1.2. Kuantitas Radiasi

Chapter 2: Dosimetric Principles,
Quantities and Units

Chapter 1: Basic Radiation Physics
Chapter 16: Radiation Protection and
Safety in Radiotherapy
Set of 131 slides based on the chapter authored by
J.P. Seuntjens, W. Strydom, and K.R. Shortt
of the IAEA publication (ISBN 92-0-107304-6):
Review of Radiation Oncology Physics:
A Handbook for Teachers and Students
Slide set prepared in 2006

by G.H. Hartmann (Heidelberg, DKFZ)
Comments to S. Vatnitsky:
dosimetry@iaea.org
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
CHAPTER 2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Radiation field quantities (also denoted as Radiometric quantities)
2.3 Dosimetrical quantities: fundamentals
2.4 Dosimetrical quantities
2.7 Relation between radiation field and dosimetric quantities
1.2.7. Radioactivity
16.5. Quantities and units used in radiation protection
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 2.Slide 1
2.1 INTRODUCTION
❑ Radiation dosimetry has its origin in the medical

application of ionizing radiation starting with the discovery
of x-rays by Röntgen in 1895.
❑ In particular
• the need of protection against ionizing radiation,
• the application in medicine
required quantitative methods to determine a "dose of
radiation".
❑ The purpose of a quantitative concept of a dose of
radiation is:
• to predict associated radiation effects (radiation detriments)
• to reproduce clinical outcomes.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 2.1. Slide 1
2.1 INTRODUCTION
❑ The connection to the medical profession is obvious.
The term dose of radiation was initially used

in a pharmacological sense, that means:
analogously to its meaning when used
in prescribing a dose of medicine.
❑ Very soon it turned out that physical methods to

describe a "dose of radiation" proved superior to any
biological methods.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
❑ Radiation dosimetry is a now a pure physical science.

❑ Central are the methods for a quantitative determination
of energy deposited in a given medium by directly or
indirectly ionizing radiations.
❑ A number of physical quantities and units have been

defined for describing a beam of radiation and the dose of
radiation.
❑ This chapter deals with the most commonly used

dosimetric quantities and their units.
2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES
2.2.1 Radiation Field
❑ Ionizing radiation may simply consist of various types of

particles, e.g. photons, electrons, neutrons, protons, etc.
From Chapter 1 we know:
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 2.2.1 Slide 1
❑ The term radiation field is a very general term that is used

to characterize in a quantitative way the radiation in space
consisting of particles.
❑ There are two very general quantities associated with a

radiation field:
• the number, N of particles

• the energy, R transported by the particles
(which is also denoted as the radiant energy)
❑ ICRU-Definition of particle number:

The particle number N is the number of particles that are emitted,
transferred, or received. Unit: 1
❑ ICRU-Definition of radiant energy:

The radiant energy R is the energy (excluding rest energy) of
particles that are emitted, transferred, or received. Unit: J
❑ For particles of energy E (excluding rest energy):

R = E N
A detailed description of a radiation field generally will require

more information on the particle number N such as:
• of particle type j
• at a point of interest r
• at energy E
• at time t
• with movement in direction 
N = N j (r , E , t ,  )
2.2.2 Particle Fluence
How can the number of particles be determined at a certain

point in space?
Consider a point P(r) in space within a field of radiation.
Then use the following simple method:
In case of a parallel radiation beam,

construct a small area dA
around the point P in such a way, dA
that its plane is perpendicular
to the direction of the beam.
Determine the number of particles that P

intercept this area dA.
In the general case of nonparallel particle directions it is evident that a

fixed plane cannot be traversed by all particles perpendicularly.
A somewhat modified concept is needed!
The plane dA is allowed to move freely around P, so as to intercept

each incident ray perpendicularly.
Practically this means:
• Generate a sphere by dA
rotating dA around P
• Count the number of particles

entering the sphere P
❑ The ratio between number of particles and the area is

called the
fluence  .
❑ Definition:
The fluence  is the quotient dN by dA, where dN
is the number of particles incident on a sphere of cross-
sectional area dA: dN
= unit: m–2.
dA
❑ Note: The term particle fluence is sometimes also used for fluence.
2.2.3 Planar Particle Fluence
The definition of planar particle fluence refers to the case where the
area dA is not perpendicular to the beam direction.
❑ Planar particle fluence is the number of particles crossing a giving

plane per unit area.

P dA
❑ Planar particle fluence depends on the angle of incidence of the
particle beam.
2.2.4 Energy Fluence
The same concept that is used for fluence can be applied

to the radiant energy R:
❑ Definition:
The energy fluence  is the quotient dR by dA, where dR
is the radiant energy incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area dA:
dR
 =
dA
The unit of energy fluence is J  m−2 .
2.2.4 Energy Fluence
Energy fluence can be calculated from particle fluence

by using the following relationship:
dN
 = E = E
dA
where E is the energy of the particle and dN represents the
number of particles with energy E.
2.2.5 Particle Fluence Spectrum
Almost all realistic photon or particle beams are

polyenergetic.
For a better description, the particle fluence is

replaced by the particle fluence
differential in energy:
d2N (E ) d (E )
E (E ) = =
dA  dE dE
The particle fluence differential in energy is also called the
particle fluence spectrum.
2.2.6 Energy Fluence Spectrum
The same concept is applied to the radiant energy R:
The energy fluence differential in energy is defined as:

d (E ) d (E )
 E (E ) = = E
dE dE
The energy fluence differential in energy is also called the
energy fluence spectrum.
2.2.6 Energy Fluence Spectrum
Example of Spectra:
Photon fluence spectrum and energy
fluence spectrum generated by an
orthovoltage x-ray unit with a kVp
value of 250 kV and an added filtration
of 1 mm Al and 1.8 mm Cu.
Target material: tungsten;
Inherent filtration: 2 mm beryllium
Spectra often show physical

phenomena:
The two spikes superimposed onto
the continuous bremsstrahlung
spectrum represent the Kα and the Kβ
characteristic x-ray lines produced in
the tungsten target.
2.2.7 Particle Fluence Rate and Energy Fluence Rate
The particle fluence or the energy fluence may change

with time.
For a better description of the time dependence,
the fluence quantities are replaced by the
fluence quantities differential in time:
d d2N d d2R
= =  = =
dt dA  dt dt dA  dt
−2 −1
Unit: m  s Unit: J  m−2  s−1
The two fluence quantities differential in time are called

the particle fluence rate and the energy fluence rate.
The latter is also referred to as intensity.
2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS
2.3.1 General Introduction
The following slides will deal with three dosimetric quantities:
(1) Kerma
(2) Cema
(3) Absorbed dose
Common characteristics of kerma, cema and dose:
❑ They are generally defined as:

radiation energy (transferred or absorbed) J
 kg 
mass  
❑ They can also be defined as:
J
radiation field quantity  mass interaction coefficient  
 kg 
The first characteristic:

radiation energy (transferred or absorbed) J
dosimetric quantity =  kg 
mass  
needs a more detailed inspection into the different ways of
❑ radiation energy transfer

❑ radiation energy absorption.
2.3.2 Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy
Definition of energy deposit

❑ The term "energy deposit" refers to a single interaction process
❑ The energy deposit i is the energy deposited in a single interaction i
 i =  in −  out + Q Unit: J
where
in is energy of the incident ionizing particle (excluding rest energy)
out is the sum of energies of all ionizing particles leaving the
interaction (excluding rest energy),
Q is the change in the rest energies of the nucleus and of all
particles involved in the interaction.
Example for energy deposit i with Q = 0 (electron knock-on interaction):
fluorescence primary
photon, h electron, Eout
electron
in
Auger −electron, E
electron 1
EA,1
Auger
electron 2
EA,2
 i =  in − (Eout + E A,1 + E A,2 + E + h )
Example for energy deposit i with Q < 0 (pair production):
positron, E+
h
electron, E-
 i = h − (E+ + E− ) − 2m0c 2
Example for energy deposit i with Q > 0 (positron annihilation):

characteristic
photon, hk h 1
Auger
positron electron 1
in EA,1
Auger
electron 2
EA,2
h2
 i =  in − (h 1 + h 2 + h k + E A,1 + E A,2 ) + 2m0c 2
Definition of energy imparted

❑ The term "energy imparted" refers to a small volume.
❑ The energy imparted  to matter in a given volume is the sum of all
energy deposits in the volume, i.e., the sum of energy imparted in
all those basic interaction processes which have occurred in the
volume during a time interval considered:
 =  i
i
where the summation is performed over all energy deposits i in that
volume.
❑ Example: A radiation detector responds to irradiation with a signal M
which is basically related to the energy imparted  in the detector
volume.
Definition of an (energy impartion) event:

Consider the energy imparted
in a volume V by secondary
electrons which are generated by
primary photons.
V
❑ The incoming primary photons are statistically uncorrelated.
❑ The secondary electrons generated by different photons are
uncorrelated.
❑ However, there is a correlation:
When a particular secondary electron is slowing down, it creates further
secondary electrons. The primary generating photon, the generated
electron and all further electrons (all generations) are correlated.
2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIE: FUNDAMENTALS
V
❑ Therefore, all single energy deposits:
• that are caused from an initially generated secondary electron, and
• that from all further generations of secondary electrons
are correlated in time.

❑ The imparted energy from statistically correlated particles can be put
together.
❑ The term "event" was introduced to denote the imparting of energy 
by those statistically correlated energy deposits:
where
N  nj  N = number of events
 =   i  nj = number of energy
j =1 i =1  deposits at event j
individual events different in size
Note: The same amount of imparted energy  can consist of:

• a small number of events each with a large size
• a high number of events each with a small size
2.3.3 Stochastic of Energy Absorption
❑ Since all energy deposits i are of stochastic nature,  is also a

stochastic quantity, the values which follow a probability distribution!
Stochastic of Energy Absorption means:

The energy imparted is always statistically distributed during the
time interval considered. The distribution comes from two sources:
❑ fluctuation in the number of events

❑ fluctuations in the size of events
The determination of the variance of

energy absorption must take into account
these two sources!
Combined relative variance of energy imparted  is given by:
V(ε ) V(N) 1 V1(ε )

= + 
2 2 E(N) E12 (ε )
(ε ) E (N)
variance of the number variance of the single

of events event sizes
where: E = expectation value E1 = single event exp. value

N = number of events  = energy imparted
If N (the number of independent tracks) is distributed according the

Poisson distribution (which is very often the case)
then: V(N) = E(N) = N
(ε )  2
V1(ε ) 
V(ε ) =  1 + 2 
N  E1 (ε ) 
It follows: The variance of the energy imparted  increases with
decreasing number of events!
General conclusions:
The variance of the energy imparted  is large
❑ for small volumes
❑ for small time intervals
❑ for high LET radiation

(because the imparted energy  consists of large event sizes)
Note: Since a radiation detector responds to irradiation with a signal

related to , the same conclusions apply to the detector signal.
2.3.4 Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer
What is the exact meaning of "energy absorption " ?

The term energy absorption refers to charged particles,
e.g., electrons, protons etc.

❑ Inelastic collisions between an incident electron and an orbital electron
are Coulomb interactions result in:
• Atomic ionization:
Ejection of the orbital electron from the absorber atom.
• Atomic excitation:
Transfer of an atomic orbital electron from one allowed
orbit (shell) to a higher level allowed orbit
❑ Atomic ionizations and excitations result in collision energy losses
experienced by the incident electron and are characterized by collision
(ionization) stopping power.
Continued: What is the exact meaning of "energy absorption " ?
❑ The loss of energy experienced by the incident electron by a collision is

at the same time absorbed by the absorber atom and thus by a
medium. energy losses absorbed energy
e-
=
transversed transversed
medium medium
❑ For charged particles, the process of energy absorption in a medium is

therefore described by the process of the collision energy loss
(the collision stopping power).
What is the exact meaning of "Energy Transfer " ?

The term energy transfer refers to uncharged particles,
e.g., photons, neutrons, etc.

❑ The photon fate after an interaction with an atom includes two possible
outcomes:
• Photon disappears (i.e., is absorbed completely) and a portion of its
energy is transferred to light charged particles (electrons and positrons in
the absorbing medium).
• Photon is scattered and two outcomes are possible:
• The resulting photon has the same energy as the incident photon and no light charged
particles are released in the interaction.
• The resulting scattered photon has a lower energy than the incident photon and the
energy excess is transferred to a light charged particle (electron).
Continued: What is the exact meaning of "Energy Transfer " ?

❑ The energy that is transferred in a photon interaction to a light charged
particle (mostly a secondary electron) is called an energy transfer.
❑ This process is described by the energy transfer coefficient
E tr
tr = 
h
with Etr the average energy transferred from the primary photon
with h energy to kinetic energy of charged particles (e- and e+).
Relation between "Energy Transfer" and "Energy Absorption"
❑ For charged particles, most of the energy loss is directly absorbed

Energy Absorption
❑ For uncharged particles, energy is transferred in a first step to

(secondary) charged particles Energy Transfer.
In a second step, the secondary charged particles lose their energy

according to the general behavior of charged particles (again Energy
Absorption).
The energy of uncharged particles like photons or neutrons is

imparted to matter in a two stage process.
2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES
2.4.1 Kerma
❑ Kerma is an acronym for Kinetic Energy Released per unit MAss.

❑ It quantifies the average amount of energy transferred in a small
volume from the indirectly ionizing radiation to directly ionizing
radiation without concerns to what happens after this transfer.
dE tr
K=
dm
❑ The unit of kerma is joule per kilogram (J/kg).
❑ The name for the unit of kerma is the gray (Gy), where
1 Gy = 1 J/kg.
❑ Kerma is a quantity applicable to indirectly ionizing radiations, such
as photons and neutrons.
2.4.1 Kerma
❑ The energy transferred to electrons by photons can be

expended in two distinct ways:
• through collision interactions
(soft collisions and hard collisions);
• through radiation interactions

(bremsstrahlung and electron–positron annihilation).
❑ The total kerma is therefore usually divided into two

components:
• collision kerma Kcol
• radiation kerma Krad. K = K col + Krad
2.4.1 Kerma
Illustration of kerma:
secondary
Ek,3 electrons
photons
Ek,2
Ek,1
V
Collision energy transferred in the volume: E tr = Ek ,2 + Ek ,3
where Ek is the initial kinetic energy of the secondary electrons.
Note: Ek,1 is transferred outside the volume and is therefore not taken
into account in the definition of kerma!
2.4.1 Kerma
❑ The average fraction of the energy which is transferred to

electrons and then lost through radiative processes is re-
presented by a factor referred to as the radiation fraction g .
❑ Hence the fraction lost through collisions is (1− g ) .
❑ A frequently used relation between collision kerma Kcol

and total kerma K may be written as follows:
K col = K  (1 − g )
2.4.1 Kerma
Since kerma refers to the average amount of energy Etr ,

kerma is a non-stochastic quantity.
That means that kerma is:
❑ steady in space and time

❑ differentiable in space and time
2.4.2 Cema
❑ Similar to kerma, cema is an acronym for Converted

Energy per unit MAss.
❑ It quantifies the average amount of energy converted in
a small volume from directly ionizing radiations such as
electrons and protons in collisions with atomic electrons
without concerns to what happens after this transfer.
dE C
C=
dm
❑ The unit of cema is joule per kilogram (J/kg).
❑ The name for the unit of kerma is the gray (Gy).
2.4.2 Cema
Cema differs from kerma in that:
❑ Cema involves the energy lost in electronic collisions by

the incoming charged particles.
❑ Kerma involves the energy imparted to outgoing

charged particles.
2.4.3 Absorbed dose
❑ Absorbed dose is a quantity applicable to both indirectly

and directly ionizing radiations.
❑ Indirectly ionizing radiation means:
the energy is imparted to matter in a two step process.
• In the first step (resulting in kerma), the indirectly ionizing radiation
transfers energy as kinetic energy to secondary charged particles.
• In the second step, these charged particles transfer a major part of
their kinetic energy to the medium (finally resulting in absorbed
dose).
❑ Directly ionizing radiation means:
• charged particles transfer a major part of their kinetic energy
directly to the medium (resulting in absorbed dose).
2.4.3 Absorbed dose
Illustration:
V
( i )1
beam of photons
( i )3 ( i )2
secondary
( i )4 electrons
bremsstrahlung
energy absorbed in the volume = (   i )1 + (   i )2 + (   i )3 + (   i )4

where (   i ) is the sum of energy lost by collisions along the
track of the secondary particles within the volume V.
2.4.3 Absorbed dose
V
beam of photons
secondary
electrons
Note:
Because electrons are traveling in the medium and deposit energy along their
tracks, the absorption of energy (= ) does not take place at the same
location as the transfer of energy described by kerma (= ).
2.4.3 Absorbed dose
❑ As kerma and cema, the absorbed dose is a non-stochastic

quantity.
❑ Absorbed dose D is related to the stochastic quantity energy
imparted  by:
d
D=
dm
❑ The unit of absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J/kg).
❑ The name for the unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy).
2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS
❑ Since dosimetric quantities can also be defined as
 J 
dosimetric quantity = radiation field quantity  mass interaction coefficient  
 kg 
this characteristics needs an inspection of the interaction coefficients

of radiation.
❑ The following slides refer to electrons and photons.

They include some repetitions taken from chapter 1.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 2.5 Slide 1
2.5.2 Electrons: Stopping power for charged particles
❑ The total energy loss by incident charged particles

through inelastic collisions is described by the
total linear stopping power Stot
which represents the average rate of kinetic energy loss

EK by the electron per unit path length x:
dEK
Stot = in MeV/cm
dx
2.5.3 Electrons: Mass stopping power
❑ Division by the density of the absorbing medium almost

eliminates the dependence of the mass stopping power
on mass density,
❑ Total mass stopping power (S / )tot is defined as the

linear stopping power divided by the density of the
absorbing medium.
S  1 dEK
  = in MeV cm2/g
  tot  dx
❑ The total mass stopping power (S / )tot consists of

the two components:
• Mass collision stopping power (S / )col
resulting from electron-orbital electron interactions
(atomic ionizations and atomic excitations)
• Mass radiation stopping power (S / )rad
resulting mainly from electron-nucleus interactions
(bremsstrahlung production)
S  S  S 
  =  + 
  tot   col   rad
❑ Stopping powers are rarely measured and must be

calculated from theory.
❑ The Bethe theory is used to calculate stopping powers for
soft collisions.
❑ For electrons and positrons, energy transfers due to soft
collisions are combined with those due to hard collisions
using the Møller (for electrons) and Bhabba (for positrons)
cross sections for free electrons.
❑ The complete mass collision stopping power for electrons
and positrons is taken from ICRU Report No. 37.
2.6 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: PHOTONS
❑ The energy that is transferred in an photon interaction to a light

charged particle (mostly a secondary electron) is called an energy
transfer.
❑ This process is described by the energy transfer coefficient
E tr
tr = 
h
with E tr the average energy transferred from the primary photon
with energy h to kinetic energy of charged particles (e- and e+).
2.6 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: PHOTONS
Repetition:
❑ A small part of the energy that is transferred in an photon interaction
to a light charged particle leads to the
• production of radiative photons as the secondary charged particles slow
down and interact in the medium.
• These interactions most prominently are bremsstrahlung as a result of
Coulomb field interactions between the charged particle and the atomic
nuclei.
❑ This loss through radiative processes is represented by the factor g
referred to as the radiation fraction.
❑ The remaining energy is absorbed. This process is described by the
energy absorption coefficient en (or ab )
en = tr  (1 − g )
2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES
2.7.1 Energy fluence and kerma (photons)
❑ For monoenergetic photons, the total kerma K at a point in

medium:
dE tr
K=
dm
is related to the energy fluence  at that point in the
medium by:
tr
K = 

where (tr/) is the mass–energy transfer coefficient for
the monoenergetic photons in the medium.
❑ For monoenergetic photons the collision kerma Kcol at a

point in a medium:
K col = K  (1 − g )
is related to the energy fluence  at that point in the

medium by:
en
K col = 

where (en/) is the mass–energy absorption coefficient
for monoenergetic photons in the medium.
❑ For polyenergetic beams a similar relation exists.

❑ If a photon energy fluence spectrum (that is the energy
fluence differential in energy), E(E) is present at the
point of interest, the collision kerma Kcol at that point is
obtained by:
Emax
 en 
K col =   E (E )  
  
 dE
0
❑ One may use the following shorthand notation for the

mean mass–energy absorption coefficient.
❑ That is, the mass–energy absorption coefficient is

averaged over the energy fluence spectrum:
 en (E ) 
Emax
 en    E (E )  
  
 dE
=
0

  
Emax

0
E
(E ) dE
❑ The integral over the energy fluence differential in energy

in the denominator is the total energy fluence:
Emax
 = 
0
E
(E ) dE
❑ The mean mass–energy absorption coefficient is

therefore given by:
 en (E ) 
Emax
 en    E (E )  
  
 dE
=
0

   
❑ It follows from:
 en (E ) 
Emax
Emax
 en   en    E (E )  
  
 dE
K col =   E (E )   =
0
 dE and 
0       
The collision kerma is given by:
 en 
K col =   
  
❑ If one compares the collision kerma between a medium 1

and a medium 2, both at the same energy fluence ,
one can obtain the frequently used relation:
 en 
  
K col,2   2  en 
= = 
K col,1  en    2 ,1
  
  1
❑ In some cases where the energy fluence is not equal in

medium 1 and medium 2, the fluence ratio 2,1 can be
assumed to be unity through a proper scaling of
dimensions (using the scaling theorem):
• for very similar materials
• for situations in which the mass of material 2 is sufficient to
provide buildup but at the same time small enough so as not to
disturb the photon fluence in material 1 (for example for a dose
to a small mass of tissue in air)
2.7.2 Fluence and dose (electrons)
❑ The absorbed dose to a medium Dmed is related to the

electron fluence med in the medium as follows:
 Scol 
Dmed =  
  med
where (Scol/)med is the unrestricted mass collision stopping power of
the medium at the energy of the electron.
❑ This relation is valid under the conditions that:
• photons escape the volume of interest
• secondary electrons are absorbed on the spot
• or there is charged particle equilibrium (CPE) of secondary
electrons
❑ Even for a monoenergetic starting electron kinetic energy

EK, a primary fluence spectrum is always present owing to
electron slowdown in a medium.
❑ The spectrum ranges in energy from EK down to zero.
❑ The spectrum is commonly denoted, by med,E.
❑ The absorbed dose to a medium Dmed is then given by;
 Scol (E ) 
Emax
Dmed = 
0
 med ,E (E )  
  
 dE
❑ One may again use a shorthand notation for the collision

stopping power averaged over the fluence spectrum:
 Scol  1
Emax
 Scol (E ) 
  =
  med  med

0
 med ,E (E )  
  med
 dE
The collision kerma  Scol 

is then given by: Dmed =  med   
  
❑ If one compares the absorbed dose between a medium 1

and a medium 2, both at the same fluence:
 med1 =  med2
one can obtain the frequently used relation:

 Scol 
 med2   
Dmed2   med2  Scol 
= =  
Dmed1  Scol    med2 ,med1
 med1   
  med1
2.7.3 Kerma and dose (charged-particle equilibrium)
We know already:
Because electrons travel in the medium and deposit energy along
their tracks, this absorption of energy (= ) does not take place at
the same location as the transfer of energy described by kerma (= ).
V
photons
secondary
electrons
❑ Since photons mostly escape from the volume of interest,

one relates absorbed dose usually to collision kerma.
❑ Since the secondary electrons released through photon
interactions have a non-zero (finite) range, energy may be
transported beyond the volume of interest. It follows:
K col  D
❑ The ratio of dose and collision kerma is often denoted as:
D
=
K col
Relationship between collision kerma and absorbed dose
Kcol D In the buildup region:

zmax = <1
K col
relative energy per unit mass
In the region of a
transient charged
D particle equilibrium:
>1
At the depth z = zmax,

a true charged particle
<1 >1 equilibrium exists.
=1
=1 depth in medium
D = K col = K  (1 − g )
2.7.4 Collision kerma and exposure
❑ Exposure X is the quotient of dQ by dm, where dQ is the

absolute value of the total charge of the ions of one sign
produced in air when all the electrons and positrons
liberated or created by photons in mass dm of air are
completely stopped in air: dQ
X=
dm
❑ The unit of exposure is coulomb per kilogram (C/kg).
❑ The old unit used for exposure is the roentgen R, where
1 R = 2.58 ×10–4 C/kg.
❑ In the SI system of units, roentgen is no longer used and
the unit of exposure is simply 2.58 × 10–4 C/kg of air.
❑ The average energy expended in air per ion pair formed

W air is the quotient of EK by N, where N is the mean
number of ion pairs formed when the initial kinetic energy
EK of a charged particle is completely dissipated in air:
EK
Wair =
N
❑ The current best estimate for the average value of W air is
33.97 eV/ion pair or 33.97 × 1.602 × 1019 J/ion pair.
❑ It follows:
Wair
= 33.97 J/C
e
❑ Multiplying the collision kerma Kcol by (e/W air), the number

of coulombs of charge created per joule of energy
deposited, one obtains the charge created per unit mass
of air or exposure:
 e 
X = (Kcol )air   
 Wair 
❑ Since
D = K col K  (1 − g )
it follows:
 Wair  1
K air = X    1− g
 e 
1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Radioactivity is a process by which an unstable nucleus

(parent) decays into a new nuclear configuration
(daughter) that may be stable or unstable.
❑ If the daughter is unstable it will decay further through a

chain of decays until a stable configuration is attained.
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896.

❑ Other names used for radioactive decay are:
• Nuclear decay
• Nuclear disintegration
• Nuclear transformation
• Nuclear transmutation
• Radioactive decay
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Radioactive decay involves a transition from the quantum

state of the parent P to a quantum state of the daughter D.
❑ The energy difference between the two quantum states is
called the decay energy Q
❑ The decay energy Q is emitted:
• in the form of electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays)
or
• in the form of kinetic energy of the reaction products.
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ All radioactive processes are governed by the same

formalism based on:
• Characteristic parameter called the decay constant 
• Activity A (t) defined as N(t) where N(t) is the number of
radioactive nuclei at time t.
A (t) = N(t)
❑ Specific activity a is the parent’s activity per unit mass:

A (t) N(t) NA NA Avogadro’s number
a= = =
M M A A atomic mass number
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Activity represents the total number of disintegrations

(decays) of parent nuclei per unit time.
❑ The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (1 Bq = 1 s-1).

Both becquerel and hertz correspond to s-1 yet hertz expresses
frequency of periodic motion, while becquerel expresses activity.
❑ The older unit of activity is the curie (1 Ci = 3.7  1010 s−1) ,

originally defined as the activity of 1 g of radium-226.
Currently, the activity of 1 g of radium-226 is 0.988 Ci.
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Decay of radioactive parent P into stable daughter D:


P ⎯⎯
P
→D
❑ The rate of depletion of the number of radioactive parent

nuclei NP (t) is equal to the activity A P (t) at time t:
NP ( t ) t
dNP (t) dNP (t )
dt
= − A P (t) = − PNP (t) 
NP (0)
NP
= −  P dt
0
where NP (0) is the initial number of parent nuclei at time t = 0.
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ The number of radioactive parent nuclei NP (t) as a

function of time t is:
− Pt
NP (t) = NP (0)e
❑ The activity of the radioactive parent A P (t) as a function of

time t is:
− Pt − Pt
AP (t) = PNP (t) = PNP (0)e = AP (0)e
where AP ( 0) is the initial activity at time t = 0.
1.2.7 Radioactivity
Parent activity A P (t)

plotted against time
t illustrating:
• Exponential decay
of the activity
• Concept of half life
• Concept of mean life
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Half life (t1/ 2 )P of radioactive parent P is the time during

which the number of radioactive parent nuclei decays
from the initial value NP (0) at time t = 0 to half the initial
value:
− P (t1/2 )P
NP (t = t1/2 ) = (1 / 2)NP (0) = NP (0)e
❑ The decay constant P and the half life (t1/ 2 )P are related
as follows:
ln 2
P =
(t1/2 )P
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ Decay of radioactive parent P into unstable daughter D

which in turn decays into granddaughter G:
P D
P ⎯ ⎯→ D ⎯ ⎯→ G
❑ The rate of change dND / dt in the number of daughter

nuclei D equals to supply of new daughter nuclei through
decay of P given as PNP (t) and the loss of daughter nuclei
D from the decay of D to G given as − DND (t)
dND − t
= PNP (t) − DND (t) = PNP (0) e P − DND (t)
dt
1.2.7 Radioactivity
❑ The number of daughter nuclei is:

P
ND (t ) = NP (0)
D − P
e − t
− e − t

P D
❑ Activity of the daughter nuclei is:
NP (0)P D − Pt D
AD (t ) =
D − P

e −e − Dt
= AP ( 0) 
D − P
e − Pt − e − Dt =  
D
= AP ( 0)
1
P  e − Pt
−e − Dt
 = AP (t )
D − P
 1 − e −( D −P )t , 
1−
D
1.2.7 Radioactivity
At t = tmax
the parent and daughter
activities are equal and
the daughter activity reaches
its maximum.
dAD
=0
dt t =tmax
and
D
ln
P
tmax =
D − P
 
Parent and daughter activities against time for P ⎯ ⎯
P
→D ⎯⎯
D
→G
1.2.7 Radioactivity
 
Special considerations for the P ⎯ ⎯
P
→D ⎯⎯
D
→ G relationship:
D
❑ For D  P or (t1/ 2 )D  (t1/ 2 )P AD
=
AP D − P

1 − e− ( D −P )t 
General relationship (no equilibrium)
❑ For D  P or (t1/ 2 )D  (t1/ 2 )P AD D

=
Transient equilibrium for t  tmax AP D − P
❑ For D  P or (t1/ 2 )D  (t1/ 2 )P AD

1
Secular equilibrium AP
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.
16.5 QUANTITIES AND UNITS IN RADIATION PROTECTION
16.5.1. Physical quantities
❑ Absorbed dose D is defined as:

d
D=
dm
• d is the mean energy imparted to matter of mass dm.
❑ SI unit for absorbed dose is 1 J/kg and its name is the

gray (Gy).
❑ The older unit of absorbed dose is the rad, representing
100 erg/g, i.e., 1 Gy = 100 cGy = 100 rad.
IAEA Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 16.5.1 Slide 4
16.5.2. Radiation protection quantities
❑ Other dose related quantities have been introduced to

account not only for physical effects but also for biological
effects of radiation upon tissues.
❑ The special radiation protection quantities are:

• Organ dose.
• Equivalent dose.
• Effective dose.
• Committed dose.
• Collective dose.
16.5.2. Radiation protection quantities (Equivalent dose)
❑ Equivalent dose HT is defined by the organ dose DT,R

multiplied by a radiation weighting factor wR to account for
the effectiveness of the given radiation in inducing
biological detriment or harm:
HT = wR DT,R
• DT,R is the absorbed dose delivered by radiation type R averaged

over a tissue or organ T.
• wR is the radiation weighting factor for radiation type R.
❑ Biological detriment to an organ depends upon:

• Physical average dose received by the organ
• Pattern of the dose distribution that results from the radiation type
and energy.
❑ For the same dose to the organ, alpha or neutron radiation

will cause greater harm compared with gamma rays, x
rays, or electrons because the ionization events produced
by alpha or neutron radiation will be much more closely
spaced.
❑ Radiation weighting factor wR is a dimensionless number

(wR  1) which depends on the way in which the energy of
the radiation is distributed along its path through the
tissue.
• wR = 1 for all x rays, gamma rays, and electrons
• wR = 5 for protons EK > 2 MeV; for neutrons EK < 10 keV
• wR = 10 for neutrons 10 keV < EK < 100 keV and EK > 2 MeV
• wR = 20 for neutrons 100 keV < EK < 2 MeV
• wR = 20 for alpha particles, fission fragments, heavy nuclei
❑ Linear energy transfer (LET) of the radiation describes

the rate of energy deposition along the track (in keV/ m):
• High LET radiation:
heavy charged particles
• Low LET radiation:
x rays, gamma rays,
electrons (beta
particles)
❑ SI unit of equivalent dose HT is J/kg and its name is the

sievert (Sv).
❑ The old unit of the equivalent dose HT is the rem.
❑ Relationship between the Sievert and the rem is:
1 Sv = 100 rem.
❑ Example:
• For 1 Gy of photon dose to an organ (organ dose DT = 1 Gy), the
equivalent dose dose HT = 1 Sv, since wR = 1 for photons.
• For 1 Gy of organ dose of 20 keV neutrons, the equivalent dose
HT = 10 Sv, since wR = 10 for 20 keV neutrons.
❑ Organ dose DT,R is a measure of the energy absorption

per unit mass averaged over the organ.
❑ Equivalent dose HT is a measure of the biological harm
(detriment) to the organ or tissue T as a result of organ
dose DT,R.
❑ If an organ is irradiated by more than one type of
radiation, the equivalent dose HT is given by the sum:
HT =  wR DT,R
16.5.2. Radiation protection quantities (Effective dose)
❑ Effective dose E is defined as the summation of tissue

equivalent doses, each multiplied by the appropriate tissue
weighting factor wT, to indicate the combination of different
doses to several different tissues in a way that correlates
well with all stochastic effects combined.
E =  w T HT
❑ Unit of effective dose E is J/kg and its name is the sievert (Sv).
❑ Tissue weighting factors wT are tabulated in ICRP Pub-

lication 60 and in the IAEA Basic Safety Standards (BSS).
❑ Despite depending on the sex and age of a person, for
purposes of radiation protection the values for wT are
assumed constant and applicable to the general public:
• wT = 0.20 for gonads
• wT = 0.12 for lung, red bone marrow, colon, stomach
• wT = 0.05 for bladder, breast, liver, oesophagus, thyroid
• wT = 0.01 for skin, bone surface
• wT = 1.0 for whole body total
❑ Weighting factors wT and wR are mutually independent:

• The tissue weighting factors wT are independent of radiation type.
• The radiation weighting factors wR are independent of tissue type.
❑ Effective dose E and the organ dose HT are given as:

E =  w T HT HT =  wR DT,R
❑ Effective dose then is:

E =  wT  wR DT,R =  wR  wT DT,R
T R R T
❑ When one deals with only one type of radiation in a given

situation, the effective dose E is given as:
E =  wT DT,R
T
❑ Effective dose E is a measure of dose designated to

reflect the amount of radiation detriment likely to result
from the dose.
❑ Annual dose limits for occupational and public exposure
are given in terms of annual effective dose.

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1.2. Kuantitas Radiasi

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Chapter 2: Dosimetric Principles,

Quantities and Units

Slide set prepared in 2006

16.5. Quantities and units used in radiation protection

❑ Radiation dosimetry has its origin in the medical

❑ The connection to the medical profession is obvious.

The term dose of radiation was initially used

❑ Very soon it turned out that physical methods to

❑ Radiation dosimetry is a now a pure physical science.

❑ A number of physical quantities and units have been

❑ This chapter deals with the most commonly used

❑ Ionizing radiation may simply consist of various types of

❑ The term radiation field is a very general term that is used

❑ There are two very general quantities associated with a

• the number, N of particles

❑ ICRU-Definition of particle number:

❑ ICRU-Definition of radiant energy:

❑ For particles of energy E (excluding rest energy):

A detailed description of a radiation field generally will require

How can the number of particles be determined at a certain

Consider a point P(r) in space within a field of radiation.

Then use the following simple method:

In case of a parallel radiation beam,

Determine the number of particles that P

In the general case of nonparallel particle directions it is evident that a

A somewhat modified concept is needed!

The plane dA is allowed to move freely around P, so as to intercept

Practically this means:

• Count the number of particles

❑ The ratio between number of particles and the area is

❑ Planar particle fluence is the number of particles crossing a giving

The same concept that is used for fluence can be applied

Energy fluence can be calculated from particle fluence

Almost all realistic photon or particle beams are

For a better description, the particle fluence is

The same concept is applied to the radiant energy R:

The energy fluence differential in energy is defined as:

Spectra often show physical

The particle fluence or the energy fluence may change

The two fluence quantities differential in time are called

The following slides will deal with three dosimetric quantities:

Common characteristics of kerma, cema and dose:

❑ They are generally defined as:

The first characteristic:

needs a more detailed inspection into the different ways of

❑ radiation energy transfer

Definition of energy deposit

Example for energy deposit i with Q = 0 (electron knock-on interaction):

 i =  in − (Eout + E A,1 + E A,2 + E + h )

Example for energy deposit i with Q < 0 (pair production):

Example for energy deposit i with Q > 0 (positron annihilation):

 i =  in − (h 1 + h 2 + h k + E A,1 + E A,2 ) + 2m0c 2

Definition of energy imparted

Definition of an (energy impartion) event:

Definition of an (energy impartion) event:

Definition of an (energy impartion) event:

Note: The same amount of imparted energy  can consist of:

❑ Since all energy deposits i are of stochastic nature,  is also a

Stochastic of Energy Absorption means:

❑ fluctuation in the number of events

The determination of the variance of

Combined relative variance of energy imparted  is given by:

V(ε ) V(N) 1 V1(ε )

variance of the number variance of the single