The study of structure

Living things are defined in terms of the activities or functions that

are missing in nonliving things. The life processes of every organism
are carried out by specific materials assembled in definite
structures. Thus, a living thing can be defined as a system, or
structure, that reproduces, changes with its environment over a
period of time, and maintains its individuality by constant and
continuous metabolism.
Cells and their constituents
Biologists once depended on the light microscope to study
the morphology of cells found in higher plants and animals. The
functioning of cells in unicellular and in multicellular organisms
was then postulated from observation of the structure; the discovery
of the chloroplastids in the cell, for example, led to the investigation
of the process of photosynthesis. With the invention of the electron
microscope, the fine organization of the plastids could be used for
further quantitative studies of the different parts of that process.

Qualitative and quantitative analyses in biology make use of a

variety of techniques and approaches to identify and estimate levels
of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and other chemical
constituents of cells and tissues. Many such techniques make use
of antibodies or probes that bind to specific molecules within cells
and that are tagged with a chemical, commonly a fluorescent dye,
a radioactive isotope, or a biological stain, thereby enabling
or enhancing microscopic visualization or detection of the
molecules of interest.
Yersinia enterocolitica
Photomicrograph of Gram stain of Yersinia enterocolitica, the causative agent of yersiniosis.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)(Image Number: 2153)
Chemical labels are powerful means by which biologists can
identify, locate, or trace substances in living matter. Some examples
of widely used assays that incorporate labels include the Gram
stain, which is used for the identification and characterization of
bacteria; fluorescence in situ hybridization, which is used for the
detection of specific genetic sequences in chromosomes; and
luciferase assays, which measure bioluminescence produced
from luciferin-luciferase reactions, allowing for the quantification of
a wide array of molecules.
Tissues and organs
Early biologists viewed their work as a study of the organism. The
organism, then considered the fundamental unit of life, is still the
prime concern of some modern biologists, and understanding how
organisms maintain their internal environment remains an
important part of biological research. To better understand
the physiology of organisms, researchers study the tissues and
organs of which organisms are composed. Key to that work is the
ability to maintain and grow cells in vitro (“in glass”), otherwise
known as tissue culture.

Some of the first attempts at tissue culture were made in the late

19th century. In 1885, German zoologist Wilhelm Roux maintained
tissue from a chick embryo in a salt solution. The first major
breakthrough in tissue culture, however, came in 1907 with
the growth of frog nerve cell processes by American zoologist Ross
G. Harrison. Several years later, French researchers Alexis
Carrel and Montrose Burrows had refined Harrison’s methods and
introduced the term tissue culture. Using stringent laboratory
techniques, workers have been able to keep cells and tissues alive
under culture conditions for long periods of time. Techniques for
keeping organs alive in preparation for transplants stem from such
experiments.

Advances in tissue culture have enabled countless discoveries in

biology. For example, many experiments have been directed toward
achieving a deeper understanding of biological differentiation,
particularly of the factors that control differentiation. Crucial to
those studies was the development in the late 20th century of tissue
culture methods that allowed for the growth of mammalian
embryonic stem cells—and ultimately human embryonic stem cells
—on culture plates.