Chapter 02-

Votage Sags and Interruptions

GV: Nguyễn Hữu Phúc
 Chapter 02-
Votage Sags and Interruptions
•A voltage sag is a short-duration (typically 0.5 to 30 cycles) reduction in rms
voltage caused by faults on the power system and the starting of large loads, such
as motors.
•Momentary interruptions (typically no more than 2 to 5 s) cause a complete loss of
voltage and are a common result of the actions taken by utilities to clear transient
faults on their systems.
•Sustained interruptions of longer than 1 min are generally due to permanent faults.

Utilities have been faced with rising numbers of

complaints about the quality of power due to
sags and interruptions.

There are a number of reasons for this, with the

most important being that customers in all
sectors (residential, commercial, and industrial)
have more sensitive loads.
Voltage sag due to a single
line-to-ground fault
3.1 Sources of Sags and Interruptions:

Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short

circuits) on the utility system.

•If there is a fault on the same feeder, the customer will experience a
voltage sag during the fault followed by an interruption when the breaker
opens to clear the fault.

•If the fault is temporary in nature, a reclosing operation on the breaker

should be successful and the interruption will only be temporary.

•It will usually require about 5 or 6 cycles for the breaker to operate,
during which time a voltage sag occurs.

• The breaker will remain open for typically a minimum of 12 cycles up to

5 s depending on utility reclosing practices.

•Sensitive equipment will almost surely trip during this interruption.

 Fault locations on the utility
power system.

•Note that to clear the fault shown on the transmission system, both breakers A
and B must operate.

•Transmission breakers will typically clear a fault in 5 or 6 cycles. In this case

there are two lines supplying the distribution substation and only one has a fault.
•
•Therefore, customers supplied from the substation should expect to see only a
sag and not an interruption.

•The distribution fault on feeder 4 may be cleared either by the lateral fuse or the
breaker, depending on the utility’s fuse saving practice.
 Example of fault locations that caused
misoperation of sensitive production equipment
at an industrial facility (the example system
had multiple overhead distribution feeders and
an extensive overhead transmission system
supplying the substation).

Voltage sag due to a short-circuit fault on

a parallel utility feeder.
•Figure clearly shows the
voltage sag prior to fault
clearing and the
subsequent two fast
recloser operations.

•The reclose time (the time

the recloser was open) was
a little more than 2 s, a very
common time for a utility
line recloser.

•Apparently, the fault—

perhaps, a tree branch—
was not cleared completely
by the first operation,
forcing a second.

•The system was restored Utility short-circuit fault event with two fast trip
after the second operation. operations of utility line recloser.
 3.2 Estimating Voltage Sag Performance

The following is a general procedure for working with industrial customers to

assure compatibility between the supply system characteristics and the facility
operation:

1. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
transmission system faults.

2. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
distribution system faults (for facilities that are supplied from distribution systems).

3. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the
actual performance of the production process based on voltage sag performance
calculated in steps 1 and 2.

4. Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the

performance, either on the supply system (fewer voltage sags) or within the
customer facility (better immunity).
 3.2.1 Area of vulnerability
The concept of an area of vulnerability has been developed to help evaluate
the likelihood of sensitive equipment being subjected to voltage lower than its
minimum voltage sag ride-through capability.

The latter term is defined as the minimum voltage magnitude a piece of equipment
can withstand or tolerate without misoperation or failure.

This is also known as the equipment voltage sag immunity or susceptibility limit.

An area of vulnerability is determined by the total circuit miles of exposure to faults

that can cause voltage magnitudes at an end-user facility to drop below the
equipment minimum voltage sag ride-through capability.

Figure shows an example of an area of vulnerability diagram for motor

contactor and adjustable-speed-drive loads at an end-user facility served from
the distribution system.

The loads will be subject to faults on both the transmission system and the
distribution system.
3.2.2 Equipment
sensitivity to voltage sags

Equipment sensitivity to voltage

sags can be divided into three
categories:

■ Equipment sensitive to only the

magnitude of a voltage sag.

■ Equipment sensitive to both the

magnitude and duration of a voltage
sag. This group includes virtually all
equipment that uses electronic
power supplies.
■ Equipment sensitive to
characteristics other than =>
magnitude and duration.
Illustration of an area of vulnerability.
Some devices are affected by other sag
characteristics such as the phase
unbalance during the sag event, the point-
in-the wave at which the sag is initiated, or
any transient oscillations occurring
during the disturbance.
3.2.3 Transmission system
sag performance
evaluation
•The voltage sag performance for
a given customer facility will
depend on whether the customer
is supplied from the transmission
system or from the distribution
system.

•For a customer supplied from the

transmission system, the voltage
sag performance will depend on
only the transmission system fault
performance.

•On the other hand, for a customer Typical equipment voltage sag ride-
supplied from the distribution system, the through capability curves.
voltage sag performance will depend on
•the fault performance on both the
transmission and distribution systems.
•Most utilities have detailed short-circuit models of the
interconnected transmission system available for programs such
as ASPEN* One Liner (Fig.).

•These programs can calculate the voltage throughout the system

resulting from faults around the system.

•Many of them can also apply faults at locations along the

transmission lines to help calculate the area of vulnerability at a
specific location.

•The area of vulnerability describes all the fault locations that can
cause equipment to misoperate.

•The type of fault must also be considered in this analysis =>

Single-line-to-ground faults will not result in the same voltage sag

at the customer equipment as a three-phase fault.
Example of modeling the transmission system in
a short-circuit program for calculation of the area
of vulnerability.
Voltage sag types at end-use equipment that
result from different types of faults and
transformer connections.
The relationships in Table 3.1 illustrate the fact that a single-line to-
ground fault on the primary of a delta-wye grounded transformer does
not result in zero voltage on any of the phase-to-ground or phase-to-
phase voltages on the secondary of the transformer.

The magnitude of the lowest secondary voltage depends on how the

equipment is connected:

■ Equipment connected line-to-line would experience a minimum voltage

of 33 percent.

■ Equipment connected line-to-neutral would experience a minimum

voltage of 58 percent.

This illustrates the importance of both transformer connections and the

equipment connections in determining the actual voltage that equipment
will experience during a fault on the supply system.
3.2.4 Utility distribution system sag
performance evaluation

•Customers that are supplied at distribution voltage levels are

impacted by faults on both the transmission system and the
distribution system.

•The analysis at the distribution level must also include

momentary interruptions caused by the operation of protective
devices to clear the faults.

•These interruptions will most likely trip out sensitive

equipment.

•The overall voltage sag performance at an end-user facility is

the total of the expected voltage sag performance from the
transmission and distribution systems.
Figure 3.10 shows a typical distribution system with multiple feeders and fused
branches, and protective devices. The utility protection scheme plays an
important role in the voltage sag and momentary interruption performance.

The critical information needed to compute voltage sag performance can be

summarized as follows:

■ Number of feeders supplied from the

substation.
■ Average feeder length.
■ Average feeder reactance.
■ Short-circuit equivalent reactance at the
substation.
■Feeder reactors, if any.
■ Average feeder fault performance which
includes three-phase-line to- ground (3LG)
faults and single-line-to-ground (SLG) faults in
faults per mile per month. The feeder
performance data may be available from
protection logs. Typical distribution system
•However, data for faults that are cleared by illustrating protection devices.
downline fuses or downline protective devices
may be difficult to obtain and this information
may have to be estimated.
3.3 Fundamental Principles of Protection
Several things can be done by the utility, end user, and equipment
manufacturer to reduce the number and severity of voltage sags and to
reduce the sensitivity of equipment to voltage sags.
1. Equipment manufacturers should have
voltage sag ride-through capability
curves available to their customers so that
an initial evaluation of the equipment can
be performed.

2. The company procuring new equipment

should establish a procedure that rates the
importance of the equipment. If the
equipment is critical in nature, the
company must make sure that adequate
ride-through capability is included when the
equipment is purchased.

3. Equipment should at least be able to

ride through voltage sags with a minimum
voltage of 70 percent (ITI curve). Approaches for voltage sag ride-through.
3.4 Solutions at the End-User Level
1. Protection for small loads [e.g., less than 5 kilovoltamperes (kVA)].
2. Protection for individual equipment or groups of equipment up to about 300 kVA.
3. Protection for large groups of loads or whole facilities at the low-voltage level.
4. Protection at the medium-voltage level or on the supply system.

3.4.1 Ferroresonant transformers (constant-voltage xfmr)

Voltage sag improvement with ferroresonant

Schematic of ferroresonant constant-voltage transformer.
transformer.
Ferroresonant transformers (CVT) are basically 1:1 transformers which are excited
high on their saturation curves, thereby providing an output voltage which is not
significantly affected by input voltage variations.
 VOLTAGE SAG
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
 INTRODUCTION
• Voltage sags are most costly of all power quality disturbances.
• Lead to disruption of manufacturing processes due to equipment being
• unable to operate correctly at the reduced voltage levels.
• Industrial equipment such as variable speed drives and some control
• systems are particularly sensitive to voltage sags.
• In many manufacturing processes, loss of only a few vital pieces of
equipment may lead to a full shut down of production leading to
significant financial losses.
• For some processes which are thermally sensitive a significant loss of
material as well as the time taken to clean up and restart the process
must also be considered.
 1. Ferroresonant transformers

• FERRORESONANT transformers are designed to

achieve regulation with non-linear operation. They
provide line regulation, reduce harmonics, and are
current limiting.

• Also known as Constant Voltage Transformers(CVT)

• Operates in the saturation region of the transformer
B-H curve
REGION OF OPERATION
• A ferroresonant transformer
consists of a core, a primary
winding, two secondary
windings (one for the load
and one for the capacitor)
and a magnetic shunt that
separates the primary and
secondary windings
• The magnetic shunt provides a path for the
imbalanced flux of the primary and secondary by
allowing a portion of the primary flux to return to the
primary winding without coupling the secondary.
• At the same time, it allows the secondary flux to return
to the secondary winding without coupling the primary.
• OPERATION:

• When a voltage is applied to the primary winding the

secondary voltage increases as the primary voltage
increases.
• As the primary voltage increases the secondary voltage
continues to increase up to a point of discontinuity, or
secondary resonance, where an abrupt increase, about 20 %,
in secondary voltage occurs.
• The resonance effect immediately increases the secondary
flux density and causes saturation of that portion of the core.
• This partial core saturation is the key to the magnetic design
of the ferroresonant transformer.
• The voltage induced in the capacitor winding by the primary
flux causes a capacitive current to flow.
• The flux due this current is in phase with the primary flux.
This flux addition occurs in the secondary portion of the
core.
• The increased flux saturates the portion of the core on the
secondary winding only.
• The primary portion of the core is operating below
saturation or below the “knee” of the magnetization curve.
• FERRORESONANT TRANSFORMERS are
inherently self-protected against short circuits, and
are able to supply large surge currents if required
because of the large amount of energy stored in the
secondary circuit.
• Ferroresonant transformers are simple and relatively
maintenance free devices which can be very
effective for small loads.
• Ferroresonant transformers are available in sizes up to
around 25 KVA
• Voltage sags down to 30 % retained voltage can be
mitigated through the use of ferroresonant
transformers.
• Typically ferroresonant transformer regulators can
maintain secondary voltage to within ±0.5% for
changes in the primary voltages of ±20%
• The disadvantages of a ferroresonant transformer
are:
• Frequency sensitive.
• Temperature sensitive.
• External magnetic field may require shielding for
sensitive component.
• Ferroresonant transformers are generally not suitable
for loads with high inrush currents such as direct-on-
line motors
 STATIC TRANSFER SWITCH

• For facilities with a dual supply, one possible method

of voltage sag mitigation is through the use of a
automatic static transfer switch.
• Upon detection of a voltage sag, these devices can
transfer the load from the normal supply feeder to the
alternative supply feeder within half a cycle.
• Conventional transfer switches will switch from the primary
supply to a backup supply in seconds.
• Fast transfer switches that use vacuum breaker
technology are available that can transfer in about 2
electrical cycles. This can be fast enough to protect many
sensitive loads.
• Static switches use power electronic switches to
accomplish the transfer within about a quarter of an
electrical cycle
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

• Voltage regulators are devices that can maintain a constant

voltage (within tolerance) for voltage changes of predetermined
limits above and below the nominal value.
• A switching voltage regulator maintains constant output voltage
by switching the taps of an autotransformer in response to
changes in the system voltage
• The electronic switch responds to a signal from the voltage-
sensing circuitry and switches to the tap connection necessary to
maintain the output voltage constant.
• The switching is typically accomplished within half of a cycle,
which is within the ride-through capability of most sensitive
devices.
 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES
(UPS)
• UPS mitigate voltage sags by supplying the load using stored
energy.
• Upon detection of a voltage sag, the load is transferred from the
mains supply to the ups. Obviously, the capacity of load that can
be supplied is directly proportional to the amount of energy
storage available.
• Ups systems have the advantage that they can mitigate all
voltage sags including outages for significant periods of time
(depending on the size of the ups).

• ONLINE UPS
• OFFLINE/STANDBY UPS
• HYBRID UPS
 ONLINE UPS
•The load is always fed through
the UPS. The incoming ac
power is rectified into dc power,
which charges a bank of
batteries. This dc power is then
inverted back into ac power, to
feed the load.
•If the incoming ac power fails,
the inverter is fed from the
batteries and continues to
supply the load.
•However, the on-line operation
increases the losses and may
be unnecessary for protection
of many loads.
 OFFLINE/STANDBY UPS
•A standby power supply is
sometimes termed off-line UPS
since the normal line power is
used to power the equipment until
a disturbance is detected and a
switch transfers the load to the
battery backed inverter.
•The transfer time from the normal
source to the battery-backed
inverter is important.

•8 ms is the lower limit on interruption through for power-conscious

manufacturers. Therefore a transfer time of 4 ms would ensure continuity
of operation for the critical load.
•A standby power supply does not typically provide any transient
protection or voltage regulation as does an on-line ups.
•This is the most common configuration for commodity UPS units
available at retail stores for protection of small computer loads.
 HYBRID UPS
•Similar in design to the standby UPS, the hybrid UPS
utilizes a voltage regulator on the UPS output to provide
regulation to the load and momentary ride-through when
the transfer from normal to UPS supply is made
• UPS specifications include kilo-voltampere capacity,
dynamic and static voltage regulation, harmonic
distortion of the input current and output voltage,
surge protection, and noise attenuation.

• The specifications should indicate, or the supplier

should furnish, the test conditions under which the
specifications are valid.
 FLYWHEEL AND MOTOR- GENERATOR SETS
• Flywheel systems use the energy stored in the inertia of a rotating
flywheel to mitigate voltage sags.

• A flywheel is coupled in series with a motor and a generator which in turn

is connected in series with the load.
• The flywheel is accelerated to a very high speed and when a voltage sag
occurs, the rotational energy of the decelerating flywheel is utilised to
supply the load.
• Flywheel storage systems are effective for
mitigation of all voltage sags including
interruptions and can supply the load for a
significant period of time (up to several
seconds depending on the size of the
flywheel).
•Flywheels have maintenance and reliability advantages
over other energy storage systems such as batteries.
However, if large energy storage capacities are
required, flywheels must be large and are heavy. The
configuration has high losses during normal operation.
•In this configuration, the
motor which drives the
flywheel is connected
through a variable speed
drive.
•This connection
arrangement results in
better starting
characteristics for the
flywheel and efficiency
gains for the motor.

•Connection of the ac generator to a voltage source converter

increases the amount of energy that can be extracted from the
flywheel because the converter is able to produce a constant dc
voltage, which may then be used directly or converted back to ac
voltage, over a wide speed range.
3.5 Evaluating the
Economics of Different
Ride-Through Alternatives

Example of comparing solution

alternatives with the base case using total
annualized costs
3.6 Motor-Starting Sags
•Full-Voltage starting
•Autotransformer starters
•Resistance and
reactance starters
•Part-winding starters
•Delta-wye starters
Typical motor versus transformer size for full-
voltage starting sags of 90 percent.

Starting an induction motor results in a steep dip in voltage, followed by a

gradual recovery.

If full-voltage starting is used, the sag voltage, in per unit of nominal system
voltage, is

VMin(pu) = V(pu).kVAsc/(kVALR+ kVASC)

where V(pu) = actual system voltage, in per unit of nominal ; kVALR = motor
locked rotor kVA ; kVASC = system short-circuit kVA at motor
3.7 Utility System Fault-Clearing Issues
3.7.1 Overcurrent coordination principles

3.7.2 Fuses

3.7.3 Reclosing

The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse

that dictates the shape of the characteristic of all
other devices for series overcurrent coordination.
Typical utility fused cutout
with expulsion fuse.
 Common reclosing sequences for line reclosers
in use in the United States.

three-phase line recloser with

vacuum interrupters encapsulated
in solid dielectric insulation.

A common reclosing sequence for substation

breakers in the United States.
3.7.5 Reliability
3.7.14 Utility fault prevention

Overhead line maintenance

•Tree trimming.
•Insulator washing.
•Shield wires.
•Improving pole grounds.
•Modified conductor spacing.
•Tree wire (insulated/ covered conductor).

>> UD cables
>> Line arresters
 Jussi Ahola, ABB Oy

A self healing power system for the

accurate fault location and zone
concept
T&D Smart Grids Europe 2012
© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 49 1MRS757736
A self-healing power system
Introduction
 Why self-healing?
 Needs to improvements
 Reliability of the supply
 Quality of the power
 Operational efficiency
 Accurate fault location, including also earth faults, is crucial for fast fault
isolation
 Fast fault isolation enables fast power restoration  SAIDI
improvement
 Local automation confines the impact of a network fault to the limited
area  SAIFI improvement
 Automation helps in cases when there are many faults happening all
over the network – it saves control centre’s time to handle other faults
 Utilize information from different sources and use them to support each
other
© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 50
A self-healing power system
The Zone concept

 Divide the
network into
zones based on Control room
protection zones
and control Distributed
zones generation
 Limit the effects
of disturbances Communication
to smaller areas
Disconne
brings less
ctor
consumers
Station
affected and
revenue lost
 Get improved
voltage quality
(light substations
and shorter lines)
 Get improved
use of the
distribution
network
investments
heals higher
degree of
utilization, less
stress on the
network and
improved asset
Recloser station Switching
management
Substation Pole mounted Pole
recloser mounted Station
 Adapts to
changes in the
switch-
operational
disconnect
environment
or
which can be
implemented
step by step and
grows with the
requirement
© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 51
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

Distribution
Management
System

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 52
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

REF615
Bay level
 Protection
algorithms
for short
Distribution
circuits and
Management
earth fault
System
 Disturbance
data
recording,
COMTRAD
E
 Enable
prediction
of non-
permanent
earth faults
 Fully
automated
fault
localization

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 53
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

RER601, Protection
REC603 Zone level
Wireless
Gateway  Reclosers
enable
Distribution
automatic
Management
isolation
REC523 System
 Indicators
transmit the
fault status

Recloser OVR3

SECTOS

Fault Indicator

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 54
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

M2M Communicati
Gateway on
 Secure end-
to-end
Distribution
communicati
Management
on utilising
System
M2M VPN
technology
and built-in
firewall
 Precise,
real-time
data
acquisition
from your
distribution
network with
standardized
protocols
 IEC 60870-
5-104
(GPRS)

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 55
A self-healing power system
Multiple levels of security

A secure connection pipe

SCADA/DMS  M2M gateway physically
separates external and internal
IP networks
M2M GATEWAY
 Integrated firewall blocks
unauthorized access
 Secure VPN: strong
authentication and encryption

APN TUNNELING
 Private IP address on
equipment level: not visible to
public, only through M2M
gateway
 GPRS radio signals are crypted
with multiple algorithms
 Equipment has in-built firewalls:
COMMS EQUIPMENT
accepts traffic only from M2M
gateway
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

COM600 Substation
level
 Grid
Automation
Distribution
Controller
Management
 Generates
System
the fault
report to
DMS

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 57
A self-healing power system
Intelligent Zone concept components

MicroSCAD
A Pro DMS
Distribution
600 Management
level
 DMS
Distribution
analyzes the
Management
fault report
System
 Locates the
fault on
geographical
map
 Network
reconfigurati
on
 Generates
restoration
sequence
 Possibility to
run the
sequence
automaticall
y through
SCADA
 Fault
reporting
even for
© ABB Group
non-
March 10, 2018 | Slide 58 permanent
faults
A self-healing power system
Advanced fault reporting

 Advanced fault report

functions on substation
level, contributed by
advanced IEDs is of
essential significance
 Advanced station level fault
reporting reduces the
amount of non-processed
data sent to operators –
control center can focus on
overall coordination tasks.
 The grid automation
controller generates a fault
report including the distance
estimation information and
sends it to the DMS
© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 59
Pilot Case
Fortum Oy, Masala

Where to start
 SAIDI > 200min
 Fault location and isolation based on ”trial and error”-
method - increase also SAIFI, specially at the end of
feeders
 Only 15% of fault could be located, overcurrent faults
Target
 Improve the reliability - reduce SAIDI by 50%
 Verify the functionality of the concept

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 60
Pilot Case
Fortum Oy, Masala

Zone Concept
 2 feeders
 4 protection zones
 20 remote zones
The pilot scope
 Disconnectors with
fault indication 4 pcs
 ABB RER601
 KOHU + REC523
 Overhead reclosers 2
pcs
 Total feeder length
100km
© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 61
Pilot Case
The results and the conclusion

 Improved network reliability

 Enhanced power quality
 The data quality is improved and
quantity decreased, which is transfered
to the control centre
 Advanced station level reporting reduces
the amount of non-processed data sent
to operators – control center can focus
on overall coordination tasks.
 The accuracy of the fault location of the
DMS 600 fault management function is
enhanced by adding information from all
system levels of the distribution network

© ABB Group
March 10, 2018 | Slide 62
 Minimizing Plant Interruption
Caused by Line Disturbances Using
Active Voltage Conditioners
IEEE Canada – Webinar Presentation
May 21, 2008

Bob Hanna, FIEEE, P.Eng. David Ezer, MIEEE

RPM Engineering Ltd. Omni Power
www.rpm-eng.com www.omniverter.com

www.ieee.ca
 Presentation Overview

• Power Quality Issues

• Impact of Power Quality
• Voltage Sag
• Equipment Tolerances
• Field Measurements
• Mitigation Techniques
• Case Studies
• Conclusions
 Power Quality Issues
• Power Quality Per IEEE Std 1100-2005 (Emerald Book) is
“the concept of powering and grounding electronic
Equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation
of that Equipment and compatible with the premise
wiring system and Other connected Equipment”

• Power Quality problems are of increasing concerns in

industry and commercial installations

• Modern Equipment is more sensitive to Voltage Sags

 Equipment Impacted by Power Quality

• Industrial Power Electronic Equipment including

Adjustable Speed Drives, UPS, Soft Starter, etc.
• Data Control Centres

• Electronic Process Monitoring and Control, such as

PLC

• Telecommunications
• Robotics
 What is the Primary Problem ?
• Voltage Sags have been identified as being the
Single Most Expensive Power Quality Event

• Both Industrial and Commercial Facilities are

affected by this type of problem

• In many cases, the customer believes that the

incoming supply has been interrupted i.e. a
complete loss of power, when in fact it was a severe
voltage sag

• Voltage Sags are fact of life and can not readily be

eliminated from regular Utility System
 What is a Voltage Sag (Dip)?

• A Voltage Sag, Per IEEE Std 1159-1995, is: “ A decrease

in rms Voltage at the power frequency for durations from
½ cycle to 1 min, reported as the Remaining
Voltage”
• Voltage Sag is a sudden Voltage drop while the Load
remain connected to the Supply. Or it is a temporary
reduction of the Voltage below a user specified threshold
• Sag is characterized by its magnitude and duration.
Magnitude range from 10%-90% of nominal Voltage.
Typical duration is ≤ 1 Sec
 What is a Voltage Sag (Dip)?
• The measurement of Voltage Sag is stated as a
percentage of the Nominal Voltage. It is a
measurement of the remaining Voltage and is
stated as a sag TO a Percentage value. Thus a
Voltage Sag to 70% is equivalent to 70% of
Nominal Voltage, or 336 V for a 480 V system

• An interruption, on the other hand, is the

reduction of supply voltage to less than 10% of the
Nominal rms magnitude.
Example: Supply Voltage is reduced to less than 48V
on a 480 V System
 Cost Of Power Quality
• US Estimates of industrial cost is multi-billion $
per annum

• EPRI reported that 97% of cost related to Power

Quality is due to voltage Sags.

• Lost Production, Wasted Product, Possible

Equipment Damage, Restart Time and Associated
Labour
Per IEEE Std. 1100-2005, Emerald Book & EPRI Study
Normal

Interruption
New ITI (CBEMA) Curve
Accident Happens !
Birds Nest
A bad day for this driver
Electrical Dist. System – Spaghetti Design
 Causes of Voltage Sags
• External (Utility System)
- Bad Weather
- Equipment Failure
- Human Error,
- Animals & Birds,
- Vehicle, etc.

• Internal (Industrial Plant):

- Electrical fault,
- Motor Starting,
- Switching, etc.
Isolated Redundant UPS configuration

HRG
600V 3Ø 3W
 Voltage Sag TO 50% for 4 Cycles- UPS System
Crashed due to Bad Battery Cell in each of the four
strings. Disturbance caused by a fault on 230 KV line
 UPS Alarm History
0123 05/12/01 14:00:09.11.1 sbs on
0124 05/12/01 14:00:09.11.1 inverter off
0125 05/12/01 14:00:09.10.2 dc low shutdown
0126 05/12/01 14:00:09.10.2 dc voltage low
0127 05/12/01 14:00:09.10.1 input voltage normal
0128 05/12/01 14:00:09.09.2 battery voltage low

0129 05/12/01 14:00:09.08.1 input voltage low

 Voltage Sag TO 65% for 100 ms

Time:100.7 ms; Min: 318.0V; Max: 481.7V; Pk-pk: 163.7V

 UPS Alarm History
0051 01/05/07 14:30:24.06.4 UPS summary alarm
0052 01/05/07 14:30:23.59.3 sbs bypass frequency normal 0053
01/05/07 14:30:23.46.3 rct in current limit
0054 01/05/07 14:30:23.45.3 rct in recharge
0055 01/05/07 14:30:23.38.3 sbs bypass voltage normal 0056
01/05/07 14:30:23.37.3 input voltage normal
0057 01/05/07 14:30:23.36.3 sbs bypass voltage low

0058 01/05/07 14:30:23.34.4 input voltage low

Two Voltage Sags To 50% within 1 Sec.
Summary of Voltage Sags for a Data Processing Centre for the
period Jan – Dec, 2007. The Incoming Supply is at 27.6 KV.
Twenty Three Disturbances Captured
Sag Magnitude
Date Time Duration Comment
To % Nominal
January 05 14:31 65% 101 ms Severe Disturbance
January 24 11:50 75% 168 ms Severe Disturbance
January 24 11:50 75% 168 ms Severe Disturbance
January 30 06:24 45% 265 ms Severe Disturbance
January 30 13:34 63% 168 ms Severe Disturbance
January 30 13:34 63% 168 ms Severe Disturbance
February 27 11:55 80% 83 ms Severe Disturbance
March 07 03:01 60% 100 ms Severe Disturbance
March 11 12:08 65% 116 ms Severe Disturbance
March 17 10:42 40% 150 ms Severe Disturbance
March 17 10:42 40% 150 ms Severe Disturbance
 Summary of Voltage Sags for a Data Processing Centre for the
period Jan – Dec, 2007. The Incoming Supply is at 27.6 KV.
Twenty Three Disturbances Captured
Sag Magnitude To
Date Time Duration Comment
% Nominal
May 18 09:03 45% 50 ms Severe Disturbance
May 24 13:16 35% 50 ms Severe Disturbance
May 31 16:29 35% 132 ms Severe Disturbance
June 11 16:16 0% 832 ms Momentary Power Outage
(Auto Re-closure)
June 19 15:16 0% 1 minutes Prolonged Power Outage
Emergency Gen. started
July 04 07:28 70% 168 ms Severe Disturbance
August 20 01:19 60% 116 ms Severe Disturbance
September 26 01:42 58% 51 ms Severe Disturbance
November 25 07:06 0% 823 ms Momentary Power Outage
(Auto Re-closure)
November 25 13:17 0% 68 ms Power Outage Phase B only
December 16 02:22 71% 150 ms Severe Disturbance
December 16 02:25 71% 150 ms Severe Disturbance
Momentary Loss of Power - 830 ms.
(Auto Re-closure)
 Total Interruption
Generator on line in 4 sec.
 Mitigation Techniques

• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

• Tap changers
• Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT)
• Active Voltage Conditioners (AVC)
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

•Generally intended for small and

computer loads.
•Rely on quality of the battery
•Impractical for large industrial loads
•Maintenance
•Air conditioned space
Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT)

•Inefficient – run hot

•Intended for single phase loads and
small 3-phase loads
•Potentially resonant with loads and in
some case causing damage
 Tap Changers

• Slow and inefficient

• Potentially resonate with the load
• Step changes in voltage
• Good for steady state change in
voltage
Active Voltage Conditioners (AVC) Concept

• The AVC consists of an inverter which feeds an

injection transformer connected in series with the
utility supply.
• The inverter produces compensating voltage vectors
which correct for utility voltage disturbances (sags,
imbalance, flicker, voltage harmonics and
overvoltages, etc).
• The AVC draws its power from the input supply via the
rectifier when called upon to provide correction.
– There are NO storage devices in the basic AVC
– NO back feed of any upstream fault
 Active Voltage Conditioner

Supply
load

Rectifier Inverter
 Key Features
• Provides rated % protection for 30 Seconds
• It is an On Line device so no switching threshold
• Fast response < ¼ ms to initiate correction
• Complete correction to ±1% in 6 ms (< 1/2 cycle)
• Continuously variable control (no step changes in
output)
• Very efficient (typically > 98.5%)
• High speed microprocessor controlled solution
• Continuous +/-10% voltage correction
 Inverter controlled power conditioning
for high power applications

AVC Ratings
25 kVA to 5 MVA 1 MVA to 50 MVA
(Low Voltage 208V-600V) (Medium Voltage 2-36kV)
 Ref. Sag/Swell AVC Output (L-L)
3- phase symmetrical sags – A 109%, 109%, 109% 100%, 100%, 100%
AVC Response B 68%, 69%, 69% 99%, 99%, 100%
C 49%, 50%, 49% 80%, 81%, 81%

30% AVC Correction

C
 Ref. Sag/Swell AVC Output (L-L)
1- ph. Unbalanced sags – A 80%, 100%, 100% 100%, 100%, 100%
AVC Response B 49%, 100%, 100% 97%, 99%, 99%
C 39%, 100%, 100% 93%, 98%, 98%
EPRI Factory Test 70% 71%
A 99% 100%

For 208 V, 3-Ph V

70% Sag
71% C 100%

AVC Input AVC Output

 CH1

93
%
61
%
A 92.7% 97.4% EPRI Tests
CH2 V L-G, 40% Sag on
92 C 99.2% 480V system
%

CH2

Actual L-N Sag 39% 99% 99%

Resulting L-L voltages

AVC Input AVC Output

AVC Store – Power Outage protection
STS load
AVC Store AVC

Storage

Battery

Ultra-Capacitors Flywheel
AVC front panel - Run
AVC front panel - Events
AVC front panel - Features

IP Addressable
MODBUS TCP
 AVC Maintenance
LCD touch screen Modular design Modules in cabinets
c/w diagnostics
 Use of AVC in conjunction with UPS
Facility Supply Bus - Voltage independant

AVC 500kVA- 5MVA

Essential
Production systems

U PS
10-50kVA

Critical Loads

M PLC's, Controls
etc
Large non critical loads
 AVC Installed Base

North America Worldwide

•Over 400 units •1700 units
•12 MVA largest site installed
•26kV highest voltage •192 MVA largest
site
•Average unit size
800kVA •11kV highest
voltage
•Average unit size
1.2MVA
 AVC Capabilities - Performance
• Deep Sag correction for 30 seconds
• Up to 30 seconds of total outage protection
(AVC Store)
• Fast response 1/8 cycle (2 ms)
• Continuous Voltage regulation 90-110%
• Voltage balancing
• Flicker reduction
• Voltage Harmonic improvement
 Capabilities – Design Ratings

• Wide range up to MW systems

• Configurable to site specific power problems
• Low source impedance – High inrush loads,
i.e. Motors, MRI’s etc
• NEMA 1 std, NEMA 4 Optional
• No HVAC required (except for storage devices)
 Case 1 -High Speed Bottling Plant
(Alcohol)

• Incoming supply: 27kV

• On Average, 30 events per year
• Penalties and damages along with lost
production
• Over 10,000 drives and sensors
 Solution – High Speed Bottling Plant

• Installed a 27kV AVC - 2003

• 2,000 kVA AVC, Outdoor Unit – 30% rated
• Site wide solution due to the number of loads
that needed to be protected.
• Installed at incoming switchgear
 Field Measurements – Case 1

AVC L-N Volt

Input V1=82 %
Voltage V2=58 %
V3=87 %

30,000.00
V1 V2 V3
AVC 25,000.00
20,000.00

Output 15,000.00
10,000.00 L-N Volt
V1=97 %
5,000.00

Voltage 0.00

V2=98 %
-5,000.00
-10,000.00

V3=97 %
-15,000.00
-20,000.00
-25,000.00

Can correct the voltage sags close to your critical equipment and
prevent unplanned stoppages
Field Measurements – Case 1

L-N Volt
V1=87%
V2=92%
V3=34%

L-N Volt
V1=100%
V2=100%
V3=80%

L-L Volt
V1=100%
V2=90%
V3=90%
Field Measurements – Case 1

L-N Volt
V1=62%
V2=64%
V3=96%

L-N Volt
V1=87%
V2=98%
V3=92%

L-L Volt
V1=90%
V2=91%
V3=91%
Field Measurements – Case 1

L-N Volt
V1=78%
V2=78%
V3=92%

L-N Volt
V1=100%
V2=100%
V3=100%
Case 1 - Installation
High Voltage compartment (26kV)
Injection Transformer
Case 2 – Polyethylene Plant
•115kV Utility supply
•8 -10 process upsets per year,
most caused by lightning and birds
•Plant restart and recoveries in
some cases took several days
•Lost production and damage to
equipment were they the largest
cause of loss
 Solution - Polyethylene
• Customer originally requested 60MVA AVC
protection but this was not cost effective
• Protected Extruders, Cutters and agitators only
• 5 AVCs each 2MVA at 480V installed - 2007
• To date averted 5 potential shutdowns
• Customer reported full project payback in first 4
events (Less than 6 months)
 Case 3 - Solar Cell Manufacturer

• 34.5kV Utility Supply

• Customer reported on average 18 process
upsets per year prior to installation of AVC
• Estimated Cost per event $125-250K
 Solution – Solar Cell Manufacturer
• Installed 1600 KVA, 30% correction AVC, in 2002
(Indoor Unit)
• 24 events recorded in first year of operation, AVC
functioned as designed and protected the
connected equipment
• The Customer, subsequently, installed 3 more
units
• Currently, 10 more units are on order each at
1.5MVA for installation in December, 2008
Case 3 - Solar Cell Manufacturer
1600 kVA, 2000 Amp, 480V AVC rated for 30% correction
Dimensions: 128” x 48” x 85”H
 Case 4 - High Speed Printer

• Incoming supply at 26.4 kV

• Densely treed plus high lightening area
• On average, process failed more than 40 times
per year
• Failure resulted in Late delivery of product to
customer
• Printer Maintenance costs over $100K/year
 Solution – High Speed Printer

• Installed 3000 kVA, 30% AVC – 2005

• Corrected all voltage sag events that occurred
in 30 Months of operation
• Printing Press Maintenance costs virtually
eliminated following installation of AVC
• Customer reported project payback was
achieved in 4 months
Case 4 - High Speed Printer
3000 kVA, 480V AVC rated for 30%
 The World’s largest power protected site - 190MVA
semiconductor application, 4 Million ft2 Semiconductor
FAB,130 x 1,500kVA AVCs, All units 208V
Container Crane, 100% Regenerating Application
18 - 400kVA AVCs
 Conclusions
• Voltage Sag is Considered the Most Costly Power Quality
Problem

• Mitigation Equipment Including AVC are Readily Available

to Address the Voltage Sag on a Plant Wide or at Process
specific level

• Conduct Power Quality Study to Determine any Existing

System Abnormalities and when Installing new Equipment

• On-Line Monitoring Equipment are readily Available for

Power Quality Measurements
 www.ieee.ca
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