The American Rule

1. War of Philippine Independence from the United States

At first, President Aguinaldo regarded the United States an ally in the Philippines' road towards independence.
Filipino-American relations deteriorated as the American military authorities took over Manila in August 1898. The
mandatory evacuation of the Filipino troops in the captured districts of the city dismayed Aguinaldo and his men who joined
the battle, thinking that the Americans were on their side. The signing of the Treaty of Paris without consulting the Filipinos
heightened the tension. Neither Spain nor the US gave Felipe Agoncillo, Aguinaldo's special envoy, a chance to join the
Paris peace talks.

Previously in Hong Kong, the Americans offered assistance to Aguinaldo in fighting the common adversary, the
Spaniards. However, the negotiations turned out to be tentative in nature. The plan of the new colonizers was becoming
more evident as the Americans eventually controlled more areas in the country.

There was a popular belief among the supporters of Manifest Destiny that the United States had the God-given
right to help oppressed countries and build democratic nations. When US President William McKinley issued his so-called
Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation on December 21, 1898, he expressly indicated American policy regarding the
Philippines, that the US shall exercise sovereignty over the entire archipelago. He argued that the Americans must educate
and uplift the conditions of the Filipinos. This ideology was used by the Americans to rationalize their actions in the
country.

On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation and specified that his forces were prepared to fight
any American attempt to take over the country. The Filipinos waged a guerrilla warfare. They were supported in their
struggle by the local folks. Even if the American flag was publicly displayed and the local elite officials openly
acknowledged support to the United States government, the guerrillas continued to receive food supplies, and shelter from
the people. Local resistance showed that the Filipinos did not want to be under American rule. Suspicion and bitter feelings
were growing between the American soldiers and the Filipino dissidents

Still, the Americans occupied the Philippines. On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First
Philippine Commission to make recommendations in the administration of the country. This commission headed by Dr.
Jacob Schurman, issued a proclamation on April 4, 1899, declaring the establishment of American sovereignty in the
Philippines in the midst of the Philippine American war, which broke out months ago

Hostilities began on the night of February 4, 1899 at about 9 p.m. An American soldier named Private Robert
Willie Grayson of the Font Nebraska volunteers with two other members of the U.S. sentry shot and killed a man who
happens to be a Filipino soldier. The man together with three other Filipino soldiers were already entering into American
lines on their way home. The American soldiers tried to stop them and shouted "Halt!" twice, Unfamiliar with the word halt
the Filipino shouted "Halto.

Thinking that the Filipino soldier was making fun of them, the American soldiers fired on the Filipino soldiers who
were caught unprepared. The site of the first shot of the Philippine-American war, called Philippine Insurrection by the
Americans, is in Silencio corner Sociego Street in Sta. Mesa, Manila. (This is pursuant to National Historical Institute Board
Resolution 07 s. 2003, Authorizing the Transfer of the Historical Marker for the Site of the First Shot of the Philippine-
American War from San Juan Bridge to Silencio corner Sociego St., Sta. Mesa, Manila' after a thorough deliberation on the
position of Dr. Benito Legarda). News reached the United States that the Filipinos were the ones who started hostilities. The
Americans viewed the fighting as an insurrection.

The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issued his order to advance against the Filipino troops without
investigating the shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He sent an emissary to inform Governor General Elwell
Otis that the firing on their side had been against his order

Governor General Otis answered that since the fighting had begun, it must go on to the grim end. On the same day,
Aguinaldo issued a declaration informing the Filipino people that they were now at war. This turned out to be the seven-year
Philippine-American War (1899-1906). Because of their advanced preparations and firearms, the American troops captured
Rizal Province, La Loma, and Kalookan (now Caloocan City).
 The Muslims, uncertain of both Christian Filipinos and Americans opted to remain neutral. They signified their
non-involvement in the Filipino-American war. The Americans knew that the Filipino Muslims in Mindanao had not been
completely subjugated by the Spaniards. General John C. Bates tried to win the friendship of the Muslims by negotiating
with them on the basis of equality. On August 20, 1899, John Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu with three datus
signed the Bates Treaty. This treaty provided that the rights and dignities of the sultan and his datus shall be respected.
Likewise, the Muslims shall not be interfered with on account of their religion.

Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under American military rule until 1914. Schools that taught non-
Muslim curriculum were established. The United States, seen as a challenge to Islam, intensified med resistance in the
region. Panglima Hasan led a rebellion against the American authorities. His fight for freedom ended on March 4, 1904.

In the suburbs of Manila, the American fleet started bombarding the Filipino fort north of San Juan del Monte on
February 5, 1899. In the afternoon of that day, a fierce battle in La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery sued. Major Jose
Torres Bugallon, one of General Antonio Luna's gallant officers, fell mortally wounded. After capturing La Loma, General
MacArthur headed for Caloocan

In Caloocan, a fierce battle followed, with the Americans once again victorious. Undismayed by his defeat, General
Antonio Luna (younger brother of Juan Luna) prepared for a plan for the recapture of Manila by burning American occupied
houses in Tondo and Binondo. This took place on February 22, Washington's birthday (an American national holiday).
American fire brigades rushed to the area and fought the flames. They repulsed Luna's men with heavy losses. Luna then
retreated to Polo where he established his headquarters.

In late February, reinforcement arrived from the United States. The American troops under General MacArthur
began their offensive north of the city. They wanted to capture Malolos, capital of the Philippine Republic. Luna resumed
his command by building his position at the junction of Rio Grande and Bagbag Rivers, just outside Calumpit.

The Filipinos fought with fierce valor near Malinta. Colonel Harry O. Egbert of the 22nd U.S. Infantry died in
action. Fighting as they retreated, the Filipinos burned Polo and Meycauayan in order to delay the enemy advance.

On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos. By this time, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated
Malolos and established Its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. General MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo but
Governor General Elwell Otis ordered him to rest in Malolos. On March 31, General MacArthur captured Malolos.

The Filipino troops, although insufficiently armed and inadequately fed continued fighting. In Quingua (now
Plaridel), on April 23, the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered heavy losses under General Gregorio del Pilar. In
this battle, Colonel John Stotsenberg was killed.

General MacArthur continued his drive northward. The fierce battle of Bagbag River in Calumpit ensued for three
days. On April 25, Calumpit fell into American hands. General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops were left to defend the
Filipino lines since General Luna and his men, had already left for Pampanga at the height of the battle to see what had
happened to the reinforcement troops being asked from General Tomas Mascardo When Luna returned to Calumpit, the
Americans had already succeeded in penetrating the Filipino defensive lines

It was on March 6, 1899 that Apolinario Mabini, in his capacity as head of the Cabinet and minister of foreign
affairs met with the Schurman Commission and requested for a temporary cease-fire but was refused. He issued a manifesto
dated April 15, 1899 in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija urging his countrymen to continue the struggle for independence Unlike
him, the members of the Filipino Assembly (formerly Congress) like Pedro Paterno Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, and
Felipe Buencamino wanted the American offer of autonomy rather than independence. Mabini made another attempt on
April 28 by seeking armistice but was again turned down.

Since the Assembly knew that Mabini opposed to their views, they persuaded Aguinaldo to remove him from
office. A resolution was passed by the Assembly asking Aguinaldo to reject Mabini's stand and to remove him as President
of the Cabinet. When Mabini resigned from his post on May 7, 1899, President Aguinaldo named Pedro Paterno the head of
the new Cabinet. Mabini spent his last years writing articles against the Americans.

The Paterno Cabinet, known as the "Peace Cabinet" created a Committee headed by Felipe Buencamino to
negotiate peace with the Americans. When General Antonio Luna heard this, he blocked the trip of the Committee to Manila
and arrested the members. He opposed any attempt to make peace with the colonizers and strongly advocated a fight for
independence. His dreadful temper won him enemies. His plan to recapture Manila was supposed to be carried out together
with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's bodyguards. Due to the latter's lack of cooperation Luna recommended to Aguinaldo
that the Kawit Company be disarmed for military insubordination.

General Luna met his tragic end in the hands of his fellow patriots. Early in June 1899, he received a telegram from
Aguinaldo asking him to go to Cabanatuan. He left his command in Bayambang, Pangasinan. On June 5 he went to a
convent in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, which served as Aguinaldo's headquarters. He got mad when he did not find
Aguinaldo who had already left for San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. After he had heard a rifle shot, General Luna rushed downstairs
and cursed the soldiers and then slapped one of them. Pedrong Kastila, a captain from Cavite drew his bolo and hacked him.
Seeing him wounded, the other soldiers stabbed him while others shot him. He received more than forty wounds. His aide-
de-camp Colonel Francisco Roman was also killed. The next day, he was buried with full military honors on Aguinaldo's
orders.

Severino de las Alas, the Secretary of the Interior in his circular informed the provincial chiefs of Luna's death and
said that it was caused by Luna's insulting and assaulting of the President's bodyguards and the plan of Luna to take over the
presidency from Aguinaldo. After Luna's death, some demoralization set in. Many officers began to surrender to the
Americans. Aguinaldo's army gradually broke up with one defeat after another on the battlefields. By November 12, 1899,
the regular army was dissolved by Aguinaldo. He formed guerrilla units instead, to carry on the war.

The capture of Aguinaldo was one of the priorities of the Americans They mounted a full-scale offensive on
October 12, 1899. From Cabanatuan, Aguinaldo moved his government to Tarlac, then to Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya and
then to Bayambang, Pangasinan. With his wife, son, mother, sister, and some members of the Cabinet, he boarded the train
on the night of November 13 bound for Calasiao, with the Americans still finding ways to trap him

In order to elude the American forces, Aguinaldo and his forces proceeded to the Cordillera mountain range. In
Candon, Ilocos Sur, Aguinaldo and his troops went east and crossed the Ilocos range. This passageway to the Cordillera was
Tirad Pass. Del Pilar saw the advantageous terrain of the Tirad Pass. This could shield the Filipino troops. From atop Mt.
Tirad, which could provide view of pursuing Americans, Del Pilar and with 60 riflemen were given the mission of
defending the pass. They stood as guards to intercept the American soldiers and to give Aguinaldo sufficient time to escape.

In the morning of December 2, 1899, Major Peyton G. March and about 300 American troopers stormed the Pass,
but were repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans had not so far located the exact position of the Filipinos. Tirad was
4,500 feet high.

Through Januario Galut, an Igorot guide of the Americans, the secret trail to the top from the rear was known. In
the midst of the combat, General del Pilar, was hit with a bullet that passed through his neck. Only eight men escaped alive
to relate the tragic news to Aguinaldo.

After the Battle of Tirad Pass, which took six hours, the American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo until Cecilio
Segismundo, Aguinaldo's messenger fell into the hands of General Frederick Funston, stationed in Nueva Ecija. He was
carrying important letters to Baldomero Aguinaldo, General Urbano Lacuna, and other guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to
Baldomero Aguinaldo directed the sending of reinforcement to Palanan. Isabela. This gave Funston a clue to the
whereabouts of Aguinaldo.

The Americans perceived conquest of Filipinos as dependent on the fall of the Aguinaldo government. With the
approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military governor, Funston employed 80 Macabebe scouts, two
former officers of Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tal Placido), three Tagalog natives, and four other American
officers for the capture of Aguinaldo.

Pretending to be the reinforcement with five American prisoners, the Macabebe scouts were able to enter
Aguinaldo's camp. Aguinaldo and his men met them and even gave them food. At a given signal, the Macabebe suddenly
opened fire. Tal Placido, a fat, powerful man, grabbed Aguinaldo from behind. General Funston and four other American
officers entered the room and arrested him in the name of the United States,
 Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to Manila General MacArthur graciously received him at
the Malacañang Palace On April 19, 1901, he took the oath of allegiance to the United States and appealed to all Filipinos to
accept the sovereignty of the United States,

At the time when some patriotic Filipinos were still fighting for independence, some officials of the revolutionary
government had already decided to make peace with the colonizers. The Pacificados (Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno and
Felipe Buencamino founded Asociacion de Paz. Among the organizers were Cayetano Arellano, Tomas del Rosario,
Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban, and Pascual Poblete.

While Aguinaldo and some of his men were in the highlands of Northern Luzon, the Pacificados (Pacifists) in a
meeting on December 23, 1900 renamed the league for peace the Partido Federal (Federal Party), with Trinidad Pardo de
Tavera as elected president. The Federal Party wanted to make the Philippines a part of the United States and be given rights
and privileges extended by the U.S. to other territories becoming eventually a state of the union. The Federalistas were
haughtily called Americanistas or pro-Americans by the nationalists.

The Filipino civilians, caught between the Americans and the Filipino revolutionaries suffered badly. More than
200,000 Filipinos died during the war, most often by famine and disease. Some Filipinos accepted the offer of amnesty.
Notable exceptions were Apolinario Mabini and Macario Sakay. On July 4, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt declared
that the Philippine American War was over. However, local resistance continued.

2. A Government Under America

Although the Philippine American war was still in progress, on March. 16, 1900 President McKinley appointed the
Second Philippine Commission (Taft Commission). He gave the commission the legislative and executive authority to put
up a civilian government,

On July 4, 1901, the American civil government was proclaimed with Judge William Howard Taft as the first civil
governor. Governor Taft exercised both executive and legislative functions because he was the head of the Second
Philippine Commission that served as the lawmaking body. His policy, the Philippines for the Filipinos, laid the foundation
of a democratic government during his administration. Subsequently, the Second Philippine Commission passed a law
establishing a high school system in the country.

One of the achievements of the Taft administration was the sale of huge tracts of friar lands (410,000 acres) to
Filipinos on easy installment terms. In 1904, the US government paid the Vatican US $7.2 million for these lands held by
the religious orders. However, this scheme did not really alleviate the plight of Filipino tenants because estate owners
bought most of these lands.

The first congressional law about the government of the Philippines was the Cooper Act also known as the
Philippine Organic Act of 1902. It provided for the extension of the United States Bill of Rights to the Filipinos. it also
guaranteed the establishment of an elective Philippine Assembly, after the proclamation of complete peace and two years
after the publication of census.

Governor Taft proclaimed March 2, 1903 as Census Day. It was the first official census of the Philippines during
the American period. It reported a total Philippine population of 7,635,426. Filipino nationalists organized political parties
to counteract the pro American activities of the Partido Federal. Among these parties were Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist
Party), founded by Pascual Poblete in August 1901; Partido Independista (Independence Party), founded by Dr. Pedro A.
Paterno; and the Partido Democrata (Democratic Party) founded by Alberto Baretto, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Justo Lukban, and
Jose de la Viña in 1902 Partido Democrata like Partido Nacionalista advocated the independence of the country through
peaceful means.

The Partido Conservador, composed of prominent members of the Spanish community like Macario Adriatico,
Francisco Ortigas, and Gregorio Singian, was organized in February 1901. This group recognized American sovereignty in
the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. It advocated for autonomous representative government after peace and order had
been restored.

Though thousands of Filipinos surrendered as a result of the American peace propaganda, some military
commanders refused to lay down their arms. In Samar, General Vicente Lukban resorted to ambushing American soldiers.
The brutality of the war was best exemplified by the Balangiga Massacre. This happened in 1901, a few weeks after a
company of American soldiers arrived in Balangiga, Samar, took over the affairs of the town and occupied some local huts
to protect the inhabitants from the Muslim rebels. On September 28, 1901, the rAmerican soldiers were attacked by the
townsfolk. At 6:30 a.m., the bells of Balangiga were rung, signaling the attack of around 400 men.

Enraged at this tactic, General Jacob Smith ordered the massacre of all men and children above ten years of age.
He wanted the province of Samar to be turned into a "howling wilderness." Balangiga massacre took place in 1901-1902.
After the end of the bloody campaign, Smith was court-martial for the cruelties inflicted by his troops and found guilty.
They retired him from service. The American forces took the two Balangiga church bells and a rare 1557 cannon as war
booty and transported them to Wyoming (n being placed in a brick display museum in their home base Fort Russ
Wyoming).

The fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the fight for Philippine independence. In a manifesto to the Filipino
people dated July 31, 1901, he urged the continuation of resistance to the American occupation, General Franklin Bell
believed that the entire population of his area of operations in Batangas and Laguna were actively aiding the guerrilla forces
of General Malvar. Accordingly, he decided to employ tactics to cause so much general apprehension. The principal
measure he used was reconcentration. On April 16. 1902 General Malvar surrendered in Lipa, Batangas, two months after
the capture of General Lukban in Catubig, Samar.

Bell directed his commanders to set up the outer limits of an area around each town chosen as a zone of
reconcentration. Before December 25, 1901, the people must have moved into this zone with all food supplies they could
bring. All property found outside the zone after said date would be confiscated or destroyed by the Americans. Furthermore,
after January 1, 1902, any man found outside the reconcentration area would be arrested and imprisoned if he could not
present a pass. He could either be shot if he attempted to run away.

Several other Filipinos refused to conform to the American rule However, the American authorities were
determined to assert sovereignty in the Philippines, as manifested by the anti-nationalist laws imposed on the local
inhabitants. These included the Sedition Law, Brigandage Act, Reconcentration Act, and the Flag Law. Subsequently, these
anti-nationalist laws were scrapped following the policy of Filipinization in 1916 except the Flag Law, which was repealed
in 1919. Flag Law (1907) prohibited the display of the Philippine flag and other symbols used by the resistance against the
United States.

It was on November 4, 1901 when the Second Philippine Commission or Taft Commission passed the Sedition
Law, which imposed death penalty or a long prison term on anyone who advocated separation from the United States even
by peaceful means. Sedition was defined as action pro independence, meant to inculcate a spirit of hatred and enmity
against the American people and the Government of the United States in the Philippines and to incite the people to open an
armed resistance to the constituted authorities. Within this precept, the display of the Philippine flag, the singing of the
national anthem, and plays advocating independence were prohibited.

Juan Abad's Tanikalang Guinto (Gold Chains) was closed after its Batangas performance on May 10, 1903. The
author was found guilty of sedition. He was sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of US $2,000.

Hindi Aco Patay (I Am Not Dead) by Juan Matapang Cruz was closed on May 8, 1903 at the Teatro Nueva Luna in
Malabon. The red sun on a Katipunan flag that rose behind the stage caused the riot inside the theater. A drunken American
soldier climbed the stage and tore the scenery apart. A month later Cruz was arrested and later imprisoned, which he served
in full.

Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow), a play written by Aurelio Tolentino was also
regarded as seditious. It had its last show on May 14, 1903 at the Teatro Libertad. There were different versions of the last
scene. In the uncensored version, Inangbayan's (mother country, the Philippines) children rise in arms against Malaynatin
(Who knows? referring to the U.S. Insular government) and Bagong Sibol (newcomer - the United States). In the censored
version, Bagong Sibol grants the children their freedom. The uncensored version resulted to Tolentino's arrest. He was given
life imprisonment in 1905. In 1912, he was pardoned.
 On November 12, 1902, Governor William H. Taft pushed through the passage of the Brigandage Act or Ley de
Bandolerismo, which punished with death or with a prison term of not less than 20 years for members of an armed band.
Persons aiding brigands were to be given prison terms of not less than 10 years.

On June 1, 1903, the Philippine Commission passed the Reconcentration Act, which gave the governor general the
power to authorize any provincial governor to reconcentrate in the towns all residents of outlying barrios if ladrones or
outlaws operated in these areas. This law was passed to facilitate the arrest of guerrillas who were being protected by the
people. The Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and members of the United States Army combined to apprehend
guerrillas.

In September of 1902, the resistance groups that had been operating in Rizal and Bulacan merged into a
consolidated movement with General Luciano San Miguel as supreme military commander. Starting with a force of around
150 men armed with a few guns captured from municipal police detachments, San Miguel's group soon attracted new
recruits. They raided towns to obtain more weapons. They also captured some Filipino Scouts serving the U.S. Army.

The end for San Miguel came on March 28, 1903, after some Philippine Scouts discovered his headquarters
between Caloocan and Marikina. San Miguel and his force of two hundred men defended themselves. Hit three times, San
Miguel nevertheless fought until his last breath

With the death of San Miguel, Faustino Guillermo assumed the leadership of the New Katipunan movement in
Rizal and in Bulacan. Soon after, Guillermo was captured. Two men pretended to have defected from the Constabulary force
under Captain Keithley. While inside Guillermo's camp, they took Guillermo as prisoner and turned him over to Keithley

At the height of the rebellion in Samar in 1902, Macario Sakay, Julian Montalan, and Cornelio Felizardo organized
their resistance forces in the Rizal-Cavite-Laguna-Batangas area by formally establishing the Philippine Republic, or what
Sakay referred to as the Tagalog Republic. Sakay claimed that his republic was a continuation of Bonifacio's Katipunan. He
was chosen as president with Montalan in charge of military operations, Francisco Carreon, a former councilor of the
Katipunan, as the vice-president

Sakay exerted efforts to provide some amenities for the movement. In April 1904, Sakay released a manifesto
addressed to all foreign consulates declaring that he and his men were real revolutionaries and not mere brigands as the U.S.
government claimed because they had a flag, a government, and a constitution. To obtain security of his followers, Sakay
imposed sanctions to uncooperative Filipinos. In one instance, they abducted the family of Mariano Trias, a former general
of Aguinaldo. This was a retaliatory move for his collaborationist act the arrest of four town presidents suspected of
supporting the guerrillas when he became the first civil governor of Cavite. Thereafter the Philippine Constabulary rescued
Mrs. Trias and her children. The same way, the government forces nevertheless were not able to suppress the Sakay
rebellion

In mid-1905, Governor General Henry C. Ide authorized Dr. Dominador Gomez, a well-known labor leader, to
conduct negotiations for the surrender of Sakay and his men. Dr. Gomez went to Tanay and told the rebel leader that his
surrender would help restore peace and order in the country, a condition provided by the Cooper Act of 1902 for the
establishment of a Philippine Assembly. This assembly would serve as a training ground for self-government, the first step
toward independence
Sakay agreed to end his resistance on condition that a general amnesty be given to them, that they be permitted to
carry firearms, and that he and his men be allowed to leave the country assured of personal safety. Gomez assured Sakay
that his conditions were acceptable to the American government. In July 1906, Sakay left his headquarters in Tanay and
went down to Manila. He viewed his surrender as a genuine step towards independence. The people honored him through
receptions and banquets.

Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz, who had been handling the negotiations with Dr. Gomez, invited Sakay, his principal
lieutenants and Dr. Gomez to a party in Cavite. While at the house of Cavite Governor Van Schaik where the party was
being held, the Americans and the Philippine Constabulary arrested and disarmed Sakay and his men Sakay and his
principal officers were charged with ladronism or banditry and other crimes such as robbery, rape, kidnapping, and murder.

In accordance with the provisions of the Brigandage Act, the court sentenced General Macario L. Sakay and
Colonel Lucio de Vega to die by public hanging. The other officers were sentenced to long prison terms. Julian Montalan
and Leon Villafuerte were eventually given executive clemency On September 13, 1907, Sakay and de Vega were taken out
of their Bilibid Prison cells. Standing on the death platform in the prison plaza, General Sakay shouted saying that he was
not a brigand but a sincere patriot working for Philippine independence. By calling Sakay a bandit, the Americans regarded
him a mere criminal. Sakay's resistance became the final chapter in the Philippine-American War.

The last revolutionary general to surrender to the Americans was General Simeon Ola, who surrendered to Colonel
Bandholtz in Guinobatan, Albay on September 25, 1903. Like Malvar, Ola took the oath of allegiance to the United States.
They surrendered to the Americans in order to save the people from brutality and hunger. Artemio Ricarte refused to take
oath of allegiance to the United States and was exiled in Hong Kong and later in Japan

As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine Assembly approached, the nationalists saw the need for fusion in
order to win against the well organized Partido Nacional Progresista (National Progressive Party), which was formerly the
Partido Federal. The Partido Nacionalista and Partido Nacional Progresista clashed in the elections of July 30, 1907 for 80
seats in the First Philippine Assembly. The Partido Nacionalista advocated immediate and absolute independence. It won a
landslide majority.

The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera House, Manila on October 16, 1907. Sergio Osmeña
was chosen Speaker of the Assembly while Manuel L. Quezon became the majority floor leader. The first bill passed by the
Philippine Assembly was the Gabaldon Law (sponsored by Assemblyman Isauro Gabaldon), which appropriated one million
pesos for barrio schools.

Pursuant to the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 (also known as Cooper Act), two Filipino resident commissioners
represented their countrymen in the U.S. Congress. They were Benito Legarda (1907-12) and Pablo Ocampo (1907-09). The
resident commissioners took part in the debates in Congress in defense of Filipino interest in America but were not given
the privilege to vote.

On August 19, 1916, the US. Congress passed the Jones Law, which wa signed by President Woodrow Wilson. The
Jones Law provided a bicameral Philippine legislature with an Upper House called the Senate (with 24 members) and a
Lower House called the House of Representatives (with 93 members). The law contained a preamble declaring that
independence would be granted to the Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be established in the
Philippines.

The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated on October 26, 1916, with Quezon as President of the
Senate and Osmeña as Speaker of the House (until 1922, since he became the Senate Pro-tempore after 1922) The
Nacionalistas dominated both Houses. The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and seven in the House of
Representatives.

On October 5, 1921, Leonard Wood replaced their popular Govemor General Francis Burton-Harrison. In his first
year of administration, he vetoed 16 bills passed by the legislature, whereas Harrison, in his whole term (1913-21), vetoed
only five bills.

The heightening tension between Governor Wood and the Filipino leaders came to its climax on July 23, 1923,
when Senate President Quezon, Senate President Pro-tempore Osmeña, and the Filipino Department Secretaries resigned
from the Council of State. The incident, known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923" happened when Governor Wood governed
the country without the cooperation of the legislature.

Upon Quezon's advice, Filipino cabinet members resigned from their posts in protest of Governor Wood's handling
of the Ray Conley case. Detective Conley of the Manila police was charged with immorality and misconduct in office.
Wood created an administrative committee, which later exonerated Conley and recommended his reinstatement. Secretary
of Interior, Jose P. Laurel and Mayor of Manila, Ramon Fernandez had earlier resigned because of Wood's interference in
the prosecution of Conley Laurel's resignation incurred political repercussions. Quezon, acting as spokesman of the Filipino
members of the Cabinet, accused the governor general of controlling the affairs of the government in utter disregard of the
authority the department heads and other officials.

In 1926, Governor Wood abolished the Board of Control, which was created by law during Governor Harrison's
term to oversee and mariage the ownership of stocks of government-owned and controlled corporations. Those institutions
included the Manila Railroad Company, the Manila Hotel and the Philippine National Bank.
 Governor Wood found himself opposed by Filipino advocates of political autonomy. The dilemma awakened the
nationalistic spirit of the people. The Nacionalista and the Democrata Parties joined forces in a common cause against this
governor general and to work for the recognition of the country's independence. A coalition called National Supreme
Council was formed. Tension ended with the governor general's death while undergoing surgery in the United States.
Governor Wood died on August 7, 1927.

From 1919 to 1933, there had been 12 Independence Missions sent to the United States to campaign for the
recognition of Philippine Independence. In December, 1931, the ninth mission popularly called the Os-Rox Mission, after
its leader, Senate President pro tempore Sergio Osmeña and House Speaker Manuel A. Roxas, brought home the Hare-
Hawes-Cutting Act. The HHC Act divided the Philippine Congress into two opposing camps - the Antis and the Pros. The
Antis, led by Senate President Quezon opposed the Act because of its objectionable features while the Pros headed by
Senator Osmeña and Speaker Roxas upheld it on the ground that it was the best independence measure

The HHC Act provided the granting of Philippine independence after 12 years, but reserving military and naval
bases for the United States. Also included in this controversial measure was the control of the currency system and the
conduct of foreign affairs by the US President. American goods were allowed free entry into the Philippines. The bill also
directed the U.S. to retain land for military and other reservations.

In December 1932, Quezon sent a one-man mission (Benigno Aquino) to Washington to discuss his
objections. Aquino, however, was won over by Osmeña and Roxas to their side.

In November 1933, Quezon led the twelfth mission to Washington to secure a better independence act.
A new independence measure called Tydings-McDuffie Law was passed and signed by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt on March 24, 1934. It closely resembled the HHC Act. The law was accepted by the Philippine
Legislature.

The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for a 10-year transition period under the Commonwealth of the
Philippines, preparatory to the granting of absolute and complete independence on July 4, 1946. Also included
in the provisions were an annual quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to America; control of the currency, coinage,
foreign trade, and foreign relations by America and representation of one Filipino resident commissioner in
America and an American High Commissioner in the Philippines

The Tydings-McDuffie Law authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a constitutional convention to
draft the Constitution of the Philippines. It is also required that the Constitution be approved by the American
president and ratified by the people in a plebiscite,

On July 30, 1934, the Convention met in an inaugural session at the hall of the House of
Representatives, Legislative Building in Manila. The elected officers were Claro M. Recto, President, Ruberto
Montinola and Teodoro Sandiko, First and Second Vice-President, respectively; Narciso Pimentel, Secretary,
and Narciso Diokno, Sergeant-at-Arms.

The drafting of the Constitution lasted six months - from July 30, 19 to February 8, 1935 The
Constitution was approved by the Convention by vote of 177 to 1. Twenty-two members were absent. One
member had died in August 1934

Tomas Cabili of Lanao cast the dissenting vote. He opposed the Constitution because it did not
provide the system of popular election for the members of the National Assembly from Lanao. Gregorio
Perfecto, a delegate from Manila, signed the constitution in his own blood, like the Katipunan blood compact
or pacto de sangre.
 President Roosevelt approved the Constitution. Then on May 14 1935, the plebiscite for the
ratification or rejection of the Constitution w held. For the first time, Filipino women exercised the right of
suffrage The Constitution was overwhelmingly ratified by the people with a total of 1,213,046 in favor and
those against were only 44,963.

The first national election under the 1935 Constitution was held on September 17, 1935. The
candidates for President and Vice President were Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña (Coalition Party),
General Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo Melliza (National Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay
and Norberto Nabong (Republican Party). Quezon and Osmeña were overwhelmingly elected as President and
Vice-President respectively by majority vote.

3. The American Legacy

After the victory of the Americans against the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila on May 1, 1898,
the US military reinforcement grew in number. The United States in fact, sent its top generals to the
Philippines including General John "Blackjack" Pershing who urged the Colt gun factory to manufacture the
famous Colt 45 caliber automatic revolver. This kind of weapon was used against the Muslim warriors in
battle.

Veterans of the Indian wars were also sent to the country. Among them were General Elwell Otis and
General Henry W. Lawton, (for whom a street and a plaza were named respectively). Some of the American
soldiers helped in building roads. The rest of them staffed the American public schools. They came to be
known as Thomasites, from the name of the US army ship that they boarded on their way to the Philippines.
These American teachers, numbering about 540 who arrived in the country on August 21, 1901, established
the modern school system.

Public elementary education, which provided educational opportunity for all citizens, was financed by
government funds. Education was sought to acquire not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills to
meet the essential demands of life. The English language was used to transmit these new ideas in the country

The Americans propagated the use of the English language for better understanding with the Filipinos.
English became the language of instruction in all schools and became the official language of the government.

The first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines was the Bounding Billow, published at
irregular intervals on board Dewey's flagship Olympia. The first American daily newspaper to be published in
Manila was the Anterican Soldier with its first issue dated September 10, 1898.

The first Filipino weekly paper in English was the Philippine Herald founded by Senate President
Manuel L. Quezon in 1902. Nationalistic periodicals like El Renacimiento and Muling Pagsilang also
circulated. Despite the Sedition Law of 1901, local writers continued criticizing individual Americans
committing offenses against Filipinos by using talinghaga or symbolism as a literary device to elude detection
of censors.

In 1908, El Renacimiento attacked the then Secretary of the Interior, Dean Worcester in the article
Aves de Rapina (Birds of Prey). Worcester immediately sued the owner and editors of the newspaper for libel.
The litigants were defeated in court. The newspaper, together with its machinery was sold at auction. Teodoro
M. Kalaw, the editor of the newspaper, was imprisoned but later pardoned by Governor General Harrison.

A new generation of Filipino writers in English attracted appreciation from the people. Carlos P.
Romulo won the Pulitzer Prize for international reporting in 1942. Jose Garcia Villa was listed among the top
short story writers in America in 1932 by Edward O'Brien, a known American anthologist

The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the zarzuela in the country. Severino Reyes'
Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) was one of the most famous Tagalog zarzuela. With the introduction of the
Hollywood talkies (talking pictures), the zarzuela gradually vanished as a popular theatrical art.

Two Swiss entrepreneurs introduced film shows in Manila in 1897 The film clips showed recent
happenings and natural calamities in Europe. Then in 1912, two American entrepreneurs made a film about
Jose Rizal's execution. This became a big hit and greatly inspired the making of the first Filipino film in 1919.
The credit of being the first Filipino to make a film goes to Jose Nepomuceno, dubbed as the Father of
Philippine Movies. Nepomuceno's first movie was based on a highly acclaimed musical play, Dalagang Bukid
(Country Maiden) by Hermogenes Ilagan and Leon Ignacio.

Cartooning began to blossom at the turn of the century after the American colonial government
allowed free press to flourish. Artists like George Pineda (1879-1972), who invented the immortal
representation of the Filipino -- the salakot-wearing slippered Juan de la Cruz, did political cartooning like
Jose Perreira (1901-1954), chief cartoonist of the Philippine Free Press magazine from the 1920s to the 1930s.

In music, the young generation enthusiastically welcomed American jazz and swing music.
However, talented Filipino musicians tried to preserve the country's musical heritage. Nicanor Abelardo, a
Bulakeho became a prominent Filipino composer of kundiman, waltzes, marches, and sonatas for piano and
violin. Among his famous compositions are ng Pasig (Muse of Pasig), Nasaan Ka Irog (Where Are You My
Love?), and Mutya Bituing Marikit (Beautiful Star) Other luminaries in this field were Francisco Santiago,
Jovita Fuentes, and Naty Arellano Santiago became known for his Anak Dalita (Child of Woe) and Madaling
Araw (Dawn).

Protestant Christianity was introduced in the country by the Americans This new religion, which
stresses personal salvation through faith, was able to attract a number of new Filipino converts. In 1899, Mr. C
B. Randall, a lay worker, distributed the first bibles in Manila.

Bishop James M. Thoburn of the Methodist Episcopal Church of India delivered the first Protestant
sermon in the country. Methodism, which began in 1729 at the University of Oxford in England, was brought
to the United States before the American Revolution (1775-1783) by migrants from Ireland and England.

Other Christian denominations were also allowed to practice their faith. Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of
Christ) was founded in 1914 by Felix Manalo. The members reject the doctrine of Trinity and argue the
duality of Christ's nature. The Seventh-Day Adventists (SDA) bears the Christian Old Testament doctrine of
worshipping on the Sabbath (Saturday); Felix Manalo, before founding the Iglesia ni Cristo, was said to have
belonged to the SDA. The Jehovah's Witnesses is another fundamentalist group. Like the INC, the Jehovah's
Witnesses rejects the concept of the Trinity. During the American occupation in the country, the people
were permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries of the Filipino national heroes. The country came to
commemorate the Bonifacio Day (November 30) and Rizal Day (December 30). America also added some
holidays such as Valentine's Day (February 14), Washington Day (February 22), Glorious Fourth (July 4), and
Thanksgiving Day (4th Thursday of November).

The Filipino people adopted the American mode of dressing. Men started wearing pants with belts or
with suspenders. For casual wear, polo shirts became popular. Coat-and-tie became the typical formal attire.
The women began to wear skirts, high-heeled shoes, nylon stockings, artificial eyelashes, make-up, and even
perfumes.
 Mr., Miss, or Madam as salutations became conventional. Women were granted more rights in
education, in places of work, and even in politics. Coeducational schools were also instituted.

In 1903, Charles M. Swift established the MERALCO (Manila Electric Company). Its original name
was Manila Electric Railroad and Lighting Company, the first company given the franchise to operate electric
cars called tranvia and supply electricity in Manila. Communication likewise improved with the creation of
the Philippine Long Distance Telephone by virtue of Act No. 3436 in 1928.

On February 17, 1905, the Philippine Constabulary School was established. Later it became the
Philippine Military Academy, the first military officers' school in the country. From Intramuros, it was moved
to Baguio

In 1910, the Philippine General Hospital (PGH) located on Taft Avenue, Manila was established by the
government to attend to indigent patients.

The Americans also trained the Filipinos in various physical activities. Outdoor games such as
baseball, softball, calisthenics, football and volleyball, and indoor games like bowling, billiard, table tennis,
poker, black jack, and other card games became tremendously popular. The Americans emphasized the
importance of sport activities to improve physical fitness and ease tension arising from work. They also
inculcated in the minds of the players the notion of sportsmanship

The American era also marked the improvement of infrastructure, transport, and communication
facilities as well as community services. Manila and other population centers had modern buildings
constructed along American architectural lines resembling Greek or Roman temples with porticoes.

The architectural plan for the City of Manila and the Quezon Memorial Circle (with eight main roads
encircling from the rotunda) were done by the Americans. It was Daniel Burnham, noted Chicago architect
and town planner who designed Baguio City.

Filipino sculptors were given remarkable recognition in the middle of the 19th century. One of the
most prominent in the field was Guillermo Tolentino (1890-1976), best known for his masterpiece, the
Bonifacio Monument, which is a group sculpture composed of several figures gathered around a central
obelisk. The principal figure is Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the Philippine revolution in 1896. Behind him
stands Emilio Jacinto. The monument was completed in 1933.

The Americans used their stay in the Philippines to teach us their way of life and the principles of
democracy, Individual freedom, respect for rights and liberties of the people, free and open elections, and
multiple political parties are among the principles found in a democracy. The Americans came and enhanced
the knowledge of the Filipinos on democratic ways and institutions. They organized the civil courts, including
the Supreme Court with Cayetano Arellano as the first Filipino Chief Justice.

Local governments were established in towns and provinces un the control of American troops. The
first election under the American flag was conducted on May 7, 1899 in Baliuag, Bulacan.
It is a fact that the Filipinos had already some idea of a democratie government as proven by the
establishment of a republican government Malolos, Bulacan. However, the First Philippine Republic did not
last long having been overthrown in 1899.

4. Philippine Independent Church

The Philippine revolution in the late nineteenth century both affected the Church and State. In the
second phase of the revolution, which began with Aguinaldo's return from Hong Kong, Governor General
Basilio Augustin and Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda commissioned Father Gregorio Aglipay to confer with
the revolutionary leaders to bring them back to the Spanish side with a promise of autonomy for the
Philippines On the other hand, Emilio Aguinaldo sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel as his emissary to Aglipay
for the purpose of persuading the latter to go to the North to work for the revolutionary cause.

Aglipay went North to investigate the condition of the bishopric of Nueva Segovia (Cagayan). Upon
his return to Manila to report to Nozaleda, he found Manila besieged by the Americans. He decided to go to
Cavite and join Aguinaldo's movement, particularly the Malolos Congress.

On October 20, 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree appointing Aglipay as Military Vicar General,
making him the religious leader of the revolutionary movement. A day after his appointment, Aglipay issued a
letter to the Filipino clergy to form an ecclesiastical council, which would ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos in
all Church positions from archbishop to the lowest parish priest.

Archbishop Nozaleda, deeply alarmed by Aglipay's decisions charged the latter with usurpation of
power. Nozaleda issued his decree excommunicating Aglipay, which took effect on May 5, 1899.

Returning to the Philippines early in 1901, Isabelo de los Reyes, a newspaperman imprisoned for
conspiracy against Spain, campaigned for the establishment of a Filipino Church, the Iglesia Filipina
Independiente The church was a breakaway from the Catholic Church. It was launched in August 1902.

In July of the same year, he founded the Union Obrera Democratica. (Democratic Labor Union). On
August 3, 1902, de los Reyes called a meeting of his Democratic Labor Union at the Centro de Bellas Artes
and proposed the establishment of a Filipino Church independent of Rome with Er Aglipay as the Supreme
Bishop. The proposal was accepted and thus the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent
Church) was founded

In a conference with the Jesuits, Fr. Aglipay made his last attempt to prevent a schism in the Church.
He did not yet accept the position of a Supreme Bishop in the Philippine Independent Church when he was
being interviewed at the Jesuit house in Sta. Ana, Manila. For four days,
Fr. Francisco Foradada, a Spaniard, exerted all efforts to win back Aglipay to the Catholic fold although the
latter had not yet giver up his Catholic faith.

On the fifth day, Foradada handed Aglipay a document for his signature affirming his return to
Catholicism. Aglipay wanted an assurance that by signing the document, the problem of the Filipino Catholic
priests will be solved that is, their appointment to the posts formerly held by the Spanish regulars. Foradada in
return replied why did he mind so much the Filipino priests considering they are vicious and inefficient.
Aglipay felt very offended and he demanded Foradada to withdraw his odious remark He left the Jesuit house
and severed relations with Roman Catholicism.

Years later, the Jesuits tried their best to make up with Aglipay, Father Joaquin Vilallonga was chosen
to deal with Aglipay but the latter had already made his decision to support the Philippine Independent
Church. In September 1902, bishops were consecrated. On January 18, 1903 Aglipay was consecrated
Supreme Bishop by the bishops of Manila, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan, Pangasinan, and Abra.

Subsequently, more Filipino priests joined the Philippine Independent Church, which became
popularly known as Aglipayan Church. According to the Philippine census of 1918, out of a total population
of 10 million, close to one and a half million Filipinos were members of the Aglipayan Church

5. The Colorums
Indigenous religious groups mostly thrive in isolated islands and mountainous localities. Some are
induced by the power of natural forces, others a mixture of Catholicism, and superstition. The remnants of
Hermano Pule's Cofradia de San Jose retreated to the mountains between Tayabas and Laguna. They settled at
the mountain of San Cristobal and considered this place their Jerusalem. This group came to be known as
colorum, a corruption of the Latin phrase, et saecula saeculorum (world without end) used at Mass to end
certain prayers.

During the American occupation, the term colorum was used by the authorities to refer to rebel
organizations with mystical characteristics. These colorum groups were characterized by religious fanaticism,
which was a combination of Catholic devotion, hero-worship and folk-superstition Members were recruited
from the oppressed masses that sought the messiahs for their redemption

Colorum organizations were active in the 1920s. In Leyte and Samar the Sociedad de la confianza was
formed. The Caballeros de la Sagrada Familia had one thousand followers in Pampanga, Pangasinan, Bulacan
and Nueva Ecija. Other colorum groups were established in Tarlac, Rizal, La Union, Batangas, and Surigao

In Tarlac, the colorums worshipped Jose Rizal and Apo Ipe Salvador They believed that the two
leaders would resurrect and save them. Felipe Salvador, otherwise known as Apo Ipe was born in Baliuag
Bulacan on May 26, 1870. When the Katipuneros from Balintawak arrived in Baliuag Ipe joined them. He was
appointed as colonel by Aguinaldo in 1899, Whe Aguinaldo surrendered to the Americans, he went to the
mountains and began his guerrilla operations. Soon, he organized his group and called it Santa Iglesia or Holy
Church

Apo Ipe warned his followers that a second deluge would occur and destroy all non-followers and that
after the flood, there would be rain of gold and jewels for his followers. The colorums of Tarlac believed that
anting-antings made all members invulnerable to the bullets fired by the enemy

In Surigao, the colorum groups were devoted to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Immaculate Heart of Mary,
and Jose Rizal. They believed that one day Rizal would return and rule the Philippines. The group grew in
number and spread from Surigao to Agusan, Cotabato, Samar, and Leyte.

The colorums of Surigao began their uprising by the end of 1923. They killed five Constabulary
soldiers and later attacked a Constabulary detachment, which resulted in the death of the provincial
commander and 12 soldiers. The government had to suppress the colorum rebellion, which lasted from
January to October, 1924.

Governor General Leonard Wood, recognizing the patriotic zeal that animated the colorum rebellion,
prohibited the display of pictures of Filipino heroes in all public schools in Mindanao.

In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a secret society in 1923 called Kapisanan Makabola
Makarinag. They intended to assault the municipal building of San Jose and execute all town officials so that
independence could be achieved. Subsequently, land would be equally apportioned among the masses and the
caciques as well as the Americans would be expelled from the country. But before the appointed date of the
attack, the Constabulary troopers were able to discover the plan. Kabola was killed. Hundreds of Kapisanan
members were arrested and jailed for conspiracy and sedition

In Pangasinan, an Ilocano named Pedro Calosa began organizing a colorum group in 1929. Members
were given ranks ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful red and white uniforms with anting-
uitings embroidered on them.
 In January 1931, the colorums decided to attack the town of Tayug supposed to be the spark of that
would ignite the Central Luzon area in a peasant revolution. Armed with knives, bolos, and a few guns, Calosa
and followers marched on Tayug at the night and managed to rout the soldiers. When a Constabulary
detachment arrived, the colorum group retreated into the convent. Pedro Calosa escaped but was captured a
few days later

In an interview years later, Calosa himself said that many of the colorum members were tenants who
had been ejected by hacenderos, or were small farmers deprived of their lands by land grabbers who used their
power to advance their personal interests.

6. Land Tenure System

During the American colonial rule, the Spanish feudal system was not dismantled. Through the system
of land registration that favored the Filipino elite, tenancy became more widespread. The hacienda system
kept the peasants in bondage. The landlord-tenant relations ensued even after the institution of a democratic
government.

Tenants were either inquilinos (cash tenants) or kasamas (share tenants). The inquilino paid
yearly rent for using a piece of land. Aside from this, he was often required to give various services to the
hacendero for free, Refusal to work or to contribute to the expenses could mean outright dismissal from the
hacienda. It became customary for the children of the tenants to serve the landlord as domestic servants to
help their parents pay the interest on debts incurred due to cash advances:

The kasama or sharecropper provided the labor on the hacienda where he shared the harvest on a 50-
50 basis with his landlord or hacendero, after deducting the expenses incurred in planting and in harvesting.
Like the inquilino, he was expected to render personal services to the landowner, at the latter's discretion.

Low productivity, due to traditional farming methods, along with cacique (landlord) exploitation
insured the tenants a low standard of living, Free trade likewise reinforced the feudal agrarian system of the
Spanish regime and twisted the normal development of local industries. The leading families of the Filipino
elite joined the free trade system. This system paved the way to multinational corporations. Rich landowners
and investment capitalists took control of the economy, laying the groundwork for limited per capita income,
inflation, and structural poverty.

Dependence upon duty-free, American goods increased the suffering of local producers. In the 1920s
to the 1930s, a number of peasant uprisings and labor protests evolved from cases of exploitation and poor
living conditions.
The Philippines, though a country rich in resources, was unable to sustain the basic needs of the
masses. The Filipino leaders, absorbed with much attention on how to gain political autonomy had not fully
given efforts to bring about economic independence. Pressing issues like social reform, land ownership,
tenancy rights, and the distribution of wealth had been the causes of public discontentment.

7. The First Labor Groups

In January 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes organized the first labor tirion in the Philippines, the Union de
Litografos e Impresores de Filipinas. Soon after its founding the members decided to reorganize themselves
into the Union Obrera Democratic (U.C.D.), a federation of smaller unions of printer, lithographers, cigar
makers, tailors, and shoemakers, which demanded higher wages and worker's benefits
 With its official organ, La Redencion del Obrero, the Union voiced the social demands and
nationalistic feelings of the workers. As a result of one of the strikes, Isabelo de los Reyes was imprisoned. A
few weeks later, he was pardoned.

Dr. Dominador Gomez, who succeeded De los Reyes, led a group of laborers on May 1, 1903 in a
demonstration before Malacañang. However, Gomez was replaced by Lope K. Santos for the union members
distrusted the former's involvement in the surrender of Sakay, which led to his capture

Lope K. Santos, a printer and newspaperman, was the last president of the U.O.D. Under him, the
union became known as the Union del Trabajo de Filipinas, Political rivalries had led to its dissolution in
1907.

On May 1, 1913, Labor Day was first officially celebrated in the country The labor leaders organized
the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas (C.O.F.). This Congress approved resolutions demanding eight-hour labor
day, child and women labor laws, and an employer's liability law.

Barely four years later, Vicente Sotto established his Asamblea Obrera, which he used to support his
candidacy for the House of Representatives In 1917, Joaquin Balmori founded the Federacion del Trabajo to
support the candidates of the Democratic Party. The Congreso Obrero de Filipinas for its part, backed the
Nacionalista Party's candidates.

In Bulacan, the Union ng Magsasaka was formed in 1917 to fight the evils of tenancy and usury. In
1919, Jacinto Manahan, formed his own group in view of the decline of the original peasant organization

Also in 1919, the Legionarios del Trabajo was formally organized as a result of a strike against the
Manila Electric Company. The group pressed a number of nationalistic demands such as protection of
Philippine products from foreign competition. Crisanto Evangelista, one of its organizers, later left the
association due to the adoption of Masonic initiation rites.
In 1924, Evangelista, Domingo Ponce, and Cirilo Bognot formed the Partido Obrero de Filipinas. Its
platform showed a strong Marxist influence

Attendance at world conferences and their affiliation with international organizations of the Left,
radicalized some labor leaders. In 1927, the C.O.E affiliated itself with the Red International of Labor Unions.
During its convention, subjects such as communism, class struggle, and proletarian
internationalism were discussed. The following year, the CO.F. leaders Evangelista and Bognot attended the
Red International of Labor Unions Conference in Moscow.

8. The Communist Party of the Philippines

During the 1929 Congress of the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas (CO.F.), the conservative members
clashed with Crisanto Evangelista and his group over the proposals submitted by the latter. Some of the
recommendations included the organization of factory committees as a first step toward the formation of
industrial unions, the establishment of a workers political party, the advocacy of class struggle and the
condemnation of the Nacionalista and Democrata parties.

With the radicals in the minority, Evangelista and his followers walked out and immediately launched
the Katipunan ng mga Anak-pawis ng Pilipinas or KA.P. Evangelista became the elected executive secretary
while Manahan, the vice-president, in charge of the peasant movement.

Other officers were Jose Hilario, Antonio Ora, Patricio Dionisio, Cirilo Bognot, and H. C. Hao: The
K.A.P. wanted unity among workers, peasants, and the exploited masses. It advocated struggle against
American imperialism in the Philippines, betterment of living and working conditions, immediate and
complete independence of the country, unity among revolutionary movements all over the world, and an
establishment of a Soviet system in the Philippines.

On November 7, 1930, the Communist Party of the Philippines was formally established with all the
officers of the K.A.P. except Hao and Hilario, as members of the first Central Committee of the Philippines

Communist parties have been instituted in some countries in Europe and Asia to establish and
maintain the Soviet system. The working class has been designed to dominate the administration of the
government.

Communism is a concept of society in which the major resources and means of production are
communally owned. Theoretically, there would be equal sharing of the benefits of production. This ideology
involves the abolition of individual ownership of property. It advocates the revolution of the working masses
to overthrow the capitalist society so that a classless society may be achieved.

The promises of Communism confounded a number of people. The CPP became more unrelenting
after some of its officials were apprehended by the military. Soon after, Antonio Ora, a CTP Central
Committee member was arrested in Manila

While Ora was being taken to prison, he died reportedly due to an automobile accident near
Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. The CPP members became skeptical about it. They were thinking that the incident
was not purely by chance. As a result, the Communists staged a demonstration on January 25, 1931. More
than 10 thousand workers joined the funeral march carrying red flags and placards with anti-imperialist
slogans.

Evangelista, Manahan, Dominador Ambrosio, Guillermo Capadocia, and Alfonso Pangilinan were
arrested the following month. Charged with sedition on the basis of the platform actions and demands of the
Communis Party, they were found guilty by the Court of First Instance and sentenced to jail. It was on
October 26, 1932 when the Supreme Court declared the CPP an illegal organization

9. Sakdalism
Benigno Ramos, leader of a popular movement Sakdal, used to be a Senate clerk. In 1930, he
purposely left his job to work against the administration. The immediate cause of his resignation was his
involvement in a student picket staged in a Manila high school, which had been provoked by negative remarks
made by an American teacher against the Filipino students. A number of Filipino professionals gave their
support for the students. Ramos had already been warned by Quezon not to join the protest action but still he
declined.

Ramos consequently founded Sakdal, a weekly tabloid, which became the vehicle for bitter
denunciations of the ruling oligarchy. This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. It also adopted
the position that independence is not given but must be taken through the united action of the people. Through
its newspaper, the Sakdal movement campaigned against maldistribution of property, excessive taxes, and the
concentration of land ownership to a few. Subsequently, Ramos transformed the movement into a political
party

In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutional Convention, the Sakdalistas desired to have a
number of candidates. In campaign meetings and through their paper, the Sakdalistas opposed colonial
education in the country, in particular Camilo Osias grade school "Readers," for their glorification of
American culture. They also expressed opinion against American economic control and the military bases. In
this election, the Sakdalistas with three candidates for representatives won.

With the coalition of the Antis and Pros of the Nacionalista Party for the 1935 National Elections, the
Sakdalistas predicted the greater expansion of American economic power. They continued their barrio
campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for the Commonwealth Constitution. However, Governor Frank Murphy
issued a ruling that any campaign against the plebiscite shall be branded as seditious. As a consequence, many
Sakdalistas were arrested.

In various parts of the country. perpetuation of feudal and usurious practices, which originated from
the Spanish regime, intensified the agony of the peasant masses. On May 2, 1935, orie hundred fifty peasants
armed with bolos and politics marched to the municipal hall of San Ildefonso, Bulacan and hauled down the
American and Philippine flags, and raised the red Sakdal flag. Other Sakdalistas did the same in Cavite, Rizal,
and Laguna. The peasants occupied the town halls and burned American flags in such places as Tanza, and
Caridad in Cavite, and Cabuyao and Sta. Rosa in Laguna. Altogether, almost sixty thousand Sakdalistas were
involved.

On the second day, constabulary troopers suppressed the uprisings in the beleaguered towns.
Disorganized and poorly armed, the peasants were in no way equal to the Constabulary detachments
dispatched in the centers of the rebellion. Fifty-seven peasants were killed, hundreds were wounded, and
around five hundred were imprisoned.

Benigno Ramos was in Japan when the revolt broke out. He was then arranging for Japanese support
for the Sakdal party. He denied his involvement on the May 2 incident. Disowned by their leader, many
peasants withdrew support for Ramos. As a result, Sakdalista influence greatly diminished in the countryside