Factors Contributing to the 1875-
1878 Balkan Crisis
Elleanna Gasparevic
1876 Map of Ottoman Empire 
Many factors contributed to the Balkan
Crisis. Although a specific combination of
events happened which gave the Crisis it’s
beginning. Specifically, the Ottoman
empire's taxation increases due to famine,
combined with Bosnia and Herzegovina’s
nationalistic motivation.  to benefit its collectors as well as the state
The role of The Famine
The famines in the Ottoman empire were not
as large as others that happened during the
19th century, although the disasters they left
in their wake were similar. The Floods and
1
draughts of 1873 to 1874 in the Ottoman
empire which caused the spread of famine
specifically impacted the poor peasants and
townspeople.1 While others such as grain-
holders, religious sects, and merchants
somewhat benefited.1 This is because the
government attempted the implementation
of earlier relief measures used during
previous famines.1 This included the control
of the production, distribution, trade, and
transportation of grains.1 The government
established provisioning policies hoping that
all cities could have access to a sufficient
and affordable amount of grains.1 During the
famine of 1873-74 the government also
provided assistance by employing severe
bans on black marketing, and exports.1
1 2
Although during this famine all supplies
were drained.1 The peasants expected their
crops to fail, and after the 1873 tax
collection, they were also forced to use the
grain they planned on using as seed.1 When
winter came the peasants were left with next
to nothing, many died, others left in search
of resources, their herds, fields, and houses
destroyed.1 The famine caused many
casualties, wiping out most of the people in
the winter and early spring of 1874.1 
The role of Ottoman Taxation Policies 
The results of this famine aggravated many
peasants, and this aggravation was only
made stronger with the Ottoman
empires taxation policies. The Ottoman tax
system in place before the tax reforms
consisted of a 10th of the yearly produce
being collected by holders of the land and
tax farms, with many additional excise taxes
treasury.2 Many residents, such as those of
Istanbul were exempted from most types of
tax, while non-Muslims had to pay head
tax.2 The new reformed tax system made by
the Tanzimat statesman and the Sultan
Abdülaziz ul-Hamid II still included the
head tax on non-Muslims and the tax on
produce was still the value of one-tenth.2
Although merchants and artisans had to pay
profits tax.2 This was implemented instead
of market and excise tax and was based on
revenue and an ability to pay.2 These taxes
were collected by hired state agents.
Although this new system did not work well
in the countryside, there were very few
collectors.2 Eventually the tax farm system
was re-established due to the horrible
revenue of 1840, and it essentially meant
that private individuals were acting as tax
collectors instead of salaried state agents.
This system was very unethical, the main
concern was to collect money, and so many
illegal means were used.2 Eventually the
Ottoman empire’s treasury ended up in debt,
and this was made worse with the Crimean
war and later the famine.2 The state was
forced to receive foreign loans, although this
only left it further in debt.2 This resulted in
heavy tax increases which many struggled to
pay, especially the Orthodox Christian
peasants who lived in the Balkan countries
such as Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their
struggle to pay taxes was met with Violence
from the Ottomans. Just the year before
1875 there was a bad harvest in the district
of Nevesinje, when the peasants were unable
to pay their taxes, troops were sent after
them.3 The Bosnian peasants’ supplies were
exhausted from the famine, they were unable
to pay the increased taxes, and so they grew
angry under the rule of their Muslim
oppressors. If these factors weren't enough
to push Bosnia and Herzegovina toward a
revolt, many were also feeling the pressure
of a greater chance of conscription after the
military reforms  slave supporters, volunteers, and the
          The role of military reforms  Serbian forces.5
Previous to the reforms, non-Muslims were
subject to head-tax for their exemption from
military service.2 This however was changed
with Ali Pasha's 1856 reform edict, it
prioritized equality between Muslims and
non-Muslims.4 When non-Muslims were
granted equality rights such as admittance
into schools and government positions, it
also meant they could be drafted.2 Although
it also meant that they would stop paying
exemption tax or the Cizye from which the
state relied on heavily.4 Even though the
Cizye was terminated for its discriminatory
background, the state replaced it with
another tax from which they could still profit
from. The new tax was a military-service
tax, applying only to non-Muslim obligated
for conscription, and this was under the law
3 5
4 6
which applied to all Muslims and non-
Muslims alike.2 
        Nationalism, the last factor 
With financial burdens, and greater
chance of conscription, many Orthodox
Christians in the Balkans were starting to
feel the power of nationalism. Nationalistic
motivated is the last factor that contributed
to the begging of the Balkan crisis. The
crisis started with uprisings in Bosnia and
Herzegovina against Muslim lords or
“Turkish rule” in 1875.5 It was very much
regarded as a cultural uprising of Orthodox
Christians peasants in the Balkans against
their Muslim oppressors. Later nationalistic
motivation caused the governments of
Serbia and Montenegro to participate in the
revolts.5 Bulgaria later revolted as well, also
encouraged by Balkan nationalism.5 Balkan
nationalism was further expanded with
Russian involvement, with Russian pan-
appointment of a Russian general to direct
Russia’s Involvement
The former Russian general Chiernave
opposed Tsar Alexander II orders, and set
off for the Balkans, he arrived in Belgrade
with volunteers on 28 April 1876.6 He was
made into a Serbian citizen and given the
right to command the eastern army.6 His
arrival coincided with the verge of the
inevitable Serbian and Montenegrin war
between the Ottomans, which broke out on
June 30, 1876.6 The Ottoman’s refused
Russian requests, which led the Russians to
declare war against the Ottomans on April
24, 1877.6 The war was viewed as essential
by Tsar Alexander “for the honour of
Russia, to save the Christian population
from the wrath of the Turks, to bring about
necessary reforms and to establish a lasting
peace”.7  Whereas Serbia and Montenegro
were defeated by the Ottomans, Russia
prevailed against them. Their defeat
however was not without complication. To
Russia’s surprise there was resistance from
the Turkish at Plevna from July to December
1877, which even prompted Britain’s
involvement.5 Eventually Britain enforced
truce with the Treaty of San Stefano on
March 3, 1878.5
Herzegovina were given to Austria-
Hungary, while Russia was able to keep its
acquisitions.6 These changes were
not received well by the pan-slaves. "the
Berlin Treaty was the complete negation of
Pan-Slav aspirations as expressed in the
Treaty of San Stefano."5 Nevertheless, the
Ottomans still viewed the treaty as a
considerable loss, and in conclusion what
happened in Berlin was seen as a balancing
of powers.5                          

The Signing of the Treaty of San Stefano

           
The Treaty of San Stefano
The Treaty of San Stefano, contributing to
the end of the Russo-Turkish war, is what
finally secured the requests of the Balkan
states. The Ottomans finally granted Serbia
and Montenegro power over their own
territory; their independence recognized.5
The self-governing of an enlarged new state
of Bulgaria was secured as well.5 Russia was
given territory in Dobruja, and eastern Asia
Minor.6 Although due to objections to the
terms of the treaty from other European
powers, the treaty was adjusted at the
Congress of Berlin from June-July of 1878.5
The changes made included an autonomous
Bulgaria, but its size reduced and divided
into two parts, the northern part, and a
southern part or otherwise known as eastern
Rumelia.6 The independence of Serbia and
Montenegro remained recognized, but their
sizes reduced as well.5 Bosnia and
7
 Bibliography

1
Ertem, Özge . “Considering Famine in the Late Nineteenth CenturyOttoman Empire: A
Comparative Framework and Overview.” Koç University’s Research Center for Anatolian
Civilizations. 2015-1016. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/id/363998/Collegium
%20Vol22%209_Ertem.pdf
2
Shaw, Stanford J. "The Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Tax Reforms and Revenue System."
International Journal of Middle East Studies 6, no. 4 (1975): 421-59. Accessed March 23,
2020. www.jstor.org/stable/162752.
3
West, Richard. "Legacy of the Cruel Empire Richard West Continues His Three-Part Series on
the Roots of the Bosnia-Herzegovina Conflict." The Guardian (Pre-1997 Fulltext), Aug
19, 1992. http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-
com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/293343423?accountid=13631.
4
Zürcher, Erik Jan. "The Ottoman Conscription System, 1844-1914." International Review of
Social History 43, no. 3 (1998): 437-49. Accessed March 22, 2020.
www.jstor.org/stable/44583417.
5
Farrar, L. L., J. "Realpolitik Versus Nationalpolitik: Rethinking Nationalism during the Eastern
Crisis, 1875-1878." East European Quarterly 30, no. 1 (Spring, 1996): 27.
http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-
com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/195166866?accountid=1363

6
Heraclides, Alexis, and Ada Dialla. "The Balkan Crisis of 1875–78 and Russia: Between
Humanitarianism and Pragmatism." In Humanitarian Intervention in the Long Nineteenth
Century: Setting the Precedent, 169-96. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015.
Accessed March 22, 2020. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1mf71b8.14. 
7
Pol’nyi Sbornik offitsial’nykh telegram vostochnoy voyny, 1877 (St Petersburg: Tipografiya
Shredera, 1877), 1–2; Jelavich, Russia’s Balkan Entanglements, 172–3

The Signing of the Treaty of San Stefano.” The Illustrated London News. Vol. 72, p. 264-265
(March 23, 1878). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Treaty_of_San_Stefano.jpg

1876, Ottoman Empire Map. Global research: Centre for research on globalization.
https://orientalreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Great-Eastern-Crisis.jpg