the elements is and its length is much greater
than the spacing. Determine:
• Number of elements
• Overall length of the array
• Approximate HPBW in degrees
• Amplitude level of the first minor lobe compared to
the maximum of the major lobe.

41
 Directivities
Directivity of Broadside Arrays:
d
D = 2n
λ
For large n,
L
D=2 where, L is array length = (n − 1)d
λ
Directivity of Endfire Arrays:
d
For large n, D = 4n
λ
L
D=4 where, L is array length = (n − 1)d
λ

Thus for similar arrangements, endfire mode has twice the

directivity of broadside mode. 42
 Scanning Arrays / H-W Array
• Antenna arrays whose maximum radiation can be directed in
any direction.
• the direction can be controlled by controlling the phase
excitation between elements.
• For continuous scan, system must continuously vary the
progressive phase shifts between elements.
• If φ0 is the desired maximum direction,
α = − β d Cosφ0
Hansen Woodyard Endfire Array:
• Endfire array whose directivity is greater than that of ordinary
endfire arrays with other properties kept same.
•  π
α = ± β d + 
 n 43
 Antenna Theorems and Relations

Network theorems developed for ordinary circuit theory

can be applied to antennas as well. These theorems when
applied to antenna systems can be considered the antenna
theorems. One of the most important antenna theorem is
the Reciprocity Theorems.

44
 Reciprocity Theorem
Statement:
In any network composed of linear, bilateral, lumped elements,
if one places a constant current (voltage) generator between
two nodes (in any branch) and places a voltage (current) meter
between any other two nodes (in any other branch), makes
observation of the meter reading, then interchanges the
locations of the source and the meter, the meter reading will be
unchanged.

45
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
Consider a system of antennas with two antennas as shown.
The system can be represented by an equivalent two port
network.

+ i1 i2 + i1 i2 +
+ Two Port
V1 V2 V1 V2
Network -
- -

A1 A2

46
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
Using a T equivalent network for the two port, when A1 is used
as transmitter and A2 as receiver, the excitation current i1
induces voltage v2.
i2
Z11 Z22
+

i1 1 Zm 2 V2

Z11: Self impedance of A1

Z22: Self impedance of A2
Zm: Mutual impedance
47
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
Applying KVL in loop 1:
− z11i1 − (i1 + i2 ) zm = 0
or , − z11i1 − i1 z m − i2 z m = 0

or , i2 =−
( z11 + zm )
i
Z11 Z22 i2
+
1
zm i1 1 Zm 2 V2
Applying KVL in loop 2, -
− i2 z 22 − (i2 + i1 ) z m + v2 = 0
or , − i2 z 22 − i2 z m − i1 z m + v2 = 0
or , − i2 ( z 22 + z m ) − i1 z m + v2 = 0
( z11 + z m )
or , ( z 22 + z m ) i1 − z mi1 + v2 = 0
zm 48
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
z 22 z11 + z 22 zm + zm z11 + zm − zm
2 2
or , i1 = −v2
zm
− zm
or , i1 = v2
z 22 z11 + z 22 z m + zm z11
When A2 is used as transmitter and A1 is used as receiver, the
equivalent circuit is:
i1
Z11 Z22
+

V1 1 Zm 2 i2

-
49
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
KVL in loop 1 gives:
− z11i1 − (i1 + i2 ) zm + v1 = 0
or , − z11i1 − i1 z m − i2 zm + v1 = 0
or , − ( z11 + z m )i1 − i2 z m + v1 = 0
KVL in loop 2 gives:
− z 22i2 − (i1 + i2 ) z m = 0
or , − z 22i2 − i1 z m − i2 z m = 0
or , − ( z22 + zm )i2 − i1 z m = 0
( z 22 + z m )
or , i1 = − i2
zm
50
 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
Using it,
 ( z 22 + z m ) 
− ( z11 + z m ) − i2 − i2 z m + v1 = 0
 zm 
( z11 + z m )( z 22 + z m )
or , i2 − z mi2 + v1 = 0
zm
z11 z 22 + z11 z m + z 22 z m + z m − z m
2 2
or , i2 + v1 = 0
zm
zm
or , i2 = − v1
z11 z 22 + z11 z m + z 22 z m
If, i1 = i2 then, v1 = v2
Thus, an antenna as a radiator is equivalent to an antenna as
receiver. 51
 Consequences of Reciprocity Theorem
Equality of Radiation Patterns:
The directional pattern of a receiving antenna is identical with
its directional pattern as a transmitting antenna.

Equality of Antenna Impedances:

The impedance of a receiving antenna is identical with its
impedance as a transmitting antenna.

Equality of Antenna Effective Lengths:

The effective length of an antenna when used fro receiving is
identical with the same when used for transmitting.

52
 Free Space Transmission
• Transmission loss is the ratio of power transmitted to the
power received.
• Usually expressed in decibels.
Consider a radiated wave system as shown:

The power density at the receiving antenna is:

Pt
W= Gt
4πR 2
53
 Free Space Transmission
If Ar is the effective area of the receiving antenna, the received
power is:
Pt
Pr = Gt Ar
4πR 2

In terms of gain,
Pt λ2 λ2Gt Gr
Pr = Gt Gr = Pt
4πR 2
4π (4πR )2

2
Pr λ2Gt Gr  λ 
= =  Gt Gr → Friis Transmission Equation
Pt (4πR )2
 4πR 

Transmission loss is the ratio of transmitted to received power:

Pt (4πR )
2
L= = 2
Pr λ Gt Gr
54
 Free Space Transmission
The basic transmission loss is the transmission loss if the
antennas had been isotropic.

Lb =
(4πR )
2
Free space path loss: [ L fs ] = 20 log10 (4πR) − 20 log10 (λ )
λ 2

In decibels,
λ 
[Pr ] = 20 log10   + [Gt ] + [Gr ] + [ Pt ]
 4πR 
 4πR 
[ L] = 20 log10   − [Gt ] − [Gr ]
 λ 
 4πR 
[ Lb ] = 20 log10   [ L] = [ Lb ] − [Gt ] − [Gr ]
 λ 
55
Free Space Path Loss as Function of Frequency
• Transmission between Fixed Gain Antennas:
Usually found in vehicular communication, air to ground links
and navigational systems which require both antennas to be
omnidirectional .
So, gain is fixed and independent of frequency.
The received power inversely proportional to square of the
operating frequency.
• Tx between a Fixed Gain Antenna and a Fixed Area Antenna:
Usually found in links between satellite antenna and ground
station. Satellite antennas have fixed gain while ground station
have fixed effective area.
Received power is independent of frequency.

56
Free Space Path Loss as Function of Frequency
• Transmission between Fixed Area Antennas:
Usually found in microwave links. Both antennas have fixed
effective areas.
The received power is directly proportional to square of
operating frequency.

57
 Example:

Transmitting and receiving antennas operating at 1 GHz
with gains of 20 and 15 dB respectively are separated by a
distance of 1 Km. Find the maximum power delivered to
the load when the input power is 150 W. Assume the
antennas are polarization matched and lossless.

58
Matching Techniques

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
 Contents
• Matching: Introduction
• Stub Matching
• Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching
• T Match
• Gamma Match
• Omega Match
• Baluns

2
 Impedance Matching Techniques

Antennas are always connected with the transmission lines. As

have been discussed in the equivalent circuit of antenna, the
performance of an antenna will depend also on the nature of
the transmission line it is connected with. An antenna
performing well with a particular transmission line assembly
may not have same performance with other transmission lines.
Thus matching of the antenna impedance with characteristics
impedance of transmission line is very important. Particularly
because most of transmission lines have real impedance while
most of antennas have complex impedance. 3
Linear Wire Antennas

4
 Impedance Matching
• Impedance matching is the control of impedance for the
purpose of obtaining maximum power transfer or minimum
reflection.
• A load impedance connected to a source will receive the
maximum possible power (the available power P0) from the
source when its value is adjusted to equal the complex
conjugate of the impedance of the source.
• The load impedance and source impedance are then matched
on a conjugate-impedance basis (or simply conjugate-matched)

5
 Impedance Matching
• For many applications, impedances are required to be less
sensitive with frequency variation. However, variation of
impedances of transmission lines and antenna with frequency is
not also similar.
• So, the major aim is to match the impedances of transmission
lines and the antenna for all frequency range of operation.

6
 Stub Matching
• An unmatched load (antenna), on a lossless transmission
line, generates a reflection. It is possible to cancel out this
reflection by adding an equal and opposite reflection from a
side arm or stub, at least over a narrow range of frequency
close to the design point.

• Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line

which produce a pure reactance at the attachment point. Any
value of reactance can be made, by varying the stub length
from zero to half a wavelength.

• A short circuit stub has less radiation from the ends: it is

difficult to make a perfect non-radiating open circuit. Also, a
short circuited stub is preferred due to ease of use. 7
 Stub Matching
• Stubs may be connected in series or shunt as shown:

A series stub

A shunt stub

8
 Single Shunt Stub Matching
• A shunt stub of length l is placed
at distance s from the transmission
line-antenna connection.

• The distance s is chosen to match

real part of antenna impedance
with that of characteristic
impedance of transmission lines.

• The length of the stub is chosen such that to cancel the

complex part.
• When a single stub is not enough, multiple stubs are used.
• A triple stub configuration will be enough for any case.
9
Single Shunt Stub Matching: Using Smith Chart
Problem: Find l and s that will match a half-wave dipole
antenna (ZL=73+j42 ) to a 50  transmission line.
Since we using shunt stub, it will be easier to work with admittance rather
than impedance
Step 1: Plot the normalized load impedance (1.46+j0.84), and draw a
circle through that point, centered at 1 + j0. Get the normalized load
admittance by drawing a line from ZLN through 1+j0 until you
intersect the circle you drew on the other side. From the chart, you
get a normalized load admittance of YLN =0.52-j0.3
Step 2: Move towards the generator (clockwise) on the circle you
drew until you intersect the Re{ YN }=1 circle. The distance you
moved to get to that intersection corresponds to the distance 0.5 -
0.441 + 0.157 = 0.216 . From the Smith Chart, the normalized
input admittance at this point is 1+j0.84.
So, s=0.216  10
Single Shunt Stub Matching: Using Smith Chart
Step 3: In this step, we are looking to find length l, (length of the
shorted stub that will have an input admittance of 0-j0.84). The load
admittance of a short is infinity (YLN=), so that is where we will
begin on the Smith Chart. Move towards the generator from the
point YL=  until we intercept the Im{ YN= -0.84} line. At this point,
the input admittance to the shorted stub is 0-j0.84. The distance
traveled to get to that point is 0.389-0.25  =0.139 .
Thus, l= 0.139 

11
12
 Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching
• It is similar to stub matching except
that in place of a stub, another
transmission line of length /4 is
placed at a distance s0 from the
transmission line antenna connection.
• If antenna impedance is real the
distance s0=0.
• For matching an antenna with
impedance Rin, to the transmission line of characteristic
impedance Z0, the transformer should be chosen such that its
characteristic impedance is equal to: Z1  Rin Z 0
• Usually used when load impedance is real.
• Multiple transformer sections are used for better and more
sensitive situations. 13
 Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching
• This method may require tx lines with different characteristic
impedances. Since, conventional commercially available tx lines
come with limited range of impedances, this method has
limited range of application. However it is suitable to be used
with microstrip tx lines which can be designed to have a
variable c impedance.
•

14
 T Match
• A shunt matching technique
popularly used for dipoles and
balanced transmission lines.
• Dipole of length l is not
connected directly to the
transmission line, but through
another dipole of smaller length,
two dipoles tapped symmetrically
at ends.
• The T match steps up the antenna
impedance by a ratio of 1+ and
places it in shunt with twice the
impedance of the non radiating
mode transmission line. 15
 T Match
 : Current division factor (unity if a  a ' )
Z a : Antenna impedance
Z t : impedance of short cktd tx line
Z 0 : Characteristic impedance of tx line Zt 
ln v 
 where, u  a ' and v  s '
ln v   ln u  a a

Z t  j Z 0 tan  2 , where, Z
l '
0

 276 log10  s

'
aa 



Z in 

2 Z t 1    Z a
2
 Z0 
2 Z t  1    Z a
2

1 1 Ya 1
Yin    
1   2 Z a 2 Z t 1   2 2 Z t
16
 T Match
• The design parameters to achieve required Zin are: s, l’, a’
• When the radius of both conductors are equal α=1.
• For a special case when the lengths are also nearly equal,
the situation is equivalent to a folded dipole and the total
input impedance offered by the match is approximately equal
to 4Za.
• Since the impedance is not very sensitive to s, usual design
methods include varying l’ to achieve required matching.
• Although, orderly graphical method may be used, more
often a hit and trial method is more convenient.

17
 Resonant T Match
• Total impedance provided by the
T match is complex and inductive.
• If real impedance is desired for
resonance, a modified T match can
be used.
• This includes addition of two
series capacitors.
• The value of capacitance is
obtained as:
1
 X in ,
2 Cin  f
where, f is center frequency
18
 T Match
Problem: The free-space impedance at the center point of the driven
element of a 15-MHz Yagi-Uda array is 25−j25. Assuming the diameters of
the wires of a T-match are 1.9×10−3λ (3.8 cm) and 6.35×10−4λ(1.27 cm), the
center-to center spacing between the wires is 7.62×10−3λ(15.24 cm), and the
length l/2 of each T-match rod is 0.0285λ (57 cm), find the
(a) input impedance of the T-match
(b) input capacitance Cin that will resonate the antenna
(c) capacitance C that must be used in each leg to resonate the antenna
Solution:
Here, λ=20 m, Za= 25−j25, d= 1.9×10−3λ (3.8 cm), a= 0.95×10−3λ (1.9 cm),
d’= 6.35×10−4λ (1.27 cm), a’= 3.175×10−4λ (0.635 cm),
s= 7.62×10−3λ(15.24 cm), l’/2= 0.0285λ (57 cm)
Now,
u=a/a’=2.992, v=s/a’=24 α=1.5264
Z0=315.253 and Zt=j 57.06385 Zin=155.2296ej60.89 ° 75.505+j135.629
Cin=78.231x10-12 f C=2Cin=156.462 pf 19
 Gamma Match
• A matching technique popularly
used for dipoles and unbalanced
transmission lines.
• Equivalent to half of T match
with inherent capacitance for
resonance.
Z g 1    Z a 
2

Z in   jX c 
2 Z g  1    Z a
2

• In designs usually the length l’

and capacitor values are used as
variables.

20
 Omega Match
• A modified form of Gamma match with an addition of shunt
capacitor.
• That makes resonant matching easier.
• It also permits use of shorter rods.

21
 Designing T or Gamma match
• The design of a T match or a Gamma match is not as straight
forward.
• The design is done either analytically or using a Smith Chart.
• In most of the design, the radius of the matching rods and the
spacing are not considered as variables as the impedance is not
very sensitive to them and are fixed to certain values. The length
of the matching rods is the main variable to be computed.
•The lengths of matching rods in practice are usually small
(0.03-0.06 λ). So the impedance provided by the match is
inductive in nature.
•The impedance is converted to real by using capacitors of
suitable values.

12
 Steps used in design
1. Determine impedance of driven element: Za.
2. Assume values of suitable radius of matching rods (usually
smaller than that of driven element) and separating distance.
3. Determine current division factor α
4. Determine the impedance scaling from Za.
 2 Za
(1 + α ) , for Gamma Match
Z 2 = R2 + jX 2 =  2
(1 + α )2 Z , for T Match
 a

5. Find the characteristic impedance of the tx. line formed by

the active element and matching rod.  s 
  Z 0 ≈ 276 log10
 a a' 
 
Z2
6. Normalize Z2 by Z0. z2 = r2 + jx2 =
Z0
1
7. Find the admittance y2 = g 2 + jb2 =
z2
13
 Steps used in design
8. Compute the impedance of terminated tx. line and normalize
it:  l' 
Z 3 = R3 + jX 3 = jZ 0 tan β 
 2
Z3  l' 
z3 = = r3 + jx3 = j tan β 
Z0  2
9. Find the admittance. y3 = 1 = g3 + jb3
Z3

10. Find total admittance for the assembly:

 y3
 y + , for T Match
yin = g in + jbin =  2 2
 y2 + y3 , for Gamma Match

i. For Gamma Match: yin = g in + jbin = (g 2 + g 3 ) + j (b2 + b3 )

ii. For T Match (
yin = g in + jbin = g 2 +
g3
2
) + j (b
2 +
b3
2
)
14
 Steps used in design
1
11. Find the total impedance zin = rin + jxin =
yin
1. For Gamma Match:
( g 2 + g 3 )− j (b2 + b3 )
zin = rin + jxin = ( g 2 + g 3 )2 + (b2 + b3 )2

(g + )− j (b + ) g3 b3

2. For T Match zin = rin + jxin = 2 2 2 2

(g + ) + (b + ) 2
g3 2
2 2
b3 2
2

12. Find denormalized total impedance

Z in = Rin + jX in = Z 0 zin
13. Equate Rin with impedance of tx. line to be matched and
solve for b3 and finally l’/2.
14. For Gamma match, Rin = ( g +(gg )+ g+ (b)Z + b )
2
2
3 0
2
2 3 2 3

b3 = −b2 ±
(g 2 + g3 )Z 0 − Rin (g 2 + g3 )2
Rin 15
 Steps used in design
For T match,
Rin =
(g 2 +
g3
2
)Z 0

(g 2+
g3 2
2
) + (b 2+ )
b3 2
2

b3
= −b2 ±
(g 2 +
g3
2
)Z 0 (
− Rin g 2 + 2
)
g3 2

2 Rin

15. Finally, solve for l’/2 using,

 l'  2π
b3 = tan β , where, β =
 2 λ

16. We can choose + or – to obtain realistic and smaller value

for length l’.
17. Finally we solve for C based on Xin offered.
16
 Example

Following are provided:

f = 15 MHz, Z a = 30.44 − j 30.44, Rin = 50Ω,
d = 1.905 cm ⇒ a = 0.9525 cm, d ' = 0.635 cm ⇒ a ' = 0.3175 cm,
s = 7.62 cm, l ' / 2 = 72.01cm, l = 20 m
Calculations:
u = 3, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.528 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39
2

 l' 
Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315, Z g = jZ 0 tan k  = j 315 * 0.230133 = j 72.492
 2 17
 Example
So,
Z in =
[
Z g (1 + α ) Z a
2
] =
14100.535 + j14100.535
2 Z g + (1 + α ) Z a 194.5116 − j 49.5276
2

19941.168∠450
= = 99. 349∠59. 2850
= 50.744 + j85.412
200.718∠ − 14.2850

The matching is within 1 ohm of required. Now, for the

capacitor required,
1 1 −10
C= = = × F = 124 pF
( )
2π f 0 X in 2π 15 × 10 (85.412)
6
1 . 24 10

This problem can be very easily solved using Smith’s Chart as

explained next.

18
 Steps used in design
1. Determine Za and α
2. Find Z2 as:  2 Za
(1 + α ) , for Gamma Match
Z 2 = R2 + jX 2 =  2
(1 + α )2 Z , for T Match
 a

3. Determine Z0 by using equation and normalize Z2 by Z0.

Z
z2 = r2 + jx2 = 2
Z0
4. Plot z2 in the Smith chart. Also plot y2=g2+jb2. It can be done by moving
across diagonally the equal distance as z2.
5. The inductive reactance (normalized) formed by the short circuited tx line and
put in shunt is:  l' 
z g = j tan β  for Gamma Match
 2
 l' 
zt = j 2 tan  β  for T Match
 2
6. Plot zg in Smith chart. It can be plotted by moving l’.2 or l’ distance towards
generator after starting at 0+j0. 19
 Steps used in design
7. Invert zg or zt to find yg or yt. Plot it in Smith chart (diagonally opposite from
impedance).

8. Add two admittances and find yin and locate in Smith chart.
9. Invert and find zin in Smith chart.
10. Unnormalize the impedance to find Zin=Rin+jXin
11. Select capacitor as:

 1
 2π f X , for Gamma Match

C=
0 in

 1 , for T Match
 π f 0 X in

20
 Example
For the same problem solved before

Calculations:
u = 3, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.528 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39
2

Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315, Z 2 = 97.25(1 − j ), z2 = 0.31(1 − j )

y2 = 1.6(1 + j ), z g = 0 + j 0.23 (by moving 0.036λ towards generator)
y g = − j 4.35
yin = y2 + y g = 1.6 − j 2.75

zin = 0.16 + j 0.28

Zin = 50.4 + j88.2

21
22
 Example

An Yagi Uda array with impedance 25-j25 Ω working at 15 MHz is to be
matched with 75 Ω transmission line using T match. Assuming the diameters of
the wires of driven element and T match are 3.8 cm and 1.27 cm, center to center
spacing 15.24 cm, find the length of the T match and the capacitance required
for resonance.
Following are provided:
f = 15 MHz, Z a = 25 − j 25, Rin = 75 Ω, s = 15.24 cm,
d = 3.8 cm ⇒ a = 1.9 cm, d ' = 1.27 cm ⇒ a ' = 0.635 cm,
Calculations:
u = 2.9921, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.5264 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39 Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315
2

Z2
Z 2 = (1 + α ) Z a = 159.57 − j159.57 ⇒ z2 = = 0.506 − j 0.506 = 0.716∠ − 450
2

Z0
1
y2 = = 1.396∠450 = 0.988 + j 0.988 = g 2 + jb2
z2
 l'   2π l ' 
z3 = j tan β  = r3 + jx3 ⇒ r3 = 0 and x3 = tan 
 2  λ 2 23
 Example
1  2π l ' 
y3 = = g3 + jb3 ⇒ g3 = 0 and b3 = − cot 
z3  λ 2
But for Tmatch,
b3
= −b2 ±
( ) (
g 2 + Z 0 − Rin g 2 +
g3
2
g3 2
2
) = −0.988 ±
(0.988)315 − 75 (0.988)2
2 Rin 75
b3
= −0.988 ± 1.78235 ⇒ b3 = 1.5887 OR − 5.5407
2
Taking b3 = − 5.5407
 2π l '   2π l ' 
− 5.5407 = − cot  ⇒ tan  = 0.18048
 λ 2  λ 2
1 l' 1 l'
= tan −1 (0.18048) = 0.0284 = 0.0284 λ
λ 2 2π 2
( )
− b2 +
b3

xin = 2

(g 2+ 2
) + (b + )
g3 2
2
b3 2
2
24
 Example
Now solving for capacitance:
( )
− b2 +
b3
(
− b2 +
b3
)Z
xin = 2
⇒ X in = 2 0

(g 2 + 2
) + (b + )
g3 2
2
b3 2
2
(g 2 +
g3 2
2
) + (b 2 + 2
)
b3 2

− (0.988 − 2.77035 )315

X in = (0.988 )2 + (0.988 − 2.77035 )2
= 561.44025
0.976144 + 3.17677
= 135.1918

1 1 −11
Cin = = = × F = 78.48 pF
2π f 0 X in 2π 15 × 10 135.1918
6
(
7. 848 10
)
Each capacitor: C = 2Cin = 156.967 pF

25
 Baluns

• Coaxial transmission lines are inherently unbalanced.

• When connected to antenna, they provide unbalance resulting
a net current flow to ground through outside part of outer
conductor.
• Such unbalanced systems can be balanced by chocking that
the outside current.
• Such current chocking arrangements are called Baluns.
26
 Bazooka Baluns

• Includes a λ/4 length metal sleeve

shorted at its one end to outer
conductor of coaxial cable.
• The large impedance of the
metal sleeve reduces the current.

27
 λ/4 Coaxial Baluns

• Includes a λ/4 length of a transmission line connected to the

outside shield of coaxial line while other is connected to the
side of dipole which is connected to the center conductor.
• Various other baluns also exist.

28
Spiral and Tapered Baluns

29
Matching Techniques

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
 Contents
• Matching: Introduction
• Stub Matching
• Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching
• T Match
• Gamma Match
• Omega Match
• Baluns

2
 Impedance Matching Techniques

Antennas are always connected with the transmission lines. As

have been discussed in the equivalent circuit of antenna, the
performance of an antenna will depend also on the nature of
the transmission line it is connected with. An antenna
performing well with a particular transmission line assembly
may not have same performance with other transmission lines.
Thus matching of the antenna impedance with characteristics
impedance if transmission line is very important. Particularly
because most of transmission lines have real impedance while
most of antennas have complex impedance. 3
Linear Wire Antennas

4
 Stub Matching
• A shunt stub of length l is placed
at distance s from the transmission
line- antenna connection.
• Usually a short circuited stub is
preferred due to ease of use.
• The distance s is chosen to match
real part of antenna impedance
with that of characteristic
impedance of transmission lines.
• The length of the stub is chosen such that to cancel the
complex part.
• When a single stub is not enough, multiple stubs are used.
• A triple stub configuration will be enough for any case.
5
 Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching
• It is similar to stub matching except
that in place of a stub, another
transmission line of length λ/4 is
placed at a distance s from the
transmission line antenna connection.
• If antenna impedance is real the
distance s=0.
• The transformer should be chosen
such that its characteristic impedance is equal to: Z1 = Rin Z 0
• Multiple transformer sections are used for better and more
sensitive situations.

6
 T Match
• A shunt matching technique
popularly used for dipoles and
balanced transmission lines.
• Dipole of length l is not connected
directly to the transmission line,
but through another dipole of
smaller length. The two dipoles
tapped symmetrically at ends.
• The equivalent circuit is shown.
• The T match steps up the antenna
impedance by a ratio of 1+α and
places it in shunt with twice the
impedance of the non radiating
mode transmission line. 7
 T Match
•α : Current division factor (unity if a = a ' )
Z a : Antenna impedance
Z t : impedance of short cktd tx line
Z 0 : Characteristic impedance of tx line Zt ⇒
ln (v )
α= where, u = a ' and v = s '
ln (v ) − ln (u ) a a

Z t = j Z 0 tan k ( 2 ), where, Z
l '
0

≈ 276 log10  s

'
aa 



Z in =
[
2 Z t (1 + α ) Z a
2
] Z0 ⇒
2 Z t + (1 + α ) Z a
2

1 1 Ya 1
Yin = + = +
(1 + α )2 Z a 2 Z t (1 + α )2 2 Z t
8
 Resonant T Match
• Total impedance provided by the
T match is complex.
• If real impedance is desired for
resonance, a modified T match can
be used.
• This includes addition of two
series capacitors.
• The value of capacitance is
obtained as:
1
= X in ,
2 Cin π f
where, f is center frequency
9
 Gamma Match
• A matching technique popularly
used for dipoles and unbalanced
transmission lines.
• Equivalent to half of T match
with inherent capacitance for
resonance.
Z g [(1 + α ) Z a ]
2

Z in = − jX c +
2 Z g + (1 + α ) Z a
2

• In designs usually the length l’

and capacitor values are used as
variables.

10
 Omega Match
• A modified form of Gamma match with an addition of shunt
capacitor.
• That makes resonant matching easier.
• It also permits use of shorter rods.

11
 Designing T or Gamma match
• The design of a T match or a Gamma match is not as straight
forward.
• The design is done either analytically or using a Smith Chart.
• In most of the design, the radius of the matching rods and the
spacing are not considered as variables as the impedance is not
very sensitive to them and are fixed to certain values. The length
of the matching rods is the main variable to be computed.
•The lengths of matching rods in practice are usually small
(0.03-0.06 λ). So the impedance provided by the match is
inductive in nature.
•The impedance is converted to real by using capacitors of
suitable values.

12
 Steps used in design
1. Determine impedance of driven element: Za.
2. Assume values of suitable radius of matching rods (usually
smaller than that of driven element) and separating distance.
3. Determine current division factor α
4. Determine the impedance scaling from Za.
 2 Za
(1 + α ) , for Gamma Match
Z 2 = R2 + jX 2 =  2
(1 + α )2 Z , for T Match
 a

5. Find the characteristic impedance of the tx. line formed by

the active element and matching rod.  s 
  Z 0 ≈ 276 log10
 a a' 
 
Z2
6. Normalize Z2 by Z0. z2 = r2 + jx2 =
Z0
1
7. Find the admittance y2 = g 2 + jb2 =
z2
13
 Steps used in design
8. Compute the impedance of terminated tx. line and normalize
it:  l' 
Z 3 = R3 + jX 3 = jZ 0 tan β 
 2
Z3  l' 
z3 = = r3 + jx3 = j tan β 
Z0  2
9. Find the admittance. y3 = 1 = g3 + jb3
Z3

10. Find total admittance for the assembly:

 y3
 y + , for T Match
yin = g in + jbin =  2 2
 y2 + y3 , for Gamma Match

i. For Gamma Match: yin = g in + jbin = (g 2 + g 3 ) + j (b2 + b3 )

ii. For T Match (
yin = g in + jbin = g 2 +
g3
2
) + j (b
2 +
b3
2
)
14
 Steps used in design
1
11. Find the total impedance zin = rin + jxin =
yin
1. For Gamma Match:
( g 2 + g 3 )− j (b2 + b3 )
zin = rin + jxin = ( g 2 + g 3 )2 + (b2 + b3 )2

(g + )− j (b + ) g3 b3

2. For T Match zin = rin + jxin = 2 2 2 2

(g + ) + (b + ) 2
g3 2
2 2
b3 2
2

12. Find denormalized total impedance

Z in = Rin + jX in = Z 0 zin
13. Equate Rin with impedance of tx. line to be matched and
solve for b3 and finally l’/2.
14. For Gamma match, Rin = ( g +(gg )+ g+ (b)Z + b )
2
2
3 0
2
2 3 2 3

b3 = −b2 ±
(g 2 + g3 )Z 0 − Rin (g 2 + g3 )2
Rin 15
 Steps used in design
For T match,
Rin =
(g 2 +
g3
2
)Z 0

(g 2+
g3 2
2
) + (b 2+ )
b3 2
2

b3
= −b2 ±
(g 2 +
g3
2
)Z 0 (
− Rin g 2 + 2
)
g3 2

2 Rin

15. Finally, solve for l’/2 using,

 l'  2π
b3 = tan β , where, β =
 2 λ

16. We can choose + or – to obtain realistic and smaller value

for length l’.
17. Finally we solve for C based on Xin offered.
16
 Example

Following are provided:

f = 15 MHz, Z a = 30.44 − j 30.44, Rin = 50Ω,
d = 1.905 cm ⇒ a = 0.9525 cm, d ' = 0.635 cm ⇒ a ' = 0.3175 cm,
s = 7.62 cm, l ' / 2 = 72.01cm, l = 20 m
Calculations:
u = 3, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.528 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39
2

 l' 
Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315, Z g = jZ 0 tan k  = j 315 * 0.230133 = j 72.492
 2 17
 Example
So,
Z in =
[
Z g (1 + α ) Z a
2
] =
14100.535 + j14100.535
2 Z g + (1 + α ) Z a 194.5116 − j 49.5276
2

19941.168∠450
= = 99. 349∠59. 2850
= 50.744 + j85.412
200.718∠ − 14.2850

The matching is within 1 ohm of required. Now, for the

capacitor required,
1 1 −10
C= = = × F = 124 pF
( )
2π f 0 X in 2π 15 × 10 (85.412)
6
1 . 24 10

This problem can be very easily solved using Smith’s Chart as

explained next.

18
 Steps used in design
1. Determine Za and α
2. Find Z2 as:  2 Za
(1 + α ) , for Gamma Match
Z 2 = R2 + jX 2 =  2
(1 + α )2 Z , for T Match
 a

3. Determine Z0 by using equation and normalize Z2 by Z0.

Z
z2 = r2 + jx2 = 2
Z0
4. Plot z2 in the Smith chart. Also plot y2=g2+jb2. It can be done by moving
across diagonally the equal distance as z2.
5. The inductive reactance (normalized) formed by the short circuited tx line and
put in shunt is:  l' 
z g = j tan β  for Gamma Match
 2
 l' 
zt = j 2 tan  β  for T Match
 2
6. Plot zg in Smith chart. It can be plotted by moving l’.2 or l’ distance towards
generator after starting at 0+j0. 19
 Steps used in design
7. Invert zg or zt to find yg or yt. Plot it in Smith chart (diagonally opposite from
impedance).

8. Add two admittances and find yin and locate in Smith chart.
9. Invert and find zin in Smith chart.
10. Unnormalize the impedance to find Zin=Rin+jXin
11. Select capacitor as:

 1
 2π f X , for Gamma Match

C=
0 in

 1 , for T Match
 π f 0 X in

20
 Example
For the same problem solved before

Calculations:
u = 3, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.528 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39
2

Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315, Z 2 = 97.25(1 − j ), z2 = 0.31(1 − j )

y2 = 1.6(1 + j ), z g = 0 + j 0.23 (by moving 0.036λ towards generator)
y g = − j 4.35
yin = y2 + y g = 1.6 − j 2.75

zin = 0.16 + j 0.28

Zin = 50.4 + j88.2

21
22
 Example

An Yagi Uda array with impedance 25-j25 Ω working at 15 MHz is to be
matched with 75 Ω transmission line using T match. Assuming the diameters of
the wires of driven element and T match are 3.8 cm and 1.27 cm, center to center
spacing 15.24 cm, find the length of the T match and the capacitance required
for resonance.
Following are provided:
f = 15 MHz, Z a = 25 − j 25, Rin = 75 Ω, s = 15.24 cm,
d = 3.8 cm ⇒ a = 1.9 cm, d ' = 1.27 cm ⇒ a ' = 0.635 cm,
Calculations:
u = 2.9921, v = 24, ⇒ α ≈ 1.5264 ⇒ (1 + α ) = 6.39 Z 0 = 315.25 ≈ 315
2

Z2
Z 2 = (1 + α ) Z a = 159.57 − j159.57 ⇒ z2 = = 0.506 − j 0.506 = 0.716∠ − 450
2

Z0
1
y2 = = 1.396∠450 = 0.988 + j 0.988 = g 2 + jb2
z2
 l'   2π l ' 
z3 = j tan β  = r3 + jx3 ⇒ r3 = 0 and x3 = tan 
 2  λ 2 23
 Example
1  2π l ' 
y3 = = g3 + jb3 ⇒ g3 = 0 and b3 = − cot 
z3  λ 2
But for Tmatch,
b3
= −b2 ±
( ) (
g 2 + Z 0 − Rin g 2 +
g3
2
g3 2
2
) = −0.988 ±
(0.988)315 − 75 (0.988)2
2 Rin 75
b3
= −0.988 ± 1.78235 ⇒ b3 = 1.5887 OR − 5.5407
2
Taking b3 = − 5.5407
 2π l '   2π l ' 
− 5.5407 = − cot  ⇒ tan  = 0.18048
 λ 2  λ 2
1 l' 1 l'
= tan −1 (0.18048) = 0.0284 = 0.0284 λ
λ 2 2π 2
( )
− b2 +
b3

xin = 2

(g 2+ 2
) + (b + )
g3 2
2
b3 2
2
24
 Example
Now solving for capacitance:
( )
− b2 +
b3
(
− b2 +
b3
)Z
xin = 2
⇒ X in = 2 0

(g 2 + 2
) + (b + )
g3 2
2
b3 2
2
(g 2 +
g3 2
2
) + (b 2 + 2
)
b3 2

− (0.988 − 2.77035 )315

X in = (0.988 )2 + (0.988 − 2.77035 )2
= 561.44025
0.976144 + 3.17677
= 135.1918

1 1 −11
Cin = = = × F = 78.48 pF
2π f 0 X in 2π 15 × 10 135.1918
6
(
7. 848 10
)
Each capacitor: C = 2Cin = 156.967 pF

25
 Baluns

• Coaxial transmission lines are inherently unbalanced.

• When connected to antenna, they provide unbalance resulting
a net current flow to ground through outside part of outer
conductor.
• Such unbalanced systems can be balanced by chocking that
the outside current.
• Such current chocking arrangements are called Baluns.
26
 Bazooka Baluns

• Includes a λ/4 length metal sleeve

shorted at its one end to outer
conductor of coaxial cable.
• The large impedance of the
metal sleeve reduces the current.

27
 λ/4 Coaxial Baluns

• Includes a λ/4 length of a transmission line connected to the

outside shield of coaxial line while other is connected to the
side of dipole which is connected to the center conductor.
• Various other baluns also exist.

28
Spiral and Tapered Baluns

29
Antenna and Propagation
ETEG 402

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
Fall 2020
 Linear Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are among the oldest, simplest cheapest,

and one the most versatile antennas. Linear wire antennas
are commonly know by the names dipoles and monopoles.
Dipoles and monopoles can be made of different lengths
and even can be folded to obtain desired characteristics.
Linear wire antennas have wide application fields. Several
other antenna designs also have their root in dipoles.
2
 Contents
• Very Short Dipoles
• Fields, Power, Patterns and Directivity
• Short Dipoles
• Thin Dipoles Arbitrary Length
• Fields, Patterns, Radiation Resistance, Directivity
• Half Wave Dipole and Quarter Wave Monopole
• Broad Band Dipoles
• Cylindrical Dipoles
• Sleeve Dipoles
• Biconical Antenna, Bowtie and Triangular Sheet Antenna
• Discone and Conical Skirt Monopole
• Folded Dipoles

3
Linear Wire Antennas

4
 Infinitesimal (Very Short) Dipoles
• Very small and thin wire (l<<λ and a<< λ) with uniform
assumed current distribution.
• Practically, thin wires (l<λ/50) can be approximated as
infinitesimal dipoles.
• Has omnidirectional radiation pattern in the plane normal to
its axis. When antenna aligned along z axis, far fields have only
Eθ and Hϕ components.
• Total radiated power:
η I02 l 2 ω 2 η π I02 l 2 l 2
∴ Prad = = = 80π 2
I 2

12 π v 2 3λ2 λ2
eff

• Radiation resistance:
l 2
λ
∴ Rrad = 80 π 2 2 At l = , Rrad = 0.316 Ω
λ 50 5
 Infinitesimal (Very Short) Dipoles
•
Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

6
 Radiation Pattern of Very Short Dipoles
•

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

7
 Directivity of Very Short Dipoles
• Let us assume the antenna radiates 1 watt of power. The
current required for this is:
λ
I=
80 π l
• The radiation intensity is:
r2E2
U (θ , φ ) =
η
• The field intensity however is:
η β I l Sinθ η β I l 60 π I l
E= and Emax = =
4πr 4πr λr
• Substituting for current,
60 π l λ 60
Emax = =
λ r 80 π l 80 r
8
 Directivity of Very Short Dipoles
• The maximum radiation intensity now becomes:
2
r 
2
60 
 60 2
3
U max= = =
η  80 
r  80η 8 π
• The directivity then is: D = U max = 3 4 π = 1.5
U avg 8 π

• In dB, D = 10 log 1.5 = 1.76

• Effective Aperture:  λ2  3 λ2
Ae =   D =
 4π  8π

• Effective Length:
le = l
9
 Numerical Example

Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole
whose overall length is λ/50. Find the total power radiated
if the current fed is I = 2Cosω0t .
Solution:
l 2
λ2
∴ Rrad = 80 π 2 2 = 80 π 2 = 0.3158 Ω
λ 2500λ2

4
∴ Prad = R I 2
rad eff = 0.3158 × = 0.6316W
2

10
 Short Dipoles
• Dipoles with length ( λ/50 <l<λ/10)
• Assumed current distribution: linear.
• Far fields are similar to very short dipoles except that the they
are half in strength as compared to that with uniform current
distribution. β I 0 l Sinθ − jβr E = − jη β I 0 l Sinθ e − jβr
Hφ = j e θ
8π r 8π r
• Power radiated is one fourth of that of uniform current
distribution.
• Directivity and effective apertures are same to that obtained
with uniform current distribution.
• Radiation resistance
2
l
∴ Rrad = 20 π 2 2
λ
11
 Dipoles of Finite Arbitrary Lengths
• Thin wires of arbitrary lengths (l>λ/10 and a<< λ).
• Assumed sinusoidal current distribution with nulls at ends and
center fed.
• For dipoles aligned along z axis, only Eθ and Hϕ components
exists for far fields.
I m e − j β r  Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H ) 
Hφ = j
2 π r  Sinθ 

I m e − j β r  Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H )

Eθ = η H φ = jη
2 π r  Sinθ 

• Radiation resistance:
 1 
C + ln (2 β H ) − C (2 β H ) + Sin (2 β H ){S (4 β H ) − 2 S (2 β H )}
η  i
2
i i 
Rrad =  
2π  1 
+ Cos(2βH ){C + ln(βH ) + Ci (4βH ) − 2Ci (2βH )}
 2 
12
 Sine and Cosine Integrals
•

13
 Radiation Resistance: Example
• Radiation resistance of l=3λ/4.
 1 
C + ln (2 β H ) − C (2 β H ) + Sin (2 β H ){S (4 β H ) − 2 S (2 β H )}
η  i
2
i i 
Rrad =  
2π  1 
+ Cos(2βH ){C + ln(βH ) + Ci (4βH ) − 2Ci (2βH )}
 2 
Here, β = 2π λ and H = 3λ 8
 1 
0. 5772 + ln (3π 2 ) − C (3π 2 ) + Sin (3π 2 ){S (3π ) − 2 S (3π 2 )}
120 π  i
2
i i 
Rrad =  
2π  1 
+ Cos (3π 2){C + ln(3π 4) + Ci (3π ) − 2Ci (3π 2)}
 2 
From tables,
 1 
 0 .5772 + 1 .55 − ( −0 .1984) + ( −1){(1. 6747 ) − 2(1.611)}
2
Rrad = 60  = 186 Ω
+ 1 (0){0.5772 + 0.857 + (0.01325) − 2(−0.1984)} 
 2 
14
 Dipoles of Finite Arbitrary Lengths
• Omnidirectional horizontal pattern, vertical pattern is figure
eight.
• Radiation Intensity 2
Cos(β H Cosθ ) − Cos(β H )
2
I  
U (φ ,θ ) = η m
8 π 2  Sinθ 

• The normalized power pattern for various length are shown.

• As length increases, the beam becomes narrower and hence
the directivity increases.
• However, when the length is greater than λ, minor lobes start
to emerge. Eventually, the directivity also decrease. In fact the
directivity follows complex behavior of increasing and
decreasing with length.
• In all these analysis, effect of finite cross section and feed gap
has not been considered. 15
 Dipoles of Finite Arbitrary Lengths
• Power pattern for dipoles of different lengths.
• Omnidirectional pattern has not been shown.

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

16
 Dipoles of Finite Lengths
• Radiation patterns for dipole of l=1.25λ
• As the length increases, the number of lobes increases.

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

17
 Directivity of Dipoles
•

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

18
 Half Wave Dipole
• The most popular dipole length (l=λ/2).
• One of the reason being its radiation resistance which
matches with some transmission lines.
• Radiation Intensity:
I m2
U (φ , θ ) = η Sin 3
θ
8π 2

• Radiation resistance: 73Ω

• The total input impedance is: 73 + j 42.5
• Since reactance is function of length, to make input
impedance real, usually slightly shorter length is used.
• So half wave dipole in practice usually is 0.47λ-0.48 λ long.

19
 Half Wave Dipole
• The normalized power pattern:

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

20
 Directivity of Half Wave Dipole
• Let us assume the antenna radiates 1 watt of power. The
current required for this is:
4π
I=
2.436η
Eθ = j
( π )
60 I m e − j β r Cos 2 Cosθ
• The radiation intensity is: r Sinθ
r2E2
U (θ , φ ) =
η
• The field intensity however is:

E=
π (
60 I Cos 2 Cosθ )
and Emax =
60 I
r Sinθ r
• Substituting for current,
60 4π 120
Emax = =
r 2.436η 17.097 r
21
 Directivity of Very Short Dipoles
• The maximum radiation intensity now becomes:
2
r  120 
2
120
U max =   = = 0.4105
η  17.097 r  292.32
• The directivity then is: D = U max = 0.4105 × 4 π = 1.64
U avg

• In dB, D = 10 log 1.643 = 2.15

• Effective Aperture:
 λ2  λ2
Ae =   D = 1.64
 4π  4π

22
 Directivity pattern of half wave dipole
•

23
 Numerical

A half wave dipole is radiating into free space. The co-ordinate system is
defined so that the origin is at the center of the dipole and the z-axis is
aligned with the dipole. Input power to the dipole is 100 W. Assuming an
overall efficiency of 50%, find the power density (in W/m2) at a point P
(500, 60°, 0°).
Solution:
ηI eff 2 ηI eff 2
Prad = 2.436 ⇒ 2.436 = 50 ⇒ I 2 eff = 0.684182
4π 4π

Eθ = j
(
60 I e − j β r Cos
m
π Cosθ
2
)
r Sinθ

Maximum value of Power density is:

W=
E
=
ηI m
2 Cos 2 π
2
2
Cosθ( )
η 4π 2r 2 Sin 2θ 24
 Numerical
The average value of power density is:

Wavg =
E 2
=
ηI m Cos
2 2 π
2
(
Cosθ )
2η 8 π 2 r 2 Sin 2θ
In terms of effective current,

Wavg =
ηI eff 2
Cos 2 π
2
(
Cosθ )
4π 2r 2 Sin 2θ

At, given point,

Wavg =
120π I eff
2
2
( =
)
Cos 2 π Cos 600 30 × 0.684182 0.5
4 π 500
2 2 2
Sin 60 0
π 250000 0.75

Wavg = 1.74 ×10 −5 Watts / m 2

25
 Applications of Dipoles and Monopoles
•

26
 Other Dipole Configurations

All analysis done till now were for very thin dipoles (a<λ). In
practice, this may not always be the case. Finite radius may
have significant effect on current distribution and hence
radiation resistance. Very thin antennas are narrowband
compared to the finite radius ones. There have been various
adaptations and changes in dipole configurations to make them
more broad band and obtain different value of radiation
resistance.
27
 Broadband Dipoles

It is established that bandwidth of an antenna can be improved

if the geometric configuration of the antenna utilizes efficiently
the available volume within the sphere in which it can be
enclosed. In other words, a standard rule of thumb in antenna
design is: an antenna can be made more broadband by
increasing the volume it occupies. Hence, a dipole antenna can
be made more broadband by increasing the radius a of the
dipole. Using this principle, several broadband dipole have
been designed.
28
 General Rule for Broadbanding
•

Dipoles

Monopoles

As the volume occupied goes on increasing, bandwidth increases

29
 Cylindrical Dipole
Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Cylindrical monopole

Cylindrical Dipole 30
Cylindrical monopole with wire simulated ground
 Cylindrical Dipoles: Bandwidth
• Dipoles and monopoles with finite diameter and length are
usually called cylindrical dipoles/monopoles.
• Thicker the dipole/monopole, generally larger the bandwidth.
So, by holding the length same and increasing the diameter,
operational bandwidth can be increased.
• Usually the character is measured in terms of l/d ratio.
• Decreasing l/d ratio from 5000 to 260 for same length
bandwidth can be increased from 3% to 30%.
• Particularly, as l/d ratio decreases, the impedance variation
becomes less sensitive as a function of frequency.
• The resonance length (slightly less than nλ/2) is also found to
be a function of diameter.
• For a cylindrical monopole a circular metal plate or a crossed
wires are often used to simulate the ground plane. 31
 Cylindrical Dipoles: Impedance
•

32
 Cylindrical Dipole: Pattern
• In contrast to the Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

impedance, radiation
pattern is not very much
affected by the thickness of
the dipole or monopole.
• As seen in figure, as l/d
ratio decreases, the minor
lobes weaken intensity and
the nulls are replaced by
weak radiation.
• However the radiation
towards principal directions
are not much changed.
Radiation Pattern for l=3λ/2 and different l/d ratio 33
 Sleeve Dipoles
• Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Radiation Pattern for l=3λ/2 and different l/d ratio 34

 Biconical Antenna
• A broad-band antenna made of two roughly conical conductive
objects, nearly touching at their points.
• For an infinite biconical antenna, the characteristic
impedance at the point of connection is a function of the cone
angle only and is independent of the frequency.
• Practical biconical antennas have finite length and a definite
resonant frequency.
• The bandwidth is significantly higher than dipoles.
• The radiation pattern is similar to that of a dipole.
• The cone angle can be varied to obtain desired input
impedance to match the particular transmission line.
• Particularly, the most popular and frequent values of cone
angles lie from 300 < α 2 < 600
35
 Biconical Antenna

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Geometry of Biconical antenna Wire Simulation

Figure Source: "Schwarzbeck RE
1790" by Schwarzbeck Mess-
Elektronik - Own work.
36
 Biconical Antenna:Patterns
•

Three Dimensional Pattern

Vertical Pattern Horizontal Pattern

Radiation Patterns of a Vertical Biconical Antenna 37
 Biconical Antenna: Input Impedance
• Input impedance of infinite
length biconical antenna is
purely resistive.
• Input impedance is
independent of frequency.
• For finite length, the input
impedance is not purely
resistive, neither is it constant
for all frequencies.
• The antenna becomes more
broadband as the cone angle
increases. Input Impedance of infinite biconical antenna
in free space. For small cone angles, it is
approximately given by, Z ≈ 120 ln α4 
in
 
38
 Bowtie and Triangular Sheet Antenna
• Biconical antennas although provide nice radiation patterns
and large bandwidth, are bulky for most of the frequencies
(usually VHF and UHF).
• Bowtie and triangular sheet antennas are the geometrical
approximation of biconical or conical unipole antennas.
• Fabricated using sheet metal.
• Offer simpler easy to handle mechanical structure compared
to biconical or conical unipole.
• Can be approximated by a wire along the periphery of its
surface reducing the weight and air resistance even more.
• Planar bowtie and sheet metal antennas have lower
bandwidth than biconical antenna.
• Bowties using wires are even more narrow band. So better
approximation to Biconicals are the multielement wire bowties.
39
 Bowtie and Triangular Sheet Antenna

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Geometry of Bowtie antenna Geometry of triangular sheet antenna Multielement wire bowtie

40
 Discone
• Discones are also variation of dipoles that have similar pattern
to that of linear dipoles while offering larger bandwidths.
• Discones are similar to biconical antenna in construction with
one cone replaced by a disk.
• They are popular radiators in VHF and UHF broadcast and
televisions.
• The disk is connected to the center conductor of the coaxial
cable while the outer shield of the cable is connected to the top
of the cone.
•

41
 Discone Antenna

Figure Source: Antenna Theory, Balanis

Geometry of Discone Geometry Skirt Monopole Wire Simulation of Cones

antenna antenna

42
 Discone Antenna

MilAir Discone: Discones constructed Connecting Discone to a

Discone constructed using solid metal surface coaxial cable
using wire simulation
43
 Folded Dipoles
•

44
Loop Antennas

Madhav P Pandey*
DoEEE, KU * Compiled by

1
 Contents
• Loop Antennas Introduction
• Small and Large Loops
• Small Circular Loops
• Large Circular Loops
• Other forms of loops

2
 Loop Antennas

Loop antennas are another simple, cheap and versatile

antennas families. Loop antennas may be found in variety
of forms including circle, square, triangle, rectangle etc.
Circular loops are the most popular loop antennas. Loops
whose electrical length is small compared to the
wavelength (l<λ/10) are called small loops. However a
large loop will have circumference about the order of the
wavelengths. Loops are used in receivers, direction finders,
directional arrays etc. They find applications in HF, VHF and
UHF bands. 3
 Linear Wire Antennas

Circular Loop Used for TV

Square Loop for direction finder

Helix for satellite Communication

at Scott Air Force base, Illinois, USA 8 element loop Yagi Uda array (Quad) 4
 Small and Large Loops
Small Loops:
• A small loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
• Small loops have small radiation resistance and hence are not
good radiators. Thus are not used for radio transmission.
• They are used in receivers where SNR is more important than
efficiency.
• They are also used as probes for field measurement and radio
wave navigation.
• Field patterns of small loops are similar to that of very short
dipoles.
• Radiation resistances can be increased by increasing electrical
lengths, number of turns and inserting a ferrite core.
5
 Small and Large Loops
Large Loops:
• Loops whose electrical length is larger than λ/10 and
comparable to the wavelength.
• For larger loops, radiation pattern has maximum along the axis
of the loop which is normal to the plane of the loop.
• They are hence popular choice in endfire directive arrays
including Yagi Uda array.
• Endfire helical antennas are also based on circular loops.

6
 Small Circular Loop
• For a small circular loop antenna current can be considered
uniform throughout the loop.
• If the loop has its axis along z axis, the current is along aϕ .
• Thus vector magnetic potential also will be in same direction.
• For the loop radius a,
a 2  I 0  1   j r
A  j Sin 1  e
4r  j r 
a2 I0  1   j r
Hr  j Cos 1  e
2r 2
 j r 
a2 2 I0  1 1   j r
H   Sin 1   2 2 e
4r  j r  r 

 a2 2 I0  1   j r
E  Sin 1  e
4r  j r  7
 Small Circular Loop
• The radiated power is:
 
Prad    a  I 02
4

 12 
• Radiation resistance hence is:
 S2 
Rr  31,171 4  where S is area of the loop
 
• For a circular loop with N turns,
 S 2

Rr  31,171 N 2  4 
 
• Thus the radiation resistance can be easily increased by
increasing the number of turns.

8
 Small Circular Loop
• The loss resistance for single turn small loop is given by the
same expression as that of dipole.
a  0
RL 
b 2
 0
• For multi turn loops, Surface impedance of conductor  Rs 
2
Na  R p 
RL  Rs   1
b  R0 

9
 Small Circular Loop: Directivity
• The radiation intensity is:
2 2
r 2
r   a I0
2 2
   a
2 2 2
 2
U E 
2

 Sin     I 0 Sin 2
2 2  4r  2 4 

• Clearly, the normalized power pattern is given by Sin2θ which

is same to that of infinitesimal dipole. So they have same
pattern. 2 2 2
• The maximum value which occurs at θ=π/2 is: U max     a  I 02
 
2 4 
U max 3
• Directivity is thus D0  4   1 .5
Prad 2
32
• Effective aperture is Ae 
8

• These are also same to that of infinitesimal dipole. 10

 Large Circular Loop
• For the large loops the radius may not be small and the
current is not uniform.
• These two differences cause the previous analysis not
appropriate for large loop.
• Several approaches have been adopted to analyze a large
loop. The more exact approaches are complex.
• Analyzing a loop with constant current approximation (radius
arbitrary) is roughly valid for small, intermediate and large
loops.
• This approach leads to use of Bessel function of the first kind
and order n.
• The mathematical expressions are out of the scope and hence
we analyze only some results.
11
 Large Circular Loop: Radiation Patterns
• For very small radius, pattern
is similar to very short dipoles.
• As the radius increases from
0.5 λ, radiation towards θ=90°
decreases and a null is formed
towards that direction at
around 0.61 λ.
• After 0.61 λ the radiation
towards θ=90° again start to
increase and multilobe pattern
is obtained.

Radiation pattern for circular loops of different lengths assuming constant current but arbitrary lengths
12
 Large Circular Loop: Radiation Patterns
• For larger loops, radiation is
greater towards the direction
normal to the plane of loop.
• For loops of circumference
equal to λ, the maximum is
along θ=0°.
• This length is very popular
and also is used in Yagi Uda
Loop array.
• The pattern often is a
multilobe pattern.

Radiation pattern for circular loops of different lengths assuming constant current but arbitrary lengths
13
 Large Circular Loop
• For small radius, the
radiation resistance is
very small and hence
antenna radiate very
small power.
• In addition, it is smaller
than loss resistance. So
radiation efficiency is
also very small.
• This also causes large
mismatch losses.

Radiation resistance for circular loops of different radii assuming constant current (but arbitrary radius)
14
 Large Circular Loop
• For larger values of radius, radiation resistance are different.
• Bold line shows the more exact value obtained by numeric
integration. The dash line is for large loop approximation and
dotted line is for small loop approximation.

15
 Large Circular Loop
• Directivity and radiation resistance with more accurate
nonuniform current approximation.
• A cosinusoidal varition has been approximated.

16
 Square Loop

• The most popular form after circular.

• The fields can be obtained by assuming the small square loop
as combination of four small dipoles with uniform current
• Far field in principal planes are identical to that by small
circular loop. 17
 Other forms of Loop

• Mathematical analysis is complex.

• With proper shape and feed point, they can have wider
bandwidth.
• The most attractive in the term of bandwidth are top driven
triangular with β=60°, rectangular with γ=0.5 and top driven
rhombic with β=120°.
• Triangular loop with β=40° can directly match with 50-70 ohm
coaxial line. 18
 Travelling Wave Antennas

Open ended wire antennas like dipoles have current and voltage
distributions similar to a standing wave. They are thus referred to
as standing wave or resonant antennas. However, by properly
terminating the antennas, the reflections can be minimized and a
travelling wave pattern for current and voltage distribution can be
achieved. Such antennas are called travelling wave or non
resonant antennas. Travelling wave antennas have unidirectional
radiation patterns. Beverage antenna, helical antenna, various
surface wave antennas, aperture antennas, Yagi Uda antenna,
slots and holes in waveguides are some examples.
2
 Contents
• Standing Wave Vs Travelling Wave Antennas
• Beverage or Long Wire Antennas
• Fields, Patterns, Effect of Length, Impedances
• V Antennas
• Rhombic Antennas
• Helical Antennas
• Construction Geometry
• Normal mode
• Axial Mode
• Yagi Uda Antenna
• Construction
• Operation
• Patterns
• Designs
3
 Current and Voltage Distribution
Travelling Wave
•

4
 Current and Voltage Distribution
Standing Wave
•

5
Current and Voltage Distribution in a half wave dipole
•

6
 Beverage Antenna

Circular Loop Used for TV

Square Loop for direction finder

Omnidirectional Slotted Waveguide antenna Helical antennas in GPS satellite

7
 Surface Wave and Leaky Wave Antennas
• All antennas whose current and voltage distributions can be
represented by one or more travelling waves, usually in the same
direction, are referred to as traveling wave antennas.
• Travelling wave antennas are generally of two types:
• Surface wave antennas:
• antenna which radiates power flow from discontinuities in
the structure that interrupt a bound wave on the antenna
surface. They are generally a slow wave structure.
• most of them are endfire or near endfire antennas.
• example is transmission line terminated at unmatched load
• Leaky wave antennas:
• an antenna that couples power in small increments per unit
length from a travelling wave structure to free space. Most of
them fast wave structures.
• slotted waveguide antennas 8
 Beverage (Long Wire) Antennas
•

• A long straight wire of length one to several wavelengths that

runs horizontal to the earth.
• Feed is provided at one end and the ground while other end is
terminated at suitable load.
• The ground acts as image of the wire and the total field can be
computed.
• They are linearly polarized and have poor efficiency. So mostly
used in receiving mode only. 9
 Beverage (Long Wire) Antennas
•

• The far fields will be:

E
Er  E  H r  H   0 H 


 l I 0 e  j r  j   l / 2 1Cos  Sin l / 2Cos  1

E  j e Sin
4 r  l / 2Cos  1
• The average power density is:
I 02   2  l 
Wavg  Cot 
2
 Sin  2 Cos   1
8 2 r 2 2   10
 Beverage Antennas: Radiation Pattern
• Multilobe pattern whose number of lobes depend upon the
length of the antenna.
• Considering the length is fairly large, approximately the peaks
will occur at:
  
 m  Cos 1  2m  1
1
m  0,1, 2, 3....
 2l 
• The major lobe occurs at m=0.
 
 m  Cos 1  
1

 2l 
(When the length is very large compared to wavelength, the major lobe
will be nearly aligned along the wire.)
• The nulls will occur at:
 
 n  Cos 1  n 
1
n 1, 2, 3, 4....
 l 11
Patterns of standing wave & travelling wave antennas
3-D Pattern of long wire travelling
wave antenna of length 5 λ

2-D Pattern of long wire

travelling wave antenna and
corresponding standing wave
antenna of length 5 λ

3-D Pattern of standing wave antenna of length 5 λ 12

 Effect of length

2-D Pattern of long wire

travelling wave antennas of
lengths 5 λ and 10 λ

• As the length increases, primary maximum shifts closer

towards axis of the wire.
• The number of lobes also increases.
• For all lengths, amplitude of secondary lobes decrease with
envelope of Cot 2  2  13
 Radiation Resistance and Input Impedance
• Total power radiated is:
 2 l Sin2 l 
Prad  I 0 1.415  ln   Ci 2 l  
4    2 l 
• The radiation resistance is thus:
  l Sin2 l  
Rr  1.415  ln    C 2  l   
2  
i
   2 l 
• To result ideal travelling wave distribution, value of load
resistance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line formed by the wire and the ground whose
approximate value is: RL  138 log10  4 h 
 d
• In such ideal case, the value of input impedance is equal to RL .
• When not terminated properly, input impedance is:
 RL  jZ c tan  l  
Z in  Z c  
Z
 c  jR L tan   l   14
 Numerical Example
 Determine the phase velocity (compared to free space) of the wave on a
Beverage antenna (terminated long wire) of length l=50λ so that the
maximum occurs at angles of 10° from the axis of the wire.
Solution:
For the case in which the phase velocity is not equal to that at free
space, (i.e. K≠1):
 l I 0 e  j r  j   l / 2  K Cos  Sin l / 2Cos  K 
E  j e Sin
4 r  l / 2Cos  K 
For sufficiently long antenna,
 l I 0 e  j r  j   l / 2  K Cos  Sin l / 2Cos  K 
E  j e
4 r  l / 2Cos  K 
The maximums will occur when:
Sin l / 2Cos  K   1
15
 Numerical Example
Or,
l
Cos m  K    2m  1 
2  2 
The first maximum occurs at:
1  
 m  Cos  K  
 2l 
For given case,
 1 
Cos10   K 
0
  K  0.974808
 100 
 vp
So, K    0.974808  v p  0.974808 v  2.924  108 m / s
g v
16
 Numerical Example
 Compute the directivity of a long wire with lengths of l=2λ.
Solution:
Directivity of long wire antenna is given by:
1  0.371 
2 Cot 2  Cos 1 1  
 2  l 
D
 2l  Sin2  l 
1.415  ln   Ci 2  l  
 2l

For l=2λ,

1  0.371 
2 Cot 2  Cos 1 1  
D  2  2    2  3 .127566 2

Sin8  1.415  1.386294  0  0

1.415  ln4   Ci 8  
8
D  6.984  8.44 dB
17
 V Antennas
• Array of two long wire
antennas forming a planar V
shape.
• Most are symmetrical and
used as horizontal V.
• The main advantages are
higher directivity, lower
sidelobes and main lobe Geometry
directed along the axis.
• Directivity is higher than single long wire antennas or dipoles.
• Directivity depends upon included angle, usually maximum
directivity achieved for smaller included angles.

18
 Terminating V Antennas
• To obtain travelling wave structure •
and hence unidirectional pattern,
they must be terminated to
minimize reflections.
• Reflections can also be reduced by
making wire legs thick. Terminated and
grounded
• When the lengths are very large V antennas
(larger than 5λ), there termination
may not even be needed.
• The optimum directivity is:
l
D  2.94   1.15

Terminated and
This is valid for lengths 0.5l/3 not grounded
V antennas 19
 Radiation Patterns of V Antennas
•

Unidirectional V antenna Bidirectional V antenna

• To obtain a single major lobe in the direction of line bisecting

the V, 2 0  2 m .
• If 2 0  2 m , the main lobe is split into two distinct beams.
• If 2 0  2 m , main lobe single, along same direction but tilted
upward from the plane of V. This may be desired case when
transmitting upwards towards ionosphere.
• For optimum directivity (approximately twice of single leg):
 0  0.8 m 20
 Example
 Compute the optimum directivities of a V antenna with leg lengths of
l=2λ. What is the improvement over Beverage antenna of length l=2λ.
Solution:
Maximum directivity for V antenna is:
l
D  2.94   1.15

For length l=2
 2 
D  2.94   1.15  2.942   1.15  6.984  8.44 dB
  

21
 Example
 It is desired to design a V antenna with maximized directivity. The
lengths of each leg is l=0.5λ. What is total included angle? Directivity? And
gain if the overall antenna efficiency is 35%?
Solution:
l  0.5 
D  2.94   1.15  2.94   1.15  2.62  4.183 dB
   
The optimum included angle is:
3 2
l l l
2 0  149.3   603.4   809.5   443.6  171.0375
   
When the antenna efficiency is 35%,

G  0.35  D  0.35  2.62  0.917  0.376 dB

22
 Rhombic Antenna
•

Unidirectional Rhombic antenna

• Two V antennas connected at their open ends.

• One end is used for feed while other is terminated in a load
resistor.
• Included angles and lengths need to be adjusted to achieve
single directed beam with high directivity.
• They are often chosen over V because of ease in terminating.
• Even higher directivity may be achieved by stacking. 23
 Variations of V antenna

V above ground Bent Wire above ground

Inverted V over ground 24

 Helical Antennas

1.3 GHz Helical Antenna

Courtesy: Video Aerial Systems

25
 Helical Antennas
• A long conducting wire wound in the form of a screw forming
a helix.
• Fed across a conducting plate simulating the ground plane.
• A wideband travelling antenna
•The general polarization is elliptic, however is capable of
producing circularly polarized fields as well as linearly polarized
fields.
• Helical antenna can be designed to work in either normal or
axial mode, however is usually used as endfire antenna. The
axial mode can have circular polarization for wider bandwidth
and is more efficient.
• Has real input impedance.
• Popular due to ease of design.
26
 Helical Antenna: Geometry
• Diameter of helix: D
• Number of turns: N
• Spacing between each turns: S
• Total length of helix: L=NS
• Length of wire between each
turn:
L0  S  D 
2 2

• Total length of conductor:

Ln  N L0  N S 2  D 
2

• Circumference of the helix:

C  D
• Pitch angle:
S S
  tan1  tan1
C D 27
 Helical Antenna: Geometry
• What happens when α=0?
• What happens when α=90?

28
 Helical Antenna: Modes

• Helix operates in normal mode when the dimensions of helix

(diameter and pitch) are small compared to the wavelength.
• The pattern in such mode will be similar to that of dipoles. Normal
mode is used in compact antennas for portable hand held as well as
mobile vehicle mounted two way radios and in larger scale for UHF
television broadcasting
• When the diameter D and spacing S are large fractions of
wavelength, the helix operates in axial mode. The pattern has one
major lobe directed along the axis of the helix. 29
 Helical Antenna: Applications
•

30
 Helical Antenna: Normal Mode
• Helix operating in normal mode is equivalent to short dipoles in
series with small circular loops.
• The net field can thus be obtained
as combination of the fields due to
several short dipoles and small loops.
• For a vertical dipole, E  E aˆ and Eθ
is function of θ. Similarly, for small
horizontal loop, E  E aˆ and Eϕ is
function of θ. Thus elliptical
polarization.
• Polarization is circular when axial ratio
is equal to 1. When AR is equal to zero,
E 2 S
polarization is horizontal and when AR AR 
E
 2
C
is infinity, polarization is vertical. 31
 Helical Antenna: Axial Mode
• Helix operating in axial mode will have circular polarization if:
3 4 
 C  , S , and 120    140
4 3 4
• The input impedance is dependent on pitch angle and the size
of the wire. Usually values are in between100-200 Ω.
C
• Input impedance is purely resistive and is given by: Rin  140

3
52  2
3
115  2
HPBW ( ) 
0 FNBW ( ) 
0

C NS C NS

C 2S 2N 1
D  15 N AR 
3 2N

32
 Example
 Design an endfire right hand circularly polarized helical antenna having
HPBW of 45°, pitch angle of 13° and a circumference of 60 cm at a
frequency of 500 MHz. Determine the turns needed, directivity, axial ratio
and input impedance at center frequency.
Solution:
Given: C  0.6m,   13, HPBW  45,   0.6m
1 S
  tan  S  C  tan  0.6 tan13  0.138m
C
52  0.6 2
3 3
52  2
HPBW ( ) 
0
  45
C NS 0.6  N  0.138
1 45  0.6
Or ,   N  5.7839  6
N  0.138 52  0.6 2
3

Directivity,
C 2S 0.6 2  0.138
D  15 N 3  15  6  20.778  13.176dB
 0.63
2 N  1 13 C
AR    1.0833 R  140  140 

in 33
2N 12
 Example
 Design a five turn helical antenna which at 400 MHz operates in the
normal mode. The spacing between turns is λ/50. It is desired that the
antenna possesses circular polarization. Determine the circumference of
the helix, length of the single turn, overall length of the helix, pitch angle.
Solution:
2 S
AR  , For circular polarization, AR  1
C2

2 
1 50  C    0.75  0.15 m
C2 5 5
Length of single turn,
L0  S 2  C   0.0752  0.152  0.1677 m
2

Overall length of helix

L  N  S  5  0.75  3.75 m
Pitch angle,
  tan1 S C  tan10.1  5.71 34
Yagi Uda Antenna

35
 Yagi Uda Antenna

• Directional, high gain, narrowband antenna widely applied in

HF to UHF range (3 MHz -3 GHz).
• Is an example of antenna with parasitic elements where
currents are induced by mutual coupling. 36
 Yagi Uda Antenna

• Consists of number of elements (usually dipoles) working as

reflectors, radiator and directors.
• A single resonant element (usually half wave dipole or folded
dipole) is used as feed element.
• One or two reflectors and several directors are used. 37
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• The feed or driven element is the only member that is actually
excited by a source.
• The feed antenna is often slightly reduced in length for
resonance. (0.45 - 0.49 λ)
• The largest and the last element is the reflector. The length of
the reflector is slightly greater than that of feed element. (0.5 -
0.525 λ) There is only one or two reflectors. Very little is gained
by adding more reflectors.
• Since reflector is longer than resonant length, its impedance is
inductive and the induced current lags the voltage.
• It has a strong role in determining front to back ratio and the
input impedance.
• Directors are the elements that are shorter than resonant
lengths. (0.4 - 0.45 λ) 38
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• There may be several directors (typically 1 to 12). Increasing
the number of directors often provide a significant
improvement. However only up to a limit.
• Since their lengths are shorter than resonant length, their
impedance is capacitive and current leads the voltage which
encourages the propagation of waves in the direction of the
directors.
• The directors are spaced by 0.3 - 0.4 λ based on particular
design. However directors are necessarily neither of same length
nor equally spaced.
• The spacing between feed and the reflector is somewhat
smaller than that of directors (typically 0.2-0.25 λ).
• The directors have strong role in determining forward gain,
front to back ratio and input impedance. 39
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• By properly designing the lengths and the spacing, a
progressive phase shift in currents can be achieved. Hence, a
endfire antenna results.
•

40
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• By properly designing the lengths and the spacing, a
progressive phase shift in currents can be achieved. Hence, a
endfire antenna results.
•

41
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• Yagi antenna is a narrowband antenna, the bandwidth can be
slightly increased by increasing the length of reflector and
shortening the length of directors. The gain however will
decrease.
• Due to the complex relationships between parameters, no
simple design formulas exist. Empirical designs using trial and
error with the help of tables and graphs are used.

42
 Yagi Uda Antenna
• Yagi antenna is popular in home TV reception, amateur radio,
direction finders and many other applications where directional
antennas are required.
• They are easy to build, low cost and extensively analyzed.
• Although bandwidth are only few percent of center frequency,
high gain of typically 10 dB or greater can be obtained.
• Front to back ratios of 15 dB are achievable.
• Typically with optimum designs, minor lobes are 30% or less of
maximum.
• Yagi are also built with loops.

43
 Example
 Design a Yagi Uda Array of linear dipoles to cover all VHF TV channels (54
MHz to 216 MHz). Perform the design at f0=216 MHz. The gain of the
antenna should be 14.4 dB. The elements and the supporting boom should
be made of aluminum tubing with outside diameters of 0.95 cm and 1.9 cm
respectively. Find the number of elements, their lengths and spacings, and
total length of the array.
Solution:
Design to be performed at:   1.3889 m
Gain required relative to half wave dipole is: D  G  14.4  2.15  12.25 dB
From table, no of elements required is: 12
The lengths of reflector and directors are provided in table.
l1=r=0.482, l3=d1=0.432, l4=d2=0.415, l5=d3=0.407, l6=d4=0.398,
l7=d5=0.390, l8=d6=0.390, l9=d7=0.390, l10=d8=0.390, l11=d9=0.398,
l12=d10=0.407
Spacing between reflector from dipole is: 0.2=0.2778m
Spacing between directors: 0.2=0.2778m
44
Example

45
 Example
Now to find compensated lengths,
d/=0.0095/1.3889=0.00684
D/=0.019/1.3889=0.01368
From graph: Use design curve C.

46
Example

47
 Example
• Design a Yagi Uda Array of linear dipoles to cover all FM band (88 MHz to
108 MHz). Perform the design at f0=108 MHz. The gain of the antenna
should be 12.35 dB. The elements and the supporting boom should be
made of aluminum tubing with outside diameters of 0.95 cm and 1.9 cm
respectively. Find the number of elements, their lengths and spacing, and
total length of the array.
Solution:

48
Frequency Independent Antennas

2
 Contents
• Introduction
• Principle of Frequency Independence
• Equiangular Spirals and Spiral Surfaces
• Planar Spiral Plate and Slot Antennas
• Log Periodic Structures
• Log Periodic Tooth antennas
• Log Periodic Dipole Array

3
 Frequency Independent Antennas

Useful band width of an antenna is that range of frequencies

over which the antenna maintains certain required impedance,
pattern, polarization or gain characteristics. Many broadband
antennas with wide bandwidth have been studied and designed.
A frequency independent antenna is an antenna whose physical
size is fixed but operates on an instantaneous basis over a wide
bandwidth. A frequency independent antenna in true sense
must have characteristics independent of frequency. The
bandwidth is thus unlimited in the sense that upper and lower
frequency limits may be independently specified by the
designer. 4
 Variations of Log Periodic Antennas
•

5
 Principle of Frequency Independence
• Performance of an antenna does not change till its electrical
dimensions remain unchanged.
• if the operating frequency is scaled, then the physical
dimensions of the antenna must also be scaled by similar factor.

Rumsey’s Principle:
If an antenna shape can be specified only in terms of angles, its
impedance and pattern properties will be frequency
independent.
The general shape equation for a frequency independent
antenna, as proposed by Rumsey, is:

r  F ( ,  )  e a f ( )
6
 Frequency Independent Structures
• Examples of such shapes include biconical structures, bow tie
structures, planar spirals, conical spirals and log periodic
structures.
• However, all of them when truncated to a finite length do not
retain the frequency independent properties. The examples are
finite biconical and bowtie (butterfly) antennas.
• Equiangular planar spirals, Conical equiangular spirals and log
periodic structures retain the frequency independence (over a
certain range) even when truncated to a finite length.
•

7
 Equiangular Spiral
• Equiangular spiral or a logarithmic spiral is a self-similar spiral
curve defined in polar coordinates as the locus of points
following the relation:
  A e
Or alternatively:
1  
  ln  
  A
• Parameter α controls the expansion rate of the spiral, while
parameter A determines the starting point of the spiral.
• If the spiral starts from a point  0 , 0 , A is given as:
A   0 e 0

8
 Equiangular Spirals
•

 A 
 e  Ae  ln  /    Ae   
1

 
1
1  ln  
 9
 Planar Spiral Surfaces
• A planar spiral surface can be formed by using two
equiangular spiral curves.
• The surface has the edges defined as equiangular spirals of
identical shape with one magnified relative to the other
different rate of expansion) allowing a finite width.
• The arms may be defined with edges:

1  k e a
 2  k e a   
 3  k e a   
 4  k e a    
10
 Planar Equiangular Spiral Antennas
• A planar spiral antenna is composed of two arms each of
which are equiangular surface.
• For a Spiral Plate antennas, the two arms are two conductors
cut from a metal sheet.
• For a Spiral Slot Antennas, the two arms are two equiangular
slots cut on a large conducting metal sheet.
• In both cases, the practical versions have tapering ends.

11
 Planar Equiangular Spiral Antennas: Operation
• The antenna is excited at the center by the voltage applied
between the arms.
• The currents flow outward along the spiral arms with small
attenuation until the region of certain size in wavelengths is
reached.
• In this region almost all of the power is radiated. This region is
called active or radiating region.
• The part of spiral beyond the active region does not have much
consequence.
• For the different frequencies, different region of the spiral work
as active regions (since the different region of spiral have different
widths).
• Thus the antenna effectively scales automatically with the
frequency keeping the parameters same for a range of frequencies
Planar Spiral Antennas: Bandwidth and Pattern
• The range of frequencies for which the properties remain
independent of frequencies is determined by the limits of the
physical size of the spiral.
• The range of the frequency is from that for which the outer
diameter of the truncated structure is approximately one half of
the wavelength to the frequency for which the diameter of the
feed region is comparable with a half wavelength.
• The planar spiral antenna is bidirectional with lobes normal to
the plane of spiral.
• It is mostly circularly polarized.
• When the antenna is parallel with horizontal plane, the
pattern is approximately Cosθ.

13
 Conical Spiral Antenna
• A spiral antenna wrapped on the surface of a cone.
• This results in unidirectional pattern with the broad lobed
beam in the backward direction with beam shape remaining
same independent of frequency.
• A further simplified form can be obtained by narrowing the
width of spiral.

14
 Log Periodic Structures
• Log periodic structures are another structures that offer the
possibility of frequency independence.
• These antennas have a self-similar structure, so that the
properties at some frequency f 2  k f1 are the same as at the first
frequency f1 (where k is some constant).
• For a log periodic structure, the lengths Ln1 , Ln , Ln1..... of the
elements and the separation distances d n 1 , d n , d n1..... are related
as:
Ln 1 d n 1
 k
Ln dn

15
 Log Periodic Structures
• If the antenna radiates well at frequency f n (primarily due to
the element Ln , since there are present elements with lengths
Ln
Ln 1  k Ln , Ln 1  ..... the antenna must also radiate at f
k f n 1  k f n , f n 1  n
.....
k
• The achievable bandwidth is theoretically infinite; the actual
bandwidth achieved is dependent on how large the structure is
(to determine the lower frequency limit) and how precise the
finer (smaller) features are on the antenna (which determines
the upper frequency limit).
• Log periodic structures only guarantee the periodically
repeating radiation pattern and impedance. The period must be
chosen such that variation within it is relatively negligible.
• In addition, all such structure do not retain this property when
truncated to finite structures. 16
 Log Periodic Planar Tooth Antennas
• Metallic angular structure have teeth
cut into them along circular arcs.
• The radii of the arms which define
the location of successive teeth, the
lengths of the successive teeth and
widths of the successive teeth all are
related by a constant ratio:
Rn 1 Ln 1 Dn 1
  
Rn Ln Dn
• The properties of the antenna for a
frequency f is repeated for all
frequencies τnf , where n is an integer.
• The impedance of a log periodic
tooth antenna is about 189 ohms. 17
 Variations of Log Periodic Tooth Antennas
• The properties of the log periodic tooth antenna and its
complementary log periodic slot antenna have same pattern,
efficiency and impedance.
• A non planar log periodic tooth antenna has unidirectional
pattern in backward direction and a frequency independent
impedance, although different value than a planar log periodic
tooth antenna.

18
 Variations of Log Periodic Tooth Antennas
•

19
 Log Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)
• Log periodic dipole arrays (LPDA) are a group of dipole
antennas of varying sizes strung together and fed alternately
through a common transmission line.
• As with all frequency independent antennas, Its “active
region,” shifts with frequency.
• The longest element is active at the antenna’s lowest usable
frequency where it acts as a half wave dipole.
• The upper frequency limit of the antenna is a function of the
shortest element.
• For a efficient and successful log periodic dipole array, the
alternate elements must have phasings reversed.
• LPDA is unidirectional and radiates in endfire mode with
radiated waves linearly polarized.
20
 LPDA Geometry
• The lengths and spacing of the elements increases
logarithmically as defined by a ratio τ. Strictly speaking, even
the diameters of the elements and the spacing at dipole centers
follow same ratio. However in many practical designs, only
lengths and spacing are considered.
Ln 1 Dn 1 d n 1 sn 1 Rn 1
    
Ln Dn dn sn Rn
Also,
Rn  Rn 1

2 Ln
LPDA properties are periodic.
So, if the variation within one
cycle are made small, it can
be considered frequency independent 21
 LPDA: Design Equations
• Typical designs of the LPDA have : 0.95    0.7 and 100    450
• In general if α increases τ is decreased.
• However more exact design equations exist.
1   
  tan 
1

 4 
• Designed and required bandwidth Bd 
 Br 1.1  7.71    cot 
2

• Total length
max 
1 
L 
 1  cot  ,
4  Bd 
c
max  2 Lmax 
f min
• Number of elements:
ln Bd
N  1
ln 1   22
 Design Procedure for Coaxial Fed LPDA
 Design a LPDA with coaxial cable connection. The directivity desired is 9
dB and the antenna should be applicable for 54 – 216 MHz.
Solution:
1. Determine  and  from provided directivity in dB using constant
directivity vs  and  curve.

1. Clearly,
2. For 9 dB,
3. =0.175
4. =0.93

23
 Design Procedure for Coaxial Fed LPDA
• Determine  from  and .
1 1   
  tan    5.711
 4 
• Determine required bandwidth Br and design bandwidth Bd.
216
Br  4
54
 
Bd  Br 1.1  7.71    cot   4 1.477  5.908
2

• Determine Length of structure L and number of elements N.

c
max  2 Lmax   5.556 m
f min
max  1 
L 
 1   cot   11.538 m
4  Bd 
ln Bd
N  1  25.477  26
ln1   24
 Design Procedure for Coaxial Fed LPDA
 For the same LPDA, input impedance is required to be 75 ohms. The
array is to be constructed using aluminum tubing whose outer
diameters for largest element is 1.905 cm and for smallest element is
0.476 cm. Find the center to center spacing between feeder line.
Solution:
Average characteristic impedance of the elements is:
 l  
Z a  120ln max   2.25  327.89
  d max  
Relative mean spacing  '    0.1815
Za 
 4.372
Rin
Z0
From figure:  1.15  Z 0  1.15  75
Rin
Finally, spacing
Z 
s  d Cosh 0   2.42 cm
 120 
Where d is diameter of largest element. 25
 Reflector Antennas

Week 1: Review of DT Signals and Systems

1
 Reflector Antennas
Antennas that use some type of e-m wave reflectors as an
integral part of the antenna assembly are called reflector
antennas. To use reflector is a fairly simple and intuitive solution
to increase the directivity of an antenna. Reflector antennas use
some conductive surfaces that reflect e-m waves and hence
direct or concentrate the e-m energy towards desired directions.
Reflector antennas are hence generally highly directive antennas.
They are popular for long distance wireless communications as
satellite communications and space wave communications. They
are applicable in microwave ranges and beyond. Reflectors are
also used sometimes to obtain the desired radiation patterns
using shaped reflectors.
2
A 70 m dish antenna-NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory communication system
3
A 305 m spherical reflector at Arecibo Observatory 4
A 500 m spherical dish (FAST) at an Observatory, in Guizhou Province, China
 DTH Home receive antenna UHF TV antenna with Yagi Uda and Corner reflector

Reflector antennas in Satellite

4.5 m C band TVRO
6
UHF
UHF reflector
reflector from
from Comprod
Comprod
 Some Points

• Reflectors are primarily used to increase

directivity or to achieved desired patterns.
• Reflector antennas are the most commonly used
high gain antennas.
• They can achieve gains in excess than 30 dB.
• Long distance communication, point-to-point
microwave links, high resolution RADAR, satellite
communication are some applications.
•A reflector antenna has two basic components: a
source (active element also called ‘the feed’) and a
reflector (parasitic element).
• Several types of antennas are used as feed and
several type of shapes are used as reflectors.
7
 Types of reflectors

• In plane reflectors, a spherical wave front radiated by the feed

is reflected as another spherical wave front. In corner reflectors,
the reflected wave still has the spherical wave front but less
curved than that of plane reflectors. In curved reflectors, a plane
wave front in reflected waves may be obtained. Hence, the plane
reflectors have the least directivity and the curved reflectors
have the highest directivities. 8
 Corner Reflectors
• Two plane reflectors joined so as to form a corner.
• Better collimation of energy in the forward direction than a
plane.
• Simple in construction.
• Widely used in home TV reception.

9
 Corner Reflectors
• Feed element is almost always a dipole. Broadband dipoles
are used when higher bandwidth is required.
• Gain in general increases when included angle decreases (for
infinite planes).
• For a practical finite corner reflector, some optimum values for
length of the sides, aperture size, height and feed to vertex
distance are used.
Typically,
  Da  2 • Too small value of s results in small
radiation resistance and hence low
l  2s for   900
efficiency.
l  2s for   90 0 • Too large value of s results in
 2 multiple lobes.
s
3 3 • Increasing length of sides increases
h  1.2  1.5 times feed length bandwidth and radiation resistance 10
 Corner Reflector
• Most widely used included angle is 900.
• In many applications the wire grids are used to simulate
planes.
• The spacing between wires is usually small (less than λ/10)
• Wire grids are nearly as efficient as solid surfaces.

11
 Patterns of Some Corner Reflector Antennas
•

Source: ATCS (atcs-bf.com/antennas.php)

12
 Image Theory in Corner Reflectors
•
Images

For corner
reflectors with
included angle
α=180°/n:

No. of Images +
Source=360/α
 900 Corner Reflector
Total field can be obtained by vector sum of fields due to
images and the feed radiator.

Field due to one image is in phase while two images have

fields 180° out of phase to that of feed radiator.

• The total field at point (r,θ,ϕ)

E (r , ,  )  E1 (r1 ,  ,  )  E2 (r2 , ,  )  E3 (r3 , ,  )  E4 (r4 , ,  )
e  j r
• If E0  f ( ,  ) is field due to feed only at origin, for far field,
r
e  j r1 e  j r2 e  j r3 e  j r4
E (r ,  ,  )  f ( ,  )  f ( ,  )  f ( ,  )  f ( ,  )
r1 r2 r3 r4


E (r ,  ,  )  e js Cos 1  e js Cos 2  e j sCos 3  e js Cos 4  f ( ,  )
e  j r
r
 900 Corner Reflector
• Where, Cos 1  Sin Cos Cos 2  Sin Sin
Cos 3   Sin Cos Cos 4   Sin Sin
e  j r
E (r ,  ,  )  2Cos  s Sin Cos   Cos  s Sin Sin  f ( ,  )
r
• Hence E (r ,  ,  )  E0 (r , ,  ) AF

• The array factor AF ( ,  )  2Cos  s Sin Cos   Cos  s Sin Sin 

• In the horizontal plane (θ=π/2),

AF (   2 ,  )  2Cos  s Cos   Cos  s Sin 
 Patterns of 900 Corner Reflector
•

For large values of s,

multiple lobes emerge
and reflector looses
directive properties.
 Parabolic Reflectors
• Parabolic reflectors use the curved surfaces generated using
parabola.
• Parallel rays incident on a parabola will converge on a spot called
focal point while a point source placed at focal point results in a
parallel beam after reflection from the parabola

• A parabolic reflector can take two

basic forms:

Paraboloid Parabolic right cylinder

 Parabolic Reflectors
• For a parabolic cylinder, energy is collimated along a line and a
dipole is a used as feed element.
• For a paraboloid pyramidal or conical horns are used as feed.
• Although parabolic cylinders are easy to build, they provide
larger aperture blockage and do not possess several other
attractive characteristics found in paraboloid.
• Paraboloid are hence the most used parabolic reflectors.
• They are widely used as ground based satellite or radio
astronomy antennas.
• When fed efficiently they can produce high gain pencil beam
with low side lobes and good cross polarization discrimination
characteristics. It is widely used in low noise applications.
• The construction, installation and operation is however very
costly and difficult.
 Parabola Geometry
•
 Some parabolic reflector (Dish Antenna)

Dish used for DTH TV

Dish at Stanford University 20

Prime focus parabolic reflector

Feed is placed at the

focus of the
reflector.

21
Directivity

22
Aperture Efficiency

23
Aperture Efficiency

24
 Aperture Efficiency
Uniform illumination can
be obtained when the
feed has the pattern as

For no spillover,

Thus highest aperture

efficiency occurs :
25
Cassegrain Feed Mechanism

26
 Cassegrain Feed Mechanism
Thus Cassegrain feed employs a concave paraboloid as the
main dish and a convex hyperboloid as the subreflector.

The equivalent structure

27
 Benefits of Cassegrain Feed Mechanism

• Ability to place the primary feed in a convenient

location: easy access and adjustments.
• Reduced feed waveguide length: reduced loss and
noise.
• Reduced spillover effect and minor lobe radiation.
• Ability to obtain an equivalent focal length much longer
than physical length: lower cross-polarization level.
• Capability for scanning and/or broadening of the beam
by moving one of the reflecting surfaces.

• The above benefits are achieved at the cost of higher

complexity and larger obstruction by the subreflector.

28
Gregorian Feed Mechanism

29
Some other reflector systems

30
 Horn Antennas

Week 1: Review of DT Signals and Systems

1
2
 Horn Antennas

A horn antenna is an antenna that consists of a flaring

metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a
beam. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave
frequencies. They are used as feed antennas (called feed horns)
for larger antenna structures such as parabolic reflector antennas,
as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of other
antennas, and as directive antennas for such devices as radar
guns. Their advantages are moderate directivity, low standing
wave ratio (SWR), broad bandwidth, and simple construction and
adjustment.
3
 Some Characteristics
• A Horn antenna may be considered as a flared out wave guide,
by which the directivity is improved.
• Horn antennas provide wide bandwidth (impedance
bandwidth). Typically of order 10:1 and even up to 20:1
sometimes.
• Due to same reason, they offer low VSWR over a wide
bandwidth.
• Gain provided is typically 10-20 dBi, but even can reach 25 dBi.
• The losses in horn antenna is very low.
• The gain of horn antennas often increases (and
the beamwidth decreases) as the frequency of operation is
increased.
• Horn antennas are somewhat intuitive and relatively simple to
manufacture. 4
 Construction
• It typically consists of a short length of rectangular or
cylindrical metal tube (the waveguide), closed at one end,
flaring into an open-ended conical or pyramidal shaped horn on
the other end.
• The radio waves are usually introduced into the waveguide by
a coaxial cable attached to the side, with the central conductor
projecting into the waveguide to form a quarter-wave
monopole antenna.
• When waveguides are being used, horns are connected at the
ends of the waveguides.

5
 Types
• Based on construction, three basic types of horn antennas are
available:
• Sectoral Horns
• E-Plane Sectoral Horns
• H-Plane Sectoral Horns
• Pyramidal Horns
• Conical Horns

6
 E-Plane Sectoral Horns
• The side along the E-plane is flared.
• The electric far field radiated from such horn has zero r
component and non zero theta and phi components.

7
 E-Plane Sectoral Horns Patterns
• E-plane pattern is narrower than H-plane pattern.
• Pattern are dependent on both flaring angle and length.
• With increase in flaring angle patterns become narrower.

Three-dimensional and E and H plane field pattern of E-plane sectoral horn (1=6,
b1=2,75, a=0.5, b=0.25 , 2e=25.8° ) 8
 E-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
• For a given length, beamwidth decreases monotonically and
directivity increases up to a certain flaring angle.
• After some optimum flare angle, beamwidth first rises
(directivity decreases) and then some rise and falls follows.

9
 E-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
• The expression for directivity of E-plane horn is as follows:

• However, an approximate value can be computed more easily,

e  1    2 
2 b1 2

10
 E-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
•

11
 H-Plane Sectoral Horns
• The side along the H-plane is flared.
• Electric field have nonzero theta and phi components while
zero r components.

12
 H-Plane Sectoral Horns Patterns
• H-plane pattern is narrower than E-plane pattern.
• Pattern are dependent on both flaring angle and length.
• With increase in flaring angle patterns become narrower.

Three-dimensional and E and H plane field pattern of H-plane sectoral horn (2=6,
a1=5.5, b=0.25, a=0.5 , 2e=49.25° ) 13
 H-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
• For a given length, beamwidth decreases monotonically and
directivity increases up to a certain flaring angle.
• After some optimum flare angle, beamwidth first rises
(directivity decreases) with some rise and falls.

14
 H-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
• The expression for directivity of H-plane horn is as follows:

• However, an approximate value can be computed more easily,

h   2 2  a 2 2
1

15
 H-Plane Sectoral Horns Directivity
•

16
 Pyramidal Horns
• Both sides are flared. Equivalent to combination of E-plane
and H-plane sectoral horns.
• Electric field have nonzero theta and phi components while
zero r component.

17
 Pyramidal Horn Patterns
• Pattern is narrower in both planes. Hence higher directivity.
• Maximum radiation may not be along the axis.
• With increase in flaring angle patterns become narrower.

Three-dimensional field pattern of

Three-dimensional field pattern of pyramidal horn pyramidal horn (1=2=6,
(1=2=6, a1=5.5, b1=2.75, a=0.5 , b=0.25 ) a1=12, b1=6, a=0.5 , b=0.25 )
18
 Pyramidal Horns Directivity
• For a pyramidal horn to be physically constructible,
Pe must be equal to Ph

Directivity:
•

19
 Pyramidal Horns Directivity
•

20
 Conical Horns
• A circular waveguide flared out to a larger aperture..
•.

21
 Pyramidal Horns Directivity
• Larger the flare angle, higher the directivity. But after some
value directivity again decreases.

Directivity:

• Optimum directivity is obtained when, 22

 Other variations of Horn antennas
• Corrugated Horns:
• Making grooves on the inner walls of horn. Increases
aperture efficiency.

• Aperture matching:
• Attachment of curved surface sections to outside of
aperture edges. Provide smoother patterns and lower back
lobe level.

23
 Other variations of Horn antennas
• Multimode Horns:
• Structures with multiple mode excitations.

• Dielectric loaded horns:

• Inserting dielectric materials within horns to control
patterns.

• Exponential Horns:

24