[Basic Electromechanics]

Assignment
Heating and cooling loads
“The heating load is the amount of heat energy that would need to be added to a space to
maintain the temperature in an acceptable range”.

“The cooling load is the amount of heat energy that would need to be removed from a space
(cooling) to maintain the temperature in an acceptable range”.

Purpose of heat load calculation to define sizing values for

• The heat producer

• Heat emitters

Purpose of cooling load calculation to define sizing values for the

• Chillers term in terms of cooling conditioners

Cooling loads result from heat transfer processes through the building envelope (external
elements) and from internal sources and system components.

External: Walls, roofs, windows, partitions, ceiling, and floor

Internal: Lighting, people, machinery

Infiltration: Air leakage and moisture migration

Heat gain is classified:

•By its mode of entry into the space and

•Whether it is sensible or latent.

Sources:
A building or room gains heat from many sources. Inside occupants, computers, copiers,
machinery, and lighting all produce heat. Warm air from outside enters through open doors and
windows, or as ‘leakage’ though the structure. However, the biggest source of heat is solar
radiation from the sun, beating down on the roof and walls, and pouring through the windows,
heating internal surfaces.

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Heat load calculations:

The heat loss is divided into two groups:

(i) the heat transmission losses through the confining walls, floor, ceiling, glass, or other
surfaces, and

(ii) the infiltration losses through cracks and openings, or heat required to warm outdoor air used
for ventilation.

As a basis for design, the most unfavorable but economical combination of temperature and wind
speed is chosen. The wind speed has great effect on high infiltration loss and on outside surface
resistance in conduction heat transfer.

Normally, the heating load is estimated for winter design temperature usually occurring at night,
therefore, internal heat gain is neglected except for theaters, assembly halls, industrial plant and
commercial buildings. Internal heat gain is the sensible and latent heat emitted within an internal
space by the occupants, lighting, electric motors, electronic equipment, etc.

Heat Transmission Loss:

Heat loss by conduction and convection heat transfer through any surface is given by:

Q=AU ( Ti - T0 )
where Q = heat transfer through walls, roof, glass, etc.

A = surface areas

U = air-to-air heat transfer coefficient

Ti = indoor air temperature

To = outdoor air temperature

Heat transfer through basement walls and floors to the ground depends on:

(i) difference between room air temperature and ground temperature/outdoor air temperature,

(ii) materials of walls and floor of the basement, and

(iii) conductivity of the surrounding earth.

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Infiltration and Ventilation Loss

The heat loss due to infiltration and controlled natural ventilation is divided into sensible and
latent losses.

• Sensible Heat Loss, Qsb

The energy associated with having to raise the temperature of infiltrating or ventilating air up to
indoor air temperature is the sensible heat loss which is estimated by:

Q sb=Vpc pa (Ti-To)
where r = air density

V = volumetric air flow rate

Cpa = specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure

Ti = indoor air temperature

To = outdoor air temperature

Latent Heat Loss, Qla:

The energy quantity associated with net loss of moisture from the space is latent heat loss which
is given by:

Q la=Vp (wi-wp) hfg

where r = air density

V = volumetric air flow rate

Wi = humidity ratio of indoor air

Wo = humidity ratio of outdoor air

hfg = latent heat of evaporation at indoor air temperature

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A more accurate heat load calculation for any type of room

or building
➢ Step One

Calculate the area in square feet of the space to be cooled, and multiply by 31.25

Area BTU = length (ft.) x width (ft.) x 31.25

➢ Step Two

Calculate the heat gain through the windows. If the windows don’t have shading multiply
the result by 1.4
North window BTU = Area of North facing windows (m. sq.) x 164
If no shading, North window BTU = North window BTU x 1.4
South window BTU = Area of South facing windows (m. sq.) x 868
If no shading, South window BTU = South window BTU x 1.4
Add the results together.
Total window BTU = North window + South window
➢ Step Three

Calculate the heat generated by occupants, allow 600 BTU per person.
Occupant BTU = number of people x 600
➢ Step Four

Calculate the heat generated by each item of machinery - copiers, computers, ovens etc.
Find the power in watts for each item, add them together and multiply by 3.4
Equipment BTU = total equipment watts x 3.4
➢ Step Five

Calculate the heat generated by lighting. Find the total wattage for all lighting and
multiply by 4.25
Lighting BTU = total lighting watts x 4.25
➢ Step Six

Add the above together to find the total heat load.

Total heat load BTU = Area BTU + Total Window BTU + Occupant BTU +
Equipment BTU + Lighting BTU

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➢ Step Seven

Divide the heat load by the cooling capacity of the air conditioning unit in BTU, to
determine how many air conditioners are needed.
Number of a/c units required = Total heat load BTU / Cooling capacity
BTU

Factors affecting:
• The size of the area being cooled
• The size and position of windows, and whether they have shading
• The number of occupants
• Heat generated by equipment and machinery
• Heat generated by lighting
By calculating the heat gain from each individual item and adding them together, an accurate
heat load figure can be determined.

Ventilation:
Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and
distributes the air within the building or room. The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is
to provide healthy air for breathing by both diluting the pollutants originating in the building and
removing the pollutants from it

Building ventilation has three basic elements:

• ventilation rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the
quality of the outdoor air

• airflow direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from
clean zones to dirty zones; and

• air distribution or airflow pattern — the external air should be delivered to each part of
the space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of the
space should also be removed in an efficient manner.

There are three methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural, mechanical and hybrid
(mixed-mode) ventilation.

Natural Ventilation:

Natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density
differences) drive outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope openings. Purpose-built
openings include windows, doors, solar chimneys, wind towers and trickle ventilators. This
natural ventilation of buildings depends on climate, building design and human behaviour.

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Mechanical Ventilation:

Mechanical fans drive mechanical ventilation. Fans can either be installed directly in windows or
walls, or installed in air ducts for supplying air into, or exhausting air from, a room.

The type of mechanical ventilation used depends on climate. For example, in warm and humid
climates, infiltration may need to be minimized or prevented to reduce interstitial condensation
(which occurs when warm, moist air from inside a building penetrates a wall, roof or floor and
meets a cold surface). In these cases, a positive pressure mechanical ventilation system is often
used. Conversely, in cold climates, exfiltration needs to be prevented to reduce interstitial
condensation, and negative pressure ventilation is used. For a room with locally generated
pollutants, such as a bathroom, toilet or kitchen, the negative pressure system is often used.

In a positive pressure system, the room is in positive pressure and the room air is leaked out
through envelope leakages or other openings. In a negative pressure system, the room is in
negative pressure, and the room air is compensated by “sucking” air from outside. A balanced
mechanical ventilation system refers to the system where air supplies and exhausts have been
tested and adjusted to meet design specifications. The room pressure may be maintained at either
slightly positive or negative pressure, which is achieved by using slightly unequal supply or
exhaust ventilation rates. For example, a slight negative room pressure is achieved by exhausting
10% more air than the supply in a cold climate to minimize the possibility of interstitial
condensation. In an airborne precaution room for infection control, a minimum negative pressure
of 2.5 Pa is often maintained relative to the corridor.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC):

Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning is the technology of indoor and vehicular
environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
HVAC system design is a sub-discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles
of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. "Refrigeration" is sometimes added to the
field's abbreviation, as HVAC&R or HVACR or "ventilation" is dropped, as in HACR (as in the
designation of HACR-rated .

HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family homes, apartment
buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to large industrial and office buildings such
as skyscrapers and hospitals, vehicles such as cars, trains, airplanes, ships and submarines, and in
marine environments, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

Ventilating or ventilation (the V in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any
space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen

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replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon
dioxide, and other gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture,
introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the
interior air. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of
air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor
air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided
into mechanical/forced and natural types.

Air conditioning:

An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and humidity
control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows,
because open windows would work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor air
conditions. Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat
exchanger section, creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh
air can usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is
about 10%.

Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be
removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as
water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a
heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or
in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a
glycol mix).

Assessing ventilation performance:

Ventilation performance in buildings can be evaluated from the following four aspects,
corresponding to the three basic elements of ventilation discussed above.

Two overall performance indices are often used. The air exchange efficiency indicates how
efficiently the fresh air is being distributed in the room, while the ventilation effectiveness
indicates how efficiently the airborne pollutant is being removed from the room. Engineers
define the local mean age of air as the average time that the air takes to arrive at the point it first
enters the room, and the room mean age of air as the average of the age of air at all points in the
room The age of air can be measured using tracer gas).

The air exchange efficiency can be calculated from the air change per hour and the room mean
age of air (For piston-type ventilation, the air exchange efficiency is 100%, while for fully
mixing ventilation the air exchange efficiency is 50%. The air exchange efficiency for

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displacement ventilation is somewhere in between, but for short-circuiting the air exchange
efficiency is less than 50%.

Ventilation effectiveness can be evaluated by either measurement or simulation). In simple

terms, the ventilation flow rate can be measured by measuring how quickly injected tracer gas is
decayed in a room, or by measuring the air velocity through ventilation openings or air ducts, as
well as the flow area. The airflow direction may be visualized by smoke. Computational fluid
dynamics and particle image velocimetry techniques allow the air distribution performance in a
room to be modelled

Comparison of mechanical and natural ventilation:

Mechanical ventilation:

If well designed, installed and maintained, there are a number of advantages to a mechanical
system.

• Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be reliable in delivering the designed

flow rate, regardless of the impacts of variable wind and ambient temperature. As
mechanical ventilation can be integrated easily into air-conditioning, the indoor air
temperature and humidity can also be controlled.

• Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation so that harmful

microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours and vapours can be removed.

• The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be controlled, for instance
allowing the air to flow from areas where there is a source (e.g. patient with an airborne
infection), towards the areas free of susceptible individuals.

• Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when electricity is available.

However, mechanical ventilation systems also have problems.

• Mechanical ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation may
be interrupted for numerous reasons, including equipment failure, utility service
interruption, poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management If the system
services a critical facility, and there is a need for continuous operation, all the equipment
may have to be backed up — which can be expensive and unsustainable.

• Installation and particularly maintenance costs for the operation of a mechanical

ventilation system may be very high. If a mechanical system cannot be properly installed
or maintained due to shortage of funds, its performance will be compromised.

Because of these problems, mechanical ventilation systems may result in the spread of infectious
diseases through health-care facilities, instead of being an important tool for infection control.

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Natural ventilation:

If well installed and maintained, there are several advantages of a natural ventilation system,
compared with mechanical ventilation systems.

• Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more economically, due
to the use of natural forces and large openings.

• Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating is not required.

• Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels of daylight.

From a technology point of view, natural ventilation may be classified into simple natural
ventilation systems and high-tech natural ventilation systems. The latter are computer-controlled,
and may be assisted by mechanical ventilation systems (i.e. hybrid or mixed-mode systems).
High-tech natural ventilation may have the same limitations as mechanical ventilation systems;
however, it also has the benefits of both mechanical and natural ventilation systems.

If properly designed, natural ventilation can be reliable, particularly when combined with a
mechanical system using the hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation principle, although some of these
modern natural ventilation systems may be more expensive to construct and design than
mechanical systems.

In general, the advantage of natural ventilation is its ability to provide a very high air-change rate
at low cost, with a very simple system. Although the air-change rate can vary significantly,
buildings with modern natural ventilation systems (that are designed and operated properly) can
achieve very high air-change rates by natural forces, which can greatly exceed minimum
ventilation requirements.

There are a number of drawbacks to a natural ventilation system.

• Natural ventilation is variable and depends on outside climatic conditions relative to the
indoor environment. The two driving forces that generate the airflow rate (i.e. wind and
temperature difference) vary stochastically. Natural ventilation may be difficult to
control, with airflow being uncomfortably high in some locations and stagnant in others.
There is a possibility of having a low air-change rate during certain unfavourable climate
conditions.

• There can be difficulty in controlling the airflow direction due to the absence of a well-
sustained negative pressure; contamination of corridors and adjacent rooms is therefore a
risk.

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• Natural ventilation precludes the use of particulate filters. Climate, security and cultural
criteria may dictate that windows and vents remain closed; in these circumstances,
ventilation rates may be much lower.

• Natural ventilation only works when natural forces are available; when a high ventilation
rate is required, the requirement for the availability of natural forces is also
correspondingly high.

• Natural ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation may be
interrupted for numerous reasons, including windows or doors not open, equipment
failure (if it is a high-tech system), utility service interruption (if it is a high-tech system),
poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management.

• Although the maintenance cost of simple natural ventilation systems can be very low, if a
natural ventilation system cannot be installed properly or maintained due to a shortage of
funds, its performance can be compromised, causing an increase in the risk of the
transmission of airborne pathogens.

These difficulties can be overcome, for example, by using a better design or hybrid (mixed-
mode) ventilation. Other possible drawbacks, such as noise, air pollution, insect vectors and
security, also need to be considered. Because of these problems, natural ventilation systems may
result in the spread of infectious diseases through health-care facilities, instead of being an
important tool for infection control.

Insulation Materials:
Insulation materials run the gamut from bulky fiber materials such as fiberglass, rock and
slag wool, cellulose, and natural fibers to rigid foam boards to sleek foils. Bulky
materials resist conductive and to a lesser degree convective heat flow in a building
cavity. Rigid foam boards trap air or another gas to resist heat flow. Highly reflective
foils in radiant barriers and reflective insulation systems reflect radiant heat away from
living spaces, making them particularly useful in cooling climates. Other less common
materials such as cementitious and phenolic foams and vermiculite and perlite are also
available.

Learn about the following insulation materials:

• Fiberglass
• Mineral wool
• Cellulose
• Natural fibers
• Polystyrene
• Polyisocyanurate
• Polyurethane
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• Vermiculite and perlite

• Urea-formaldehyde foam
• Cementitious foam
• Phenolic foam
• Insulation facings

1. Fiberglass:

Fiberglass (or fiber glass)--which consists of extremely fine glass fibers--is one of the
most ubiquitous insulation materials. It's commonly used in two different types of
insulation: blanket (batts and rolls) and loose-fill and is also available as rigid boards and
duct insulation. Manufacturers now produce medium- and high-density fiberglass batt
insulation products that have slightly higher R-values than the standard batts. The denser
products are intended for insulating areas with limited cavity space, such as cathedral
ceilings. One variation of fiberglass loose-fill insulation is the Blow-In-Blanket
System® (BIBS). BIBS is blown in dry, and tests have shown that walls insulated with a
BIBS system are significantly better filled than those insulated using other forms of
fiberglass insulation such as batts. The newer BIBS HP is an economical hybrid system
that combines BIBS with spray polyurethane foam.

2. Mineral Wool Insulation Materials:

The term "mineral wool" typically refers to two types of insulation material:

• Rock wool, a man-made material consisting of natural minerals like basalt or

diabase.
• Slag wool, a man-made material from blast furnace slag (the waste matter that
forms on the surface of molten metal).

Mineral wool contains an average of 75% post-industrial recycled content. It doesn't

require additional chemicals to make it fire resistant, and it is commonly available
as blanket (batts and rolls) and loose-fill insulation.

3. Cellulose Insulation Material:

Cellulose insulation is made from recycled paper products, primarily newsprint, and has a
very high recycled material content, generally 82% to 85%. The paper is first reduced to
small pieces and then fiberized, creating a product that packs tightly into building cavities
and inhibits airflow. Manufacturers add the mineral borate, sometimes blended with the
less costly ammonium sulfate, to ensure fire and insect resistance. Cellulose insulation
typically requires no moisture barrier and, when installed at proper densities, cannot settle
in a building cavity. Cellulose insulation is used in both new and existing homes, as
loose-fill in open attic installations and dense packed in building cavities such as walls
and cathedral ceilings. In existing structures, installers remove a strip of exterior siding,
usually about waist high; drill a row of three inch holes, one into each stud bay, through
the wall sheathing; insert a special filler tube to the top of the wall cavity; and blow the

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insulation into the building cavity, typically to a density of 3.5 lb. per cubic foot. When
installation is complete

Natural Fiber Insulation Materials:

Some natural fibers--including cotton, sheep's wool, straw, and hemp--are used as
insulation materials:-

• Cotton:

Cotton insulation consists of 85% recycled cotton and 15% plastic fibers that have
been treated with borate--the same flame retardant and insect/rodent repellent
used in cellulose insulation. One product uses recycled blue jean manufacturing
trim waste. As a result of its recycled content, this product uses minimal energy to
manufacture. Cotton insulation is available in batts and costs about 15% to 20%
more than fiberglass batt insulation.

• Sheep's Wool:

For use as insulation, sheep's wool is also treated with borate to resist pests, fire,
and mold. It can hold large quantities of water, which is an advantage for use in
some walls, but repeated wetting and drying can leach out the borate. Sheep's
wool batts for a 2 by 4 inch and 2 by 6 inch stud-framed wall offer an R-13 and
R-19 value, respectively.

• Straw:

Straw bale construction, popular 150 years ago on the Great Plains of the United
States, has received renewed interest.

The process of fusing straw into boards without adhesives was developed in the
1930s. Panels are usually 2 to 4 inches (5 to 102 mm) thick and faced with
heavyweight kraft paper on each side. The boards also make effective sound-
absorbing panels for interior partitions. Some manufacturers have
developed structural insulated panels from multiple-layered, compressed-straw
panels.

• Hemp:

Hemp insulation is relatively unknown and not commonly used in the United
States. Its R-value is similar to other fibrous insulation types.

4. Polystyrene Insulation Materials:

Polystyrene--a colorless, transparent thermoplastic--is commonly used to make foam

board or beadboard insulation, concrete block insulation, and a type of loose-fill
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insulation consisting of small beads of polystyrene. Molded expanded polystyrene

(MEPS), commonly used for foam board insulation, is also available as small foam
beads. These beads can be used as a pouring insulation for concrete blocks or other
hollow wall cavities, but they are extremely lightweight, take a static electric charge very
easily, and are notoriously difficult to control. Other polystyrene insulation materials
similar to MEPS are expanded polystyrene (EPS) and extruded polystyrene. The thermal
resistance or R-value of polystyrene foam board depends on its density. Polystyrene
loose-fill or bead insulation typically has a lower R-value compared to the foam board.

5. Polyisocyanurate Insulation Materials:

Polyisocyanurate or polyiso is a thermosetting type of plastic, closed-cell foam that

contains a low-conductivity, hydrochlorofluorocarbon-free gas in its cells.
Polyisocyanurate insulation is available as a liquid, sprayed foam, and rigid foam board.
It can also be made into laminated insulation panels with a variety of facings. Testing
suggests that the stabilized R-value of rigid foam with metal foil facings remains
unchanged after 10 years. Reflective foil, if installed correctly and facing an open air
space, can also act as a radiant barrier. Depending upon the size and orientation of the air
space, this can add another R-2 to the overall thermal resistance. Some manufacturers use
polyisocyanurate as the insulating material in structural insulated panels (SIPs). Foam
board or liquid foam can be used to manufacture a SIP. Liquid foam can be injected
between two wood skins under considerable pressure, and, when hardened, the foam
produces a strong bond between the foam and the skins. Wall panels made of
polyisocyanurate are typically 3.5 inches (89 mm) thick. Ceiling panels are up to 7.5
inches (190 mm) thick. These panels, although more expensive, are more fire and water
vapor-diffusion resistant than EPS. They also insulate 30% to 40% better for given
thickness.

6. Polyurethane Insulation Materials:

Polyurethane is a foam insulation material that contains a low-conductivity gas in its

cells. Polyurethane foam insulation is available in closed-cell and open-cell formulas.
With closed-cell foam, the high-density cells are closed and filled with a gas that helps
the foam expand to fill the spaces around it.. These foams are similar to conventional
polyurethane foams, but are more flexible. Some low-density varieties use carbon dioxide
(CO2) as the foaming agent. Low-density foams are sprayed into open wall cavities and
rapidly expand to seal and fill the cavity. Slow expanding foam is also available Liquid
foam can be injected between two wood skins under considerable pressure, and, when
hardened, the foam produces a strong bond between the foam and the skins.

7. Vermiculite and Perlite Insulation Materials:

Only a few sources of vermiculite have been found to contain more than tiny trace
amounts. Still, if you have vermiculite insulation in your attic, do not disturb it. If you
want to add insulation to your attic, use an insulation contractor who is trained and
certified in handling asbestos. Vermiculite and perlite consist of very small, lightweight

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pellets, which are made by heating rock pellets until they pop. This creates a type of
loose-fill insulation made of pellets that can be poured into place or mixed with cement to
create a lightweight, less heat-conductive concrete.

8. Urea-Formaldehyde Foam Insulation Materials:

Urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam was used in homes during the 1970s and early 1980s.
However, after many health-related court cases due to improper installations, UF foam is
no longer available for residential use and has been discredited for its formaldehyde
emissions and shrinkage. It is now used primarily for masonry walls in commercial and
industrial buildings.

9. Cementitious Foam Insulation Material:

Cementitious insulation material is a cement-based foam used as sprayed-foam or

foamed-in-placed insulation. One type of cementitious spray foam insulation known as
air krete contains magnesium silicate and has an initial consistency similar to shaving
cream. Air krete is pumped into closed cavities. Cementitious foam costs about as much
as polyurethane foam, is nontoxic and nonflammable, and is made from minerals (like
magnesium oxide) extracted from seawater.

10.Phenolic Foam Insulation Material:

Phenolic (phenol-formaldehyde) foam was somewhat popular years ago as rigid foam
board insulation. One major disadvantage of phenolic foam is that it can shrink up to 2%
after curing, which makes it less popular today.

11.Insulation Facings:

Facings are fastened to insulation materials during the manufacturing process. A facing
protects the insulation's surface, holds the insulation together, and facilitates fastening to
building components. Some types of facing can also act as an air barrier, radiant barrier,
and/or vapor barrier and some even provide flame resistance. Common facing materials
include kraft paper, white vinyl sheeting, and aluminum foil.

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