EXPERIMENT # 1

Objective:
To investigate Fourier's Law for the linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar.

Apparatus:

[Basic Electromechanics] Linear Heat conduction unit 1

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:

Fourier's law is an empirical law based on observation. It states that the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt,
through a homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area, A, of the section at right angles
to the direction of heat flow, and to the temperature difference along the path of heat flow, dT/dx
i.e.
Fourier’s Law

Q ∝ AdT/dX

Q = kAdT/dX

Negative sign shows that heat transfer from higher to lower concentration .

Q = kAdT/dX

Where k is Thermal Conductivity.

 .

Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat.

Procedure:
 Make sure that the main switch initially off. Then Insert a brass conductor (30mm
diameter) section intermediate section into the linear module and clamp together.
 Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the
water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position
and connect the sensors leads.
 Switch
[Basic on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated.
Electromechanics] 2
 Turn the heater power control to 40 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and
the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for
other input power between 0 to 40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be
allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
 Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the theoretical and actual
thermal conductivity.
Note:
 When assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to match the
shallow shoulders in the housings.
 Ensure that the temperature measurement points are aligned along the longitudinal
axis of the unit

Observations and Calculations:

dt
Q=kA
dx

Q dx
k=
A dt
 π
A= d ²
4

For,
Q=22.6 watt
22.6∗0.02
K=
2∗0.0007065

W
K=319.88
m−k

For,
Q = 26.88 watt
26.88∗0.02
k=
2∗0.0007065
W
K = 380.46
m−k

Heater T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 K
Power, (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
Q W
[Basic Electromechanics] m−k 3
(Watts)

22.6 39 38 35 34 33 32 30 29 28 319.88

26.88 45 43 41 39 38 37 34 32 29 380.46

Distance
from
heater
end
X (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

Comments:
This job tells us about the forier’s law of heat conduction along a homogeneous bar. We can
find the thermal conductivity of different substances by this experiment by the help of power Q.
It is new to our field but quite interesting to learn this experiment.
 EXPERIMENT # 2
Objective:
To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial
conduction through the wall of a cylinder

Apparatus:

[Basic Electromechanics] Radial Heat conduction unit 4

Heat Transfer through Cylinders:

Heat Transfer through cylinders is given by the following formula:
Where,

Procedure:
 Make sure that the main switch initially off.
 Connect one of the water tubes to the water supply and the other to drain.
 Connect the heater supply lead for the radial conduction module into the power supply
socket on the control panel.
 Connect the six sensor (T1, 2, 3 & 4, 5, 6) leads to the radial module, with the T1
connected to the innermost plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads
to the radial module correspondingly, ending with T6 sensor lead at the edge of the
radial module.
 Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the
water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.
 Switch on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated.
 Turn the heater power control to 40 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and
the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for other
input power between 0 to 40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed
[Basic to achieve steady state conditions.
Electromechanics] 5
 Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, r. Calculate the amount of heat transferred.

Observations and Calculations:

Heater Power, T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Q (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
(Watts)
22 35 34 30 29 27 26

Distance from 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

heater end , X
(m )
Commen
t:
By performing this experiment, we examined the temperature profile and
determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder
by the given formula.
 EXPERIMENT # 3

Objective:

To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free
convection.

Apparatus:

[Basic Electromechanics] 6

Free and forced heat convection

Procedure:
 Remove the fan assembly from the top of the duct.
 Place the finned heat exchanger into the test duct.
 Set the heater power control to 20 Watts (clockwise).
 Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions before noting the heated plate
temperature (tH) and ambient temperature (tA) into the table below.
 Repeat this procedure at 40, 60 and 80 Watts.
 Plot a graph of power against temperature (tH-tA).

Observations and Calculations:

Input Power Plate Temp (tH) Ambient Temp tH – tA

(tA)
Watts C C
°C
20 44 22 22
40 58 22 36
60 68 22 46
80 78 22 56
[Basic Electromechanics] 7

Comments:
In this experiment demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature
in free convection by calculating temperature of plate and ambient temperature and putting
their values in the given formula.
 EXPERIMENT # 4
Objective:
To show that the intensity of radiation on a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance of the surface from the radiation source.
Apparatus:

Radiant heat transfer and exchange

Inverse Square Law for Heat:

[Basic Electromechanics] 8

The total energy dQ from an element dA can be imagined to flow through a hemisphere
of radius r. A surface element on this hemisphere dA1 lies on a line making an angle ɸ
with the normal and the solid angle subtended by dA1 at dA is dɷ1= dA1/r2.

Note:
Solid angle which is by definition the intercepted area on a sphere divided by r 2. If the rate of
flow of energy through dA1 is dQ1 then dQ1= iɸ dɷ1dA where iɸ is the intensity of radiation in
the ɸ direction. i.e. dQ1∞ 1/ r2.
Procedure:

 Follow the basic instruction as written in this section.

 Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates BLACK to the panel and place the
plate on the bench, to record ambient temperature.
 Position the radiometer on the test track at 800mm from the heat source.
 Set heater temperature to 150°C by using heater controller. Monitor TH reading on the
indicator.
 When TH value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the distance, x and the radiometer
reading, R.
 Next, move the radiometer position to 700mm from the heated surface and monitor the
reading on the display panel. When the value has stabilized, record BLACK, TH, the
distance, x and the radiometer reading, R.
 Repeat the above procedure by reducing the distance by 100mm until the radiometer is
300mm from the heated surface.

Observations And Calculations:

Distance, x(mm) Log10 X Radiometer BLACK TH (°C)
Reading, (°C)
[Basic Electromechanics] 9
R(W/m2)
800 6.68 5 32 150
700 6.55 6 32 150
600 6.39 8 32 150
500 6.21 11 33 150
400 5.99 14 33 150
300 5.70 18 33 150

Comments:
In this experiment we studied about how the intensity of radiation on a surface is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from the radiation source
experimentally proved it.
 EXPERIMENT # 5
Objective:
To study the functioning of two stroke Petrol Engine.
Apparatus:

[Basic Electromechanics] 10

Functioning:
The apparatus allows the demonstration of the functioning of two stroke petrol engine by
rotating the flywheel.

When the piston reaches near the top dead center J during its compression stroke; a spark plug
ignites the compressed air fuel mixture in the cylinder and with the thrust of the combustion
products the piston moves down to produce power that is taken up by the crankshaft.

While the piston is at the top dead center, the air fuel mixture enters the crankcase through the
inlet port and it is scavenged through the crankcase by the counter weight.
At an intermediate position of the piston, during the power stroke, the exhaust port opens to
expel the combustion products from the cylinder and intermediately after the piston uncovers
the transfer port to admit air fuel mixture in the cylinder. The shape of the piston top prevents
mixing of the fuel with the exhaust.
After reaching the bottom dead center, the piston again starts its next stroke during with the air
fuel mixture is compressed to the desire compression ratio.

The entire cycle is completed during the two stroke of the piston and one revolution of the
crankshaft.

In this type of engines, the lubricant is added in fuel and supplied in the crankcase with it. Loss
of lubricant during the combustion and some loss of unburnt fuel with the exhaust are the
major disadvantages of this engine. However less idle stroke and less moving parts along with
simple construction are its major advantages.

Fine extending outward from the outer walls of the cylinder help in dissipation of the heat
generated from the cylinder walls by contact with the air and the engine is called an air cooled
engine.

Comments:
By performing this experiment this experiment we have studied about the four-
stroke petrol engine, its working principle its various parts and their functions. The use of petrol
engine its advantages and faults and how it is different from the other engines.

[Basic Electromechanics] 11

EXPERIMENT # 6

Objective:
To study the working principle of a steam engine.
Apparatus:

Construction And Working Principle:

The double acting steam engine works on Rankin Cycle. It has a double acting piston, enclosed
in a cinder, which moves between two extreme positions called inner and outer dead centers.
[Basic Electromechanics] 12
The piston is connected through a connecting rod and a crank with arm to the crankshaft,
which converts reciprocating motion to rotatory motion and vice versa. D-slide valve moves in
a valve chamber with the help of a valve link and crank arm connected to the crank shaft to
sequentially cover and uncover the inlet and exhaust ports provided in the valve chamber.

When steam is admitted and expanded on the right side of the piston, the piston moves to the
left side and the steam already present on the left side of the piston is expelled from the
exhaust port.

Similarly, when the steam is admitted and expanded on the left side of the piston, the piston
moves to the right side and the steam already present on the right side of the piston is expelled
from the exhaust port.
A boiler or steam generator unit is connected to the inlet ports of the engine for the supply of
steam. The steam is raised in the boiler by heating water with the combustion of fuel. Similarly
a condenser unit may be connected to the exhaust port for condensing the expelled steam and
feeding it to the boiler after condensation.

Hence, a part of Rankin cycle takes place in the boiler and the condenser units.
Since combustion of fuel takes place in the boiler, outside the engine cylinder, the steam
engine is called an external combustion engine. Its efficiency and speed are far lower as
compared to the internal combustion engines; however it is capable of using low grade and
cheap fuels.
Comments:
This experiment tells us about the working principle of steam engine. We have
studied the whole procedure that how its all parts perform their function.

[Basic Electromechanics] 13

EXPERIMENT # 7

Objective:
To study the functioning of four stroke Petrol Engine.
Apparatus:
Theory:

The apparatus allows the demonstration of the functioning of four stroke Petrol engine by
rotating the flywheel. Four stroke petrol engine works on the Otto cycle and complete each
[Basic Electromechanics] 14
cycle in four strokes of piston. Each movement of the piston between the extreme positions,
known as top and bottom dead center is termed as stroke.

The volume through which piston moves during a stroke is known as swept volume, while the
reaming volume of the cylinder, between the top dead center and the cylinder head, is known
as clearance volume.

Four stroke petrol engines has two valve, namely inlet and exhaust valves, which are opened
and closed sequentially by the tappet-cam mechanism during the cycle.

Air fuel mixture prepared in the carburetor is admitted through the inlet valve in the cylinder
during the suction stroke, where it is compressed to a desire pressure by the forward movement
of the piston known as compression stroke and finally ignited by the spark plug. The piston
moves backward with the pressure the expanding combustion products (power or working
stroke) and then the combustion products are expelled out from the cylinder through the
exhaust valve during the exhaust stroke. The entire cycle is completed in two revolutions of
the crank shaft and four stroke of the piston. Petrol engine is also known as Spark Ignition
Engine.

Parts and Their Function:

Cylinder is a hallow circular part, having Water Jackets in walls for circulating cooling water
during operation, closed at the top by a part known as cylinder head, and enclosing piston.
The cylinder head is fitted with two valves and a spark plug. The piston is circular hollow
part, having top end closed and having circular grove on its outer surface for fixing a set of
piston rings, that is compression rings for maintaining a tight pressure seal and oil rings for
introducing lubricant in the cylinder through small oil holes formed in the piston. The piston is
connected through a pin to the small end of the connecting rod, while the big end of the
connecting rod is connected to a crank shaft, enclosed in a crank case containing counter
weights and the lubricant. At one end of the crank shaft, a flywheel as an energy storing
device for power take off, while at the other end timing gear is attached. The timing gear
device drives another slow timing gear (through a timing belt in actual engine), which is fitted
on the side of a camshaft. There are two cams formed and positioned on the camshaft, which
operate two push rods attached at the upper end for the tappets which sequentially open and
close the inlet and exhaust valve, another cam on the camshaft activates the electrical signal
that operate a spark plug to ignite the air fuel mixture in the cylinder. The air fuel mixture in
specific ratio is prepared in carburetor and introduced in the cylinder during suction stroke.

Comments:
In this experiment we have studied about the four stroke petrol engine, its
working principle its various parts and their functions. The use of petrol engine engine its
advantages and faults and how it is different from the other engines.

[Basic Electromechanics] 15

Experiment no 8

Objective:
To study the functioning of four stroke Diesel Engine.

Apparatus:
Theory:
The apparatus allows the demonstration of the functioning of four stroke Diesel engine by
rotating the flywheel. Four stroke Diesel engine works on the Diesel and combustion process
and complete each cycle in four strokes the process. Each movement of the piston between the
extreme positions, known as top and bottom dead center is termed as stroke.
[Basic Electromechanics] 16
The volume through which piston moves during a stroke is known as swept volume, while the
reaming volume of the cylinder, between the top dead center and the cylinder head, is known
as clearance volume.

Four stroke diesel engines has two valve, namely inlet and exhaust valves, which are opened
and closed sequentially by the tappet-cam mechanism during the cycle.

Air is admitted through the inlet valve in the cylinder during the suction stroke, where it is
compressed to a desire pressure by the forward movement of the piston known as compression
stroke and finally ignited by the pray of fuel through the nozzle injector. The piston moves
backward with the pressure of the expanding combustion products (power or working stroke),
and then these combustion products are expelled out from the cylinder through the exhaust
valve during the exhaust stroke. The entire cycle is completed in two revolution of the crank
and four stroke of the piston. Diesel Engine is also known as Compression Ignition Engine.

PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION:

Cylinder:
A hallow circular part, having Water Jackets in walls for circulating cooling water during
operation, closed at the top by a part known as cylinder head, and enclosing piston. The
cylinder head is fitted with two valves and a fuel injector. The piston is circular hollow part,
having top end closed and having circular grove on its outer surface for fixing a set of piston
rings, that is compression rings for maintaining a tight pressure seal and oil rings for
introducing lubricant in the cylinder through small oil holes formed in the piston. The piston is
connected through a pin to the small end of the connecting rod, while the big end of the
connecting rod is connected to a crank shaft, enclosed in a crank case containing counter
weights and the lubricant. At one end of the crank shaft, a flywheel as an energy storing device
for power take off, while at the other end timing gear is attached. The timing gear device
drives another slow timing gear (through a timing belt in actual engine), which is fitted on the
side of a camshaft, formed and positioned on the camshaft, which operate two push rods
attached at the upper end for the tappets which sequentially open and close the inlet and
exhaust valve, another cam on the camshaft activates the fuel pump that operate a nozzle
injector to spray fuel in the pre-compressed air in the cylinder and causes ignition. The
compression ratio of the diesel engine is higher than that of petrol engine and therefore its
cylinder walls are relatively thick.
Comments:
In this experiment we have studied about the diesel engine, its working principle
its various parts and their functions. The use of diesel engine its advantages and faults and by
performing this we can differentiate it from the other engines.

[Basic Electromechanics] 17

EXPERIMENT # 9

Objective:
To find the fuel consumption rate of an I.C. Engine.
Apparatus:
 Stop Watch
 Graduated fuel measuring bottle
  Tachometer
 Single cylinder 4- stroke engine

[Basic Electromechanics] 18

Theory:

 A four stroke engine (thing that makes our car go) operates in the following
manner. A mixture of fuel and air enters a cylinder where it is compressed and
ignited by a spark plug (or in a diesel engine by self-ignition).

The resulting explosion of combustible gases pushes the piston inside the cylinder down,
expelling exhaust gas. The pistons are connected to rods which turn the crankshaft attached to
the gearbox which in turn sends the rotatory motion to the wheels of the vehicle. Four strokes
mean that how many times a piston moves up and down to complete one cycle.

Type Single-cylinder Horizontal Four-stroke

Combustion System Swirl Combustion Chamber
Bore x Stroke (mm) 90 x 90
Compression ratio 22 x 01
1-hour rated output (kwh/min) 7.7/ 2300
12-hour rated output (kwh/min) 6.98/2300
Specific fuel consumption / kwh ≤ 273.4
Specific Lube Oil consumption/kwh ≤ 2.72
 Cooling System Radiator
Lubrication System Combined pressure and splashing
Starting method Hand crank
Net Weight (kg) 95
Method of power output Output of flywheel end
Overall dimensions 710 x 381 x 567

Engine Tests And Parameters:

L = Length of Stroke = 90 mm
D = Diameter of cylinder
bore = 90 mm
Rw = Flywheel Radius =
180mm
N = Engine Speed rpm
Mf = fuel consumed in kg per second

Procedure:

 Observing all the precautions, check the engine and all accessories.
 Fill the fuel measuring bottle to a known level.
 Close fuel valve of fuel tank and open fuel valve of fuel measuring bottle.
[Basic Electromechanics]
 Start Engine. 19
 Maintain a speed and measure it.
 From a specific graduation note start time T1 sec.
 At another prominent graduation note run time after start time T2 second.
 Record observations. Again maintain a speed and measure it.
 Take at least two readings.

Observations and Calculations:

Sr. N Time Fuel Consumed Fuel Consumption

No. (rpm) (sec) ratio Mf = fuel
consumed per time
V (ml) m (g) Liter/h Kg/h
1. 839 60 4 4 0.2395 0.2395
2. 1147.5 60 6.5 6.5 0.3892 0.3892
3. 1920.4 60 8.7 6.5 0.5209 0.5209

Comments
 In this experiment, we find out the fuel consumption of an IC engine by using a
Single cylinder 4- stroke engine by calculating rpm and time in the formula. By this job we can
easily calculate that how much fuel is used for our project in our field.

[Basic Electromechanics] 20