Course Objectives:: BPHYS/BPHYC/BPHYE/BPHYM/102/202

Applied Physics Laboratory Manual Semester I/II
Course Objectives:
 The Objective of this course is to make the students gain practical knowledge to co-
relate with the theoretical studies. To achieve perfectness in experimental skills and
the study of practical applications will bring more confidence and ability to develop
and fabricate engineering and technical equipments.
 Design of circuits using new technology and latest components and to develop
practical applications of engineering materials and use of principle in the right way
to implement the modern technology.
Discipline at Physics lab
Do’s
 Bring Observation book & Record book regularly.

 Read theory of respective experiment in advance before coming to the Lab.
 Bring calculator, graph sheets and necessary materials to the practical class
regularly.
 Handle the apparatus/equipments gently and carefully.
 Return the collected apparatus, components before leaving the lab.
Don’ts
 Dump your bag on the worktable.

 Giving your Observation book and Records to others.
 Forget to check your belongings before leaving the lab.
 Spoil the apparatus/equipment as it is meant for your benefit only.
 Switch on electronic equipment before getting the approval by the
Faculty/instructor.
 Don’t play with LASER light. It’s dangerous. Don’t Focus the LASER light to your Eye.
BPHYS/BPHYC/BPHYE/BPHYM/102/202 Page 1
CONTENTS
Sl. Experiments Page no. Date
No
Part A( Exercise)
01 Determination of wavelength of LASER using Diffraction 3-5
Grating.(CSE,EEE,CE,ME)
02 Study the frequency response of Series & Parallel LCR circuits. 6-9
(CSE,EEE,CE,ME)
03 Determination of acceptance angle and numerical aperture of the given 10-11
Optical Fiber(CSE,EEE,CE,ME)
04 Determination of Fermi Energy of Copper. (CSE,EEE,CE,ME) 12-15
05 Identification of circuit elements in a Black Box and determination of 16-17
values of the components(CSE,EEE)
06 Determination of the Radius of Curvature of the given Plano Convex Lens 18-21
by setting Newton’s Rings. (CE,ME)
Part B (Structure Inquiry)
07 Determination of Magnetic Flux Density at any point along the axis of a 22-23
circular coil. (CSE,EEE)
08 Study the I-V Characteristics of the Given Bipolar Junction 24-26
Transistor(CSE,EEE)
09 Determination of dielectric constant of the material of capacitor by 27-29
Charging and discharging method(CSE,EEE)
10 Study the Characteristics of a Photo-Diode and to determine the power 30-33
responsivity / Verification of Inverse Square Law of Intensity of Light.
(CSE,EEE)
11 Determination of Plank’s Constant using LEDs. (CSE,EEE) 34-35
12 Determination of Young’s modlus of the material of the given bar Single 36-37
Cantilever. (CE,ME)
13 Determination of Rigidity modulus of the Material of the wire using 38-40
Torsional Pendulum. (CE,ME)
14 Determination of effective spring constant of the given springs in series 41-45
and parallel combinations. (CE,ME)
15 Determination of the Moment of Inertia of the given irregular body using 46-47
torsional pendulum(CE,ME)
PART C (Demonstration)
16 Determination of Energy gap of the given Semiconductor. (CSE,EEE) 48-49
17 PHET Interactive Simulations (CSE,EEE,CE,ME)
18 Determination of Young’s modulus of the material of the given bar Uniform
Bending(CE,ME)
Part D Open ended Experiment Common to all
19 Determination of resistivity of a semiconductor by Four Probe Method
20 Study of motion using spread Sheets
CSE: Computer science and Engineering, ECE: Electrical & Electronics Engineering Stream,
CE: Civil Engineering Streams ME: Mechanical Engineering Stream
Experiment No-01 Date

DIFFRACTION GRATTING
Aim: Determination of wavelength of laser source using diffraction grating.
Apparatus: Diffraction grating, Laser-light, Screen, etc.
Diagram:
Formula:
1. The grating constant is determined by using the formula,

2.54
d _______cm (1 inch = 2.54 cm)
N
where N is the number of lines on the grating
d sin  m
2. Wavelength of laser source λ is given by   _________ nm
m
where d is grating constant, m is the order of diffraction maxima.
Experimental procedure
1. Mount the diode laser on the laser holder.
2. Mount the grating on the stand.
3. Switch on the laser and align the laser beam in such a way that the beam falls on the
zeroth spot of the scale.
4. Insert the grating element such that the beam falls normally and the diffracted beam
on the scale.
5. Observe the first, second third & fourth order spectral spot diffracted from the
grating element on the scale (screen)
6. Determine the distance ‘D’ between grating element and the scale (screen)
7. Mark the position of central maxima, first, second, third & fourth spectral spot on
the left and right side of scale (screen)
8. Measure the distance between first order spectral spot (m1), second order spectral
spot (m2), ….. on both right and left side on the scale.
9. Calculate the average distance between successive order spots on the scale
10. Change the distance D and repeat the step 6 to 9
11. Calculate the wavelength of laser light using the given equation.
Tabular column:
Distance
Distance between d sin  m

between mth order LR x 
Order xm  m  tan 1  m  m
grating & maxima 2 D sin m
“m”
screen Left Right in cm in nm
(cm) (L) (R)
1st
D1= 2nd
3rd
1st
D2= 2nd
3rd
1st
2nd
D3=
3rd
Mean
Observations:
Number of lines per inch (LPI), N = 500
1
Grating constant d  ,
N
1 2.54cm 2.54
d , d = = 5.08 x 10-3 cm= 5.08 x 10-5 m.
N N 500
2.54cm
d sin  m
 _________ nm
m
Result: The wavelength of given laser light is  = .................. nm
Experiment No.02 Date:

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT
Aim: To study
a) The frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
b) To determine the Resonant Frequency.
c) Determine Inductance
Apparatus: Inductor (L), Capacitor (C), AFO (Audio frequency oscillator), patch chords,
ac ammeter etc.
Formula with Units

1
1. Inductance L = _________ henry
4 .Fr 2 .C
2
2.
Fr is the resonating frequency, L is the inductance of a given inductor, C is the capacitance

of the capacitor, R is the resistance of the given resistor.
Circuit diagram:
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Series Resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram (fig 1), with suitable values of L, C &
R
2. The output of the oscillator is adjusted suitably and is kept constant throughout
the experiment.
3. Switch on the power supply and set the amplitude to maximum.
4. Increase the frequency from 400 Hz to 10000 Hz (in suitable steps) and note
down the corresponding readings of the voltage in the voltmeter.
5. During this variation of frequency, the frequency Fr for which current reaches its
maximum value (Vmax), called the resonance frequency, must be measured with
maximum accuracy.
Parallel Resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram (fig 2), with suitable values of L, C & R
2. The output of the oscillator is adjusted suitably and is kept constant throughout the
experiment.
3. Switch on the power supply and set the amplitude to maximum.
4. Increase the frequency from 400 Hz to 10000 Hz (in suitable steps) and note down
the corresponding readings of the current in the milliammeter.
5. Plot a graph of current Vs frequency. You will get the curve as shown in figure 4
6. Note down the frequency corresponding to minimum voltage (V min), it is called
resonance frequency (Fr).
Series Resonance:
R = ______________Ω C =_____________ µF
SI No Frequency Series Resonance SI No Frequency Series Resonance
In Hz voltage (V) In Hz voltage (V)
1 200 10 2000
2 400 11 3000
3 600 12 4000
4 800 13 5000
5 1000 14 6000
6 1200 15 7000
7 1400 16 8000
8 1600 17 9000
9 1800 18 10000
Parallel Resonance:
R = ______________Ω C =_____________ µF
SI No Frequency Parallel Resonance SI No Frequency Parallel Resonance

In Hz voltage (V) In Hz voltage (V)
1 200 10 2000
2 400 11 3000
3 600 12 4000
4 800 13 5000
5 1000 14 6000
6 1200
7 1400
8 1600
9 1800
Calculation:
Result:
Types of Resonant frequency Inductance

resonance By graphically
Series
Parallel
Experiment No. 03 Date:

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
Aim: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.
APPARATUS: Laser source, Optical fiber, Screen, Scale.
PRINCIPLE: The Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the numerical
aperture of the fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle spread by the
light signal at the emerging end of the optical fiber. Therefore, by measuring the diameter
of the light spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end to the screen,
we can measure the acceptance angle and there by the numerical aperture of the fiber.
FORMULA: The Acceptance angle,
D
 0  tan 1  
 2L 
Where D – the diameter of the bright circle formed on screen,
L – the distance between the optical fiber end and screen.
And the Numerical Aperture,
NA  sin 0
Diagram:
Screen
a
Laser source Optical fiber

cable c d
Procedure:
1. Switch on the laser source and adjust the distance between output end of the
optical fiber and the screen ‘L’ (say 2 cm).
2. Place a graph sheet on the screen and observe the circle formed on the graph
sheet.
3. Mark the points ‘a’,’b’,’c’ & ‘d’ on the inner bright circle as shown in the diagram.
Note down the horizontal diameter D1 and vertical diameter D2 of the inner bright
circle in the tabular column.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of L (for 4cm, 6cm, … ).
5. Find the Acceptance angle from the tabular column and hence the Numerical
aperture.
Tabular column:
Trail L Horizontal Vertical Mean Acceptance Numerical

No. (in cm) diameter D1 diameter D2 Diameter D angle aperture NA
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm)  D
 0  tan 1  
NA  sin 0
 2L 
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
 0 mean  NAmean 
Result:
Angle of acceptance of the given optical fiber
0 =
Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber NA =
DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY
Aim: Fermi energy and Fermi temperature of copper material is determined by studying
resistance variations at different temperatures.
Apparatus: DC regulated power supply, digital milli ammeter, digital multi meter (DMM),
Heating arrangements, Thermometer 0-100 degree, and copper coil.
Formula used:
2
 ne2 A r 2   R 
2
EF      ………………… Joules
 L 2m   T 
EF
TF  …………………………K
k
Where K is Boltzmann constant 1.381 x10-23 J/K
Circuit diagram:
Nature of Graph:
Procedure:
1. About 4.73 meters length copper wire is taken and its radius is determined and
cross sectional area is calculated. Its mass number and density are noted from
Clark’s table.
LCopper = 4.73m, Radius r = 0.25
Cross sectional area =
Density
The copper wire is wound over an insulating tube to form a coil. The tube which
contains the copper coil & thermometer is immersed into the water bath as shown
in experimental setup.
2. Heat the water with immersion electric heater and allow the temperature to reach
up to 80 OC. Remove the hater from the water bath.
3. The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
4. Record the resistance value for every fall in 5 OC of temperature until it reaches to
45 OC.
5. A graph is drawn taking temperature in Kelvin along X-axis and resistance along
Y-axis. The slope of straight line is calculated.
6. The Fermi energy of copper is calculated using given formula.
Theory:
The Fermi level is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electronic energy
levels at absolute temperature. In metals the Fermi energy gives information about the
velocities of the electrons which participate in ordinary electrical conduction.
Let the number of free electrons in metal per unit volume is given by
N
n ……………………………………………………………………………… (1)
M
Where N is an Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x1026 /m3,  is the density of the metal and M is
the mass number of the metal
The electrical conductivity of the metal is
L
 ……………………………………………………………………………. (2)
Ra
Where L is length and ‘a’ is cross section area of the metal wire and R is resistance at a
given a temperature.
The relaxation time is given by
m
 ……………………………………………………………………………… (3)
ne 2
where ‘e’ is the electronic charge (1.602x10-19C) and m is electron mass (9.1x10-31 Kg)
If VF is Fermi velocity, then mean free path of electrons
F  VF …………………………………………………………………………… (4)
And Constant A  F T ………………………………………………………………………………. (5)
Now Fermi energy,
1
EF  mVF2 …………………………………………………………………….. (6)
2
Using Eq. (5), (4), (3) and (2) Eq. (6) becomes
2
 ne2 A r 2   R 
2
EF      ……………………………………. (7)
 L 2m   T 
Tabular column:
Temperature Voltage in Current in Resistance in

OC in K (mV) (mA) ( )
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
Calculations:
At 318 degree K
Electron density n
Electrical Conductivity σ =
The Fermi velocity for copper
The relaxation time
Mean free path
Constant, A=
Fermi Energy:
EF =
2
 8.46 1028  (1.6 1019 ) 2 7.56 106 1.96 107   R 
2
EF     
  T 
31
 4.73 2  9.11  10
2  R 
2
EF  5.03 107     …………….Joules

 T 
 
EF   19 
………………………eV
1.6 10 
Results:
The Fermi energy of copper is EF = …………………………eV

BLACK BOX EXPERIMENT
Aim: Identification of circuit elements in a Black Box and determination of

values of the components.
Apparatus: Signal generator, AC voltmeter, AC ammeter and unknown components.

Circuit Diagram:
Formulae with Units:

R
L ________H
2 f
1
C ________F
2 fR
Procedure:
1. Initial adjustments: Set the voltage in the signal generator (say 3 Volts)
by connectingvoltmeter across the signal generator.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
3. Note down corresponding voltage and current by varying the frequency
in step of 400Hz for all components.
4. Find the resistance of all components.
5. If R α f, given component is Inductor. By using formula find its value.
6. If R α 1/ƒ given component is Capacitor. By using formula find its
7. If R is independent of f given component is Resistor.
Tabular Column:
Frequency
Component A Component B Component C
(Hz)
V I R Volt I R Volt I R (Ω)
(Volt (mA) (Ω) (V) (mA) (Ω) (V) (mA)
Observation: Output voltage set, V = Volt
Calculations:
Component A
R ---------------, given component is -------------
Component B
R ----------------, given component is -------------
Component C
R given component is
Result:
Component A is ----------- and its value =
Component B is ----------- and its value =
Component C is ----------- and its value =

NEWTON’S RING
Aim: Determine the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens.
Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens, plane glass
plate, Magnifying lens.
Basic Methodology: A thin wedge shaped air film is created by placing a plano-convex lens
on a flat glass plate. A monochromatic beam of light is made to fall at almost normal
incidence on the arrangement. Ring like interference fringes are observed in the reflected
light. The diameters of the rings are measured.
Introduction: The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an illustration of the interference of
light waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness. The two
interfering beams, derived from a monochromatic source satisfy the coherence condition
for interference. Ring shaped fringes are produced by the air film existing between a
convex surface of a long focus plano-convex lens and a plane of glass plate.
Principle: When waves of light are reflected at the surface of a denser medium a phase
changes of λ/2 or π is produced. The regions of crossover with the path difference 2n (λ/2)
forms the bright ring and (2n+1) λ/2 forms dark ring. And the radius of curvature of lens
can be found by measuring the diameter of the rings.
Formula with units
1  D2 
R  cm 
4  n  mean
Wave length of light   5893x108 cm
Ray Diagram
Procedure:
1. The arrangement of the plano-convex lens on the glass plate resting on its curved
surface is placed below the tilting glass plate. This setup is placed below the
microscope such that the axis of the microscope is through the centre of the lens
when viewed from the top.
2. The sodium vapour lamp is switched on. The microscope is positioned properly to
receive the light straight to the tilting glass plate.
3. The orientation of the plate is changed slowly so that its upper part makes an angle
of 45° with respect to the direction of the incident light, so that the light suddenly
becomes bright in the microscope. Maximum brightness is obtained by fine
adjustments.
4. Operate the rack and pinion screw till the bright patch of light modifies itself into a
series of alternate bright and dark rings.
5. The intersection of the cross-wire is made to coincide with the centre of the ring
system which is a dark patch. The eyepiece is rotated to make one of the cross-wires
align in a direction parallel to the scale of the microscope.
6. By rotating the tangential screw, the cross-wire are moved towards left from the
center, counting the ordinal numbers of only the dark rings till the 12th dark ring is
reached.
7. Now, reversing the direction of rotation, the readings of the microscope are noted
starting from the 12th ring up to the 4th ring, for every alternate dark ring and
entered in the L.H.S column.
8. Continuing further, and after crossing the central dark patch, the readings of the
microscope are noted in the same way from the 4th ring onwards to the 12th ring
and enter in R.H.S column,
9. The diameters and also their squares are found for various rings. The radius of
curvature of the lens is then calculate by using the equation
Precautions:
1. The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.

2. If you place the cross wire tangential to the outer side of a perpendicular ring on one
side of the central spot then the cross wire should be placed tangential to the inner
side of the same ring on the other side of the central spot.
3. The traveling microscope should move only in one direction.
Observation:
Smallest division on MSR

1. Least count of venire of traveling microscope   _________
Total No of Division of VSR
LC = ______cm
2. TR=MSR+(CVD x LC)
Tabular column
Sl. Order of Microscope reading D=(L+R) D2

No ring L.H.S Rings(L) R.H.S. Rings(R) Cm (cm2)
n
(n) MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
(cm) (cm)
1
Mean
Calculations:
Results: The radius of curvature of the given Plano convex lens R=_________________cm
Part B (Structure Inquiry)
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL
AIM: To determine the magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current and earth’s horizontal magnetic field by deflection method.
APPARATUS: Deflection magnetometer, sprit level, commutator, ammeter, variable power

supply and connecting wires.
0 nI a2
B
a 
FORMULA: 3
2 2
 x2 2
Where B –the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular coil,

n – number of turns in the TG coil,
a – radius of the coil
x – distance between the centre of the coil and pointer in the
compass box
 0 - permeability of free space = 4πx10-7 Hm-1.
I – the current through the coil
B
BH 
tan
Where BH – horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field and
θ – mean deflection in TG.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A
x
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Arrange the deflection of the magnetometer in the magnetic meridian of the earth
3. Now align the plane of the coil with respect to 90°-90° line of the magnetometer.
4. Keep the magnetometer exactly at the centre of the coil (for this case x = 0).
5. Pass a current I (say 0.5A) to flow through the coil and the corresponding
magnetometer deflections θ1 and θ2 are noted.
6. The direction of the current is reversed by using the commutator C and the
corresponding magnetometer deflections θ3 and θ4 are noted.
7. Average deflection θ is calculated.
8. Calculate the magnetic field at the centre of the coil by using the given formula
 0 nl a2 and also BH.
B
2 a 2
 x2 3
2
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of x ( say 5cm, 10cm, …) by sliding the
magnetometer along the axis.
10. Find the average of both B and BH.
TABULOR COLUMN:
Radius of the coil,a = 8.2 cm and forn = 50 turns and for I =0.2A
 0 nl 1.256637  10 6  50  0.2
  6.2831  10 6
2 2
Sl. Current X Deflections in degrees Average θ B B

in x10-5 T BH 
No. I in cm θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 in degree tan
in A in x10-6 T
1 0
2 5
0.2
3 10
4 15
Mean value of BH = Tesla
RESULT: Earth’s horizontal magnetic field ___________________________T

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: Study the I-V Characteristics of the Given Bipolar Junction Transistor
Apparatus: Given Transistor (npn), variable DC dual power supply, DC micro ammeter, DC
milli ammeter, DC voltmeter, patch cords.
Principle: Transistor is a three terminal semi-conducting device basically used for

amplification. It is operated in three different modes viz., CE mode, CB mode and CC mode.
In any transistor, emitter-base junction is always forward biased and collector-base
junction is reversed biased.
In CE mode, the following characteristics are studied.
Input characteristics: The study of variation in input current (base current) with input
voltage (base−emitter voltage) at constant output voltage (collector−emitter voltage).
Output characteristics: The study of variation in output current (collector current) with
output voltage (collector−emitter voltage) at constant input current (base current).
Formula
VBE
1. Input resistance Ri   Slope ____ 
I BE
Circuit diagram:
VBE = Base emitter voltage, VCE = Collector emitter voltage

B = Base, C = collector, E = emitter, IB = Base current, and IC = Collector current
Nature of Graph
Procedure:
1. The common emitter circuit for studying the transistor characteristics of a npn
transistor is as shown in the figure.
2. Identify the base, the collector and the emitter leads of the given NPN transistor and
then insert it into the transistor socket in the circuit.
3. Before switching on the circuit, turn all power supply knobs to the minimum
position.
Input characteristics:
1. The DC voltmeter is connected across collector-emitter junction.
2. The collector emitter voltage VCE is set to 1 volt by varying VCC.
3. Keeping VCE = 1 volt ,as constant , the base-emitter voltage VBE ( input voltage) is
increased from zero volt in steps of 0.1 V up to 1 V, by varying the knob VBB and the
corresponding values of base current IB are noted from the micro ammeter.
4. A graph of VBE along X-axis and IB along Y-axis is plotted.
Output Characteristics:
1. To study the output characteristics of the transistor, again turn all the power supply
knobs to minimum position.
2. The input current IB is set to 50 μA by varying VBB. Keeping IB =50 μA apply different
values of collector-Emitter voltage VCE and note down corresponding collector current
values IC in milli amperes.
3. Tabulate all the values in relevant tabular column for output characteristics. Care
should be taken that while taking each reading of IC, IB should read the constant values
i.e. IB = 100 μA.
4. Now for other trial set base current IB for 150 μA and repeat the same procedure for
different values of IB. Now a graph of VCE along X-axis and IC along Y-axis is plotted
5. A graph of output voltage VCE along X-axis and output current IC along Y-axis is plotted
for input current IB for 50 μA, 100 μA, 150 μA and 200 μA as shown in the diagram.
Tabular Column
Table 1:
Input Reverse-bias Characteristics
Characteristics
Dependence of IB on Dependence of IC on VCE for constant IB

VBE for constant VCE at
IB1= 50 IB2=100 μA IB3= 150 IB4=200
1 Volts
Vcc μA μA μA
Voltage Current in IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA)
VBE IB (A) (Volts)
(Volts)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1.0 1.0
Calculation:
Result:
The I-V characteristics of bipolar junction has studies NPN transistor,

1. The value of input resistance =_____________Ω
MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Aim: Using capacitors of known physical dimensions, dielectric constant is determined by
charging-discharging it through a resistor.
Apparatus: Charging & discharging key, electrolytic capacitor, Voltmeter, Resistance box,
stop clock & Power supply
Formula with Units

Dielectric constant is determined using equation
1.44T1 2 x106 d
K d is separation between two plates
 0 AR ) F/m
A is the area of the plates
R is the value of Resistor in 100 KΩ
Circuit diagram:
Fig.1
Nature of Graph
Fig. 2
Procedure:
1. Resistance R in the circuit is adjusted so that Capacitor gets charged slowly.
2. By pressing the key capacitor gets charged through the resistance R, note down
voltmeter reading at regular intervals of time until the capacitor is fully charged.
3. Release the key capacitor gets discharged through the resistance R, note down the
voltmeter reading at regular intervals of time till the capacitor is fully discharged
4. Plot the graph of voltage against time and draw the curve for charging and
discharging on the same graph paper.
5. Find out T1/2 from the graph where the two curves intersect as shown in the fig. 2
6. Using the formula Calculate dielectric constant of the material of the capacitor
Table: Physical dimensions of Capacitor
Length l= _____________ (mm) ______________m

Breadth b= ______________(mm) ______________m
Separation d= ______________ ______________m
Area of the dielectric material A= l x b= _____________m2
Tabular Column
For C , R=100KΩ
Voltage across the capacitor
Time
during charging and
(sec)
discharging
Charge (V) Discharge (V)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Calculation: 1) R=___________K 2) T1/2= ___________s

3) F/m)
Dielectric Constant ,
Result: Dielectric constant of a given material is K = ___________
I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTODIODE
Aim: To study reverse bias characteristics of photodiode and calculation of power

responsivity
Apparatus: Photodiode, DC voltmeter (Digital), DC ammeter, resistor, power supply,

rheostat ,power regulation setup and connecting wires.
I PD
Formula: R  __________mA Where , IPD - Photo diode current
P
P- Input Light power
Circuit diagram:
Nature of Graph:
a) I-V Characteristic curves of Photo diode b) Variation of PD current with

input power light
12
A
10
8
Ipd (mA)
6
C B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Input Power (W)
Theory:
Photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device which responds to high energetic
particles and photons. The degree of response of a photodiode to light be a measure of its
sensitivity is called Responsivity of photo diode and it is defined as the ratio of the
photocurrent IPD to the incident light power P at a given wavelength.
In other words, it is a measure of the effectiveness of the conversion of the input light
power into an electrical current. Responsivity increases slightly with applied reverse bias
due to improved charge collection efficiency of the photodiode.
Procedure:
Experiments consists of two parts

Part -A: Determination of I-V characteristics
Part-B: Determination of Resposivity ( R )
Part-A:
1. Connect the photodiode in reverse bias as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Set the Power say 1 W and VPD is set to -0.1 V and record the corresponding IPD
Input light power (V= 5V, I=_______A=VI=_________W)
3. Repeat the experiment for different input Power
4 . Plot the graph of voltage vs. current.
Part-B:
1. The figure shows the light arrangement of experimental setup. The white light and
PD are placed face to face 10 cm apart.
2. Input light power is switched on and set the power (5Vx______A=VI_____W), After
ensuring that the light is glowing and while noting the PD current in the meter, the
cover is placed so that any external light will not affect on the readings.
3. Photo diode circuit is connected in Reverse bias
4. Keeping VPD =-1.0 V as constant, increase the input light power and note down the
corresponding photocurrent IPD
5. A graph of IPD along Y axis and power along X axis is plotted. Slope of the graph
yields.
Tabular Column:
1) Variation of photodiode voltage with current
IPD(mA)
VPD (V) Input Power light (W)
V=5V, I= P= W V=7V, I= P= W V=9V, I= P= W
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-1.0
2) Table : Photodiode current variation with power

V=1 volt
voltage (V) current (A) P=VI (W) IPD (mA)
Calculation:
Result:
Reverse photocurrent is directly proportional to Input power
Power responsivity of photodiode R = _______________mA/W
Determination of Plank’s Constant using LEDs.
AIM: - To determine the Planck’s constant
APPARATUS: - 0-9 V power supply, a rheostat, a digital milliammeter, a digital voltmeter,

a 1 K resistor and different known wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Theory
Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist

named Max Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small
packets of energy) can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It
describes the behavior of particle and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of
light.
An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a
potential barrier is developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED
to an external voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across
the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of potential barrier becomes
very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward biased condition electrons crossing
the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is emitted. This
particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee
voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not change.
The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as ,
hc
E  h 

here , c -velocity of light, h -Planck’s constant. λ -wavelength of light.
If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee
voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,
E  eV
eV  e
h h  * slope
Therefore, c c
Formula:
eV 
h
c
, c -velocity of light, h -Planck’s constant. λ -wavelength of light, V is Knee voltage
DIAGRAM:
Nature of Graph:-
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as shown in the figure).

2. Adjust the rheostat value till LED start glowing
3. Corresponding voltage across the LED measured using voltmeter which is known as
knee voltage.
4. Repeat by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage
5. Using given formula find the value of Planck’s constant
Observation:-
LED Colour Wavelength (nm) 1 Knew votage (V) Slope

RED
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
Result: Planck’s constant = Js.
YOUNG’S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER
AIM: - To determine the young’s modulus of the material of the given beam by the method
of single cantilever.
APPARATUS: - Single cantilever setup, slotted weights, travelling microscope, reading lens
and lamp.
4m g l 3
FORMULA: Y N/m2
bd3y
Where, M-mass producing the Elevation (in kg).

g-acceleration due to gravity (= 9.8 ms-2).
l-distance between the needle and fixed end (in m).
b & d -breadth and thickness of the wooden scale (in m).
y-mean elevation produced (in m).
DIAGRAM:
d b
PROCEDURE:-
1. The tip of the needle (inverted image) on the single cantilever is made to coincide
with the intersection of the cross wire of the travelling microscope (with no load in
the hook).
2. Note down the readings of the travelling microscope in the tabular column as the no
load reading.
3. Now add some weight to the hook (say 50gm). Again coincide the tip of the needle
to the intersection of the cross wire and corresponding readings are noted in the
tabular column.
4. This is repeated up to 250gm in steps of 50 gm every time and corresponding
readings are noted in the tabular column.
5. The experiment is repeated by decreasing the load in the weight hanger in steps of
50g and the corresponding readings are taken and are tabulated.
6. The elevation or deflection of the cantilever beam ‘y’, for load ‘M’ in kg is found out
from the tabular column.
7. By using the breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the bar, the young’s modulus of the
material of the beam is calculated.
Value of 1 M S D
LC  = ………………
Total no. of V S D
TR= MSR+ (CVD x LC)
Tabular column to find elevation(y)
Load in Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Load in Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Elevation
hanger MSR CVD Total MSR CVD Total R1 hanger MSR CVD Total MSR CVD Total R2 y= R1~R2
(g) (cm) (cm) (cm) reading (cm) (g) (cm) reading (cm) reading (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
0 150
50
200
100
250
Mean elevation, y = -------------- m
4m g l 3
CALCULATION: Y
b d 3 y _______________N/m2
RESULT:-Young’s modulus of the material of the beam is found to be Y= -----------------N/m2
TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Aim: Determination of modulus of rigidity and moment of inertia using torsion pendulum
Apparatus: Torsion pendulum, cylinder, micrometer screw gauge and stop watch.
Procedure:
1. Measure the radius of the suspension wire using a screw gauge.
2. Set the disc in oscillation. Find the time for 10 oscillations twice and determine the
mean period of oscillation (T0).
3. Place the two identical masses symmetrically on either side of the suspension wire
as close as possible to the centre of the disc, and measure d1 which is the distance
between suspension of wire and center of cylinder.
4. Find the time for 10 oscillations twice and determine the mean period of oscillation
(TR).
5. Find the moment of inertia of the disc and rigidity modulus of the suspension wire
using the given formulae.
Theory:
A torsional pendulum consists of a disk-like mass suspended from a thin rod or wire.
When the mass is twisted about the axis of the wire, the wire exerts a torque on the
mass, tending to rotate it back to its original position. If twisted and released, the mass
will oscillate back and forth, executing simple harmonic motion. This gives us an idea of
moment of inertia.
Moment of inertia is a body's tendency to resist angular acceleration. It is the sum of
the products of the mass of each particle in the body with the square of its distance
from the axis of rotation. The ratio of shear stress to the displacement per unit sample
length (shear strain) is called rigidity modulus.
Diagram:
Formula with unit:
T2
I  mR 2
2
kgm2
TR  T 2
8 I  l 
  N /m
2
r4  T 2 
Observations:
Radius of the wire (r) =__________________ mm = ______________x 10-3m
Length of suspension wire (l) =______________m
Mass of ring (m) = ____________________ kg
Radius of ring (R) = ____________________ m
Tabulation
Time for 10 Oscillations (in seconds) Mean “t” in Time period

seconds t
t1 in sec t 2 in sec t3 in sec T sec
10
Without Ring T0=
With Ring TR=
Calculation:
Results:
1. Rigidity modulus of copper wire is ______________
2. Moment of inertia of ring is_________________
DETERMINATION OF SPRING CONSTANT

AIM:- To determine the spring constants in Series and Parallel combination.
APPARATUS: Springs, Scale, Rigid stand, Slotted weights, etc.
FORMULA:- 1) Spring constant,
F
k in Nm 1 Where, F – Force applied (= mg) in N.
x
x – Displacement produced in the spring in m.
2) Spring constant for Series combination of springs,
k1 k 2
k Series  in Nm 1
k1  k 2
3) Spring constant for Parallel combination of springs,
k Parallel  k1  k 2 in Nm 1
DIAGRAM:-
a
b
F = mg F = mg
With initial load With load Series combination Parallel combination
PROCEDURE:-
1. Hang the spring1 to the given rigid stand with dead load and note down the position
‘a’ of the pointer on the scale with initial load.
2. Add some more load into the weight hanger (say 50gm) and note down the position
‘b’ of the pointer on the scale with final load.
3. Repeat the same for some more loads in steps of 50gm and tabulate the readings in
the tabular column.
4. Find out the average spring constant ‘k1’.
5. Repeat the above steps for the spring 2 and find out ‘k2’.
To verify Series combination law of springs:
1. Hang the springs in series combination as shown in the diagram. With the initial
load, note down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale.
the tabular column.
4. Find out the average spring constant ‘Kseries’.
To verify Parallel combination law of springs:
1. Hang the springs in parallel combination as shown in the diagram. With the initial
load, note down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale.
the tabular column.
4. Find out the average spring constant ‘Kparallel’.
5. Calculate the theoretical values of Kseries and Kparallel and compare the values with
experimental values.
TABULAR COLUMN:-
To find k1
Pointer reading with initial load W=100gm, a = ________cm
Spring Spring
Pointer Force, F
Trial Load stretch constant
reading ‘b’ (F = mg)
No. in gm (x = b - a) k1 = F/x
in cm in N
in cm in N/m
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150
4 W + 200
Average k1= ______N/m
To find k2
Pointer reading with initial load W=100gm , a =__________cm
Spring Spring
Pointer Force, F
Trial Load stretch constant
reading ‘b’ (F = mg)
No. in gm (x = b - a) k2 = F/x
in cm in N
in cm in N/m
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150
4 W + 200
Average k2= ______N/m
To verify series combination of springs
Pointer reading with initial load W=100gm, a =_______cm
Spring
Pointer Spring stretch Force, F
Trial Load constant
reading ‘b’ (x = b - a) (F = mg)
No. in gm Kseries = F/x
in cm in cm in N
in N/m
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150
4 W + 200
Average kseries= ______N/m

k1 k 2
Theoretical calculation, k Series  in Nm 1
k1  k 2
To verify parallel combination of springs
Pointer reading with initial load W=100gm, a =__________cm
Pointer Spring
Force, F Spring constant
Trial Load ‘m’ reading stretch
(F = mg) Kparallel = F/x
No. in gm ‘b’(cm) (x = b - a)
in N in N/m
in cm
1 W + 50
2 W + 100
3 W + 150
4 W + 200
Average kparallel= ______N/m
Theoretical calculation, k Parallel  k1  k 2 in Nm 1
RESULT:-
The spring constants for the springs are found to be, k1 = ___________N/m
k2 = ___________ N/m
The spring constants for the combination of springs are found to be,
Combination Theoretical Experimental
Series Kseries = N/m Kseries= N/m
Parallel Kparallel = N/m Kparallel = N/m
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF IRREGULAR BODY USING TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Aim: Determination of the Moment of Inertia of the given irregular body using torsional
pendulum
Apparatus: Torsion pendulum, cylinder, micrometer screw gauge and stop watch. Circular
Ring, irregular body
Procedure:
1) Measure the radius of the suspension wire using a screw gauge.
2) Set the disc in oscillation. Find the time for 10 oscillations twice and determine
the mean period of oscillation (T0).
3) Place the two identical masses symmetrically on either side of the suspension
wire as close as possible to the centre of the disc, and measure d1 which is the
distance between suspension of wire and center of cylinder.
4) Find the time for 10 oscillations twice and determine the mean period of
oscillation (TR).
5) Remove the ring and Place the irregular body and repeat the same procedure
and measured time period (TIR)
6) Find the moment of inertia of the disc and irregular object by using the given
formulae.
Diagram:
Formula with unit:
T02
I  mR 2
2
kgm2
TR  T02
T 2  T 2 
I '  I  IR2 02  kgm2
 TR  T0 
Observations:
Radius of the wire (r) =__________________ mm = ______________x 10-3m

Length of suspension wire (l) =______________m
Mass of ring (m) = ____________________ kg
Radius of ring (R) = ____________________ m
Moment Inertia of Disc=_______________kgm2
Tabulation
Time for 10 Oscillations (in seconds) Mean “t” in Time period

t1 in sec t 2 in sec t3 in sec seconds t
T sec
10
Without Ring T0=

With Ring TR=
With irregular
TIR=
body
Calculation:
Results:
1. Moment of inertia of ring is_________________
2. Moment of inertia of irregular object______________
PART C (Demonstration)
Determination of Energy gap of the given Semiconductor.
Aim: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor material taken in the form of a
p-n junction diode.
Apparatus: D. C. Power supply, semi-conductor diode, thermometer calibratedin degrees,
Heating arrangement to heat the diode, Micro-ammeter and connecting wires, oil.
Formula:
2.303  2 K  Slope
Eg 
1.6 1019
Slope  R
1T
Where K is Boltzman constant K=1.38*10-23 J/K
Description: The experimental arrangement comprises of an oil bath which is provided
with sockets at its mouth. The sockets are used to insert the thermometer and the
semiconductor diode in the oil bath. A heating element is fixed inside the oil bath which is
used to raise the temperature of the oil bath by connecting to the A.C.main supply. The
reverse biasing voltage can be adjusted by means of the voltmeter and the reverse
saturation current can be measured with the help of a micro-ammeter.
Procedure: Connect the two terminals of the given semiconductor diode to the D.C.Power
supply and micro-ammeter in such a way that the diode is reverse biased. Immerse the
diode and thermometer in the oil . Switch on the D.C.Power supply and adjust the reverse
voltage to 1.5 volt. Switch on the A.C. main supply, then the temperature of the oil gradually
increases. Consequently, the current through the diode also increases. When the
temperature of the oil bath reaches to about 75o c, then switch off the heater. Then, the
temperature of the oil will rise and stabilizes at about 85o c. Note the temperature of the oil
and the corresponding current values through the diode .similarly note the value of the
current for every 5o c decrease of the temperature, till the temperature of the oil falls to the
room temperature. Note the observations in the tabular column
Nature of Graph
Observations:
To determine the reverse saturating current at different temperatures.
Biasing voltage = 1.5 volt Room temperature=
Result: The energy gap of given semiconductor p-n junction diode is___________

Course Objectives:: BPHYS/BPHYC/BPHYE/BPHYM/102/202

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Applied Physics Laboratory Manual Semester I/II

Discipline at Physics lab

 Bring Observation book & Record book regularly.

 Dump your bag on the worktable.

Experiment No-01 Date

Aim: Determination of wavelength of laser source using diffraction grating.

Apparatus: Diffraction grating, Laser-light, Screen, etc.

1. The grating constant is determined by using the formula,

where d is grating constant, m is the order of diffraction maxima.

Result: The wavelength of given laser light is  = .................. nm

Experiment No.02 Date:

Formula with Units

Fr is the resonating frequency, L is the inductance of a given inductor, C is the capacitance

SI No Frequency Parallel Resonance SI No Frequency Parallel Resonance

Types of Resonant frequency Inductance

Experiment No. 03 Date:

APPARATUS: Laser source, Optical fiber, Screen, Scale.

FORMULA: The Acceptance angle,

Laser source Optical fiber

Trail L Horizontal Vertical Mean Acceptance Numerical

Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber NA =

Experiment No.04 Date:

DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY

Where K is Boltzmann constant 1.381 x10-23 J/K

3. The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

6. The Fermi energy of copper is calculated using given formula.

Temperature Voltage in Current in Resistance in

The Fermi velocity for copper

The relaxation time

Mean free path

EF  5.03 107     …………….Joules

The Fermi energy of copper is EF = …………………………eV

Experiment No.05 Date:

Aim: Identification of circuit elements in a Black Box and determination of

Apparatus: Signal generator, AC voltmeter, AC ammeter and unknown components.

Formulae with Units:

Observation: Output voltage set, V = Volt

R ---------------, given component is -------------

R ----------------, given component is -------------

Component A is ----------- and its value =

Component B is ----------- and its value =

Component C is ----------- and its value =

Experiment No.06 Date:

Aim: Determine the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens.

plate, Magnifying lens.

light. The diameters of the rings are measured.

Introduction: The phenomenon of Newton’s rings is an illustration of the interference of

can be found by measuring the diameter of the rings.

Formula with units

Wave length of light   5893x108 cm

1. The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.

Smallest division on MSR

Sl. Order of Microscope reading D=(L+R) D2

Part B (Structure Inquiry)

Experiment No.07 Date:

MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL

APPARATUS: Deflection magnetometer, sprit level, commutator, ammeter, variable power

Where B –the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular coil,

1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

Sl. Current X Deflections in degrees Average θ B B

Mean value of BH = Tesla

RESULT: Earth’s horizontal magnetic field ___________________________T

Experiment No. 08 Date:

Length l= _ (mm) __m

Calculation: 1) R=_K 2) T1/2= _s

Radius of the wire (r) =____ mm = x 10-3m