HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

EPERIMENT NO 1
HYDROLOGY LAB LAY OUT

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT NO 2
TO STUDY DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS IN HYDROLOGY LAB:
ANEMOMETER, DIGITAL ANEMOMETER THERMOMETER,
HYDRO-THERMOMETER & DIGITAL THERMOMETER,
HYGROMETER, RAIN GAUGE

1. ANEMOMETER
An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed and is a common weather station
instrument. There are three types of anemometers
i. Cup anemometer
ii. Wind mill anemometer
iii. Digital anemometer.

Cup anemometer:

An instrument that measures the speed and force of the wind. The most basic type
of anemometer consists of a series of cups mounted at the end of arms that rotate in the wind.
The speed with which the cups rotate indicates the wind speed.

Cup anemometer

Windmill Anemometer:

An anemometer in which a windmill is driven by the air stream, and its rotation is
transmitted through gearing to dials or other recording mechanism. In some instruments, the
rotating vanes and dials are in the same plane; i.e., both vertical, while in others the dial is
horizontal.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

Windmill Anemometer

Digital anemometer:

It is a device used for measuring the speed of air, airflow in the atmosphere and air
temperature. It has following ranges.

 Air Velocity = 0.40 – 45.0 m/s or 1.4 – 162.0 km/hr or 80 – 8860 ft/min or 0.8
– 88.0 knots (nautical MPH).
 Air Flow = 0 – 9999 m3/min or 0 – 9999 ft3/min.
 Air Temperature = 0 – 60 oC or 32 – 140oF. Model that we are using in
Hydrology lab is N448933.

DIGITAL ANENOMETER

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
2. THERMOMETER
An instrument used for measuring and indicating temperature. There are many types
of thermometers. Two of them are Hydro Thermometer and Digital Thermometer.

Simple Thermometer

3. HYGRO THERMOMETER
It is device used to measure temperature and humidity of the air. This device also
gives the temperature of any material. Its measuring range for humidity is 95%
maximum and 0% minimum. Whereas its measuring range for temperature is -10oC
minimum and 60oC maximum. Model present in hydrology lab is TH02.

Hygro Thermometer

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
4. DIGITAL THERMOMETER
It is used to measure temperature both in Fahrenheit and Celsius. Its measuring range
for temperature in Fahrenheit is 392oF maximum and -58oF minimum. For Celsius, it
has 200oC maximum and -50oC minimum range.

Digital Thermometer

Relationship between Thermometer, Hygro thermometer and Digital

Thermometer

Simple thermometer and digital thermometers measure only temperature but hygro
thermometer measures temperature as well as moisture in the atmosphere. Digital
thermometer gives the exact value of the temperature in digits as it is hard to note the
exact value in simple thermometer.

5. HYGROMETER
A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the
atmosphere. Its measuring range for humidity is 99.9% maximum and 0% minimum.
For temperature, it measures -10oC minimum and 60oC maximum.

HYGROMETER

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
6. RAIN GAUGE
A rain gauge is a type of instrument used to measure and gather the amount of liquid
precipitation over a set period of time. There are three types of automatic rain gauge;
weighing bucket, tipping bucket and float type rain gauge.

Weighing bucket rain gauge Float type rain gauge

TIPPING BUCKET RAIN GAUGE

The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that collects and channels the
precipitation into a small saw like container. After a preset amount of precipitation
falls, the lever tips, dumping the collected water and sending an electrical signal to an
instrument which gives the reading. The instrument gives the reading in mm/hr.
Sensor can be placed to a maximum of 5m distance away from the monitor.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO 3
TO DETERMINE PONDING TIME FOR VARIOUS RAINFALL
INTENSITIES
1. APPARATUS
i. Basic Hydrologic System
ii. Measuring tape
iii. Stop Watch

RELATED THEORY

Infiltration

Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. Two important
aspects relating infiltration are infiltration capacity and field capacity. Infiltration capacity is
the maximum rate at which ground can absorb water and field capacity is the amount of water
ground can hold.

Infiltration Rate

The infiltration rate of a soil is the velocity at which water can seep into the soil. It is
commonly measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that the soil can absorb in an
hour.
The infiltration rate depends on different factors. Soil texture is an important determining
factor. In a sandy soil, the infiltration rate is higher than in a silty soil, for example. Further
factors influencing the infiltration rate are
 soil structure
 humus content
 soil moisture
 soil depth
 soil surface roughness
The range of possible values for infiltration rates are classified by Tiedemann (1996) as
follows
low infiltration rate: < 15 mm / hour;
medium infiltration rate: 15 to 50 mm / hour;
high infiltration rate: > 50 mm / hour.
 

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
Cumulative Infiltration

Cumulative in filtration is defined as the accumulation of infiltration volume over a time

period since the start of process. It is the integration of infiltration rate.

Ponding Time

It is time when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration rate of soil and the water starts
ponding on ground surface.

Basic Hydrologic System

The test stand facilitates basic experiments in the areas of percolation action on rain and in
ground water flows. In particular, the permeability and storage capacity of soil can be very
clearly observed. The experiments are performed in a stainless steel tank filled with sand.
This tank is equipped with a sprinkler system so that rain can be simulated. In addition, there
are 2 wells for lowering the ground water. Measuring points are fitted over the entire
underside of the tank. The water levels in the sand bed can be read on a multiple tube
manometer. The tank is equipped with several methods of filling and draining, the water
supply is provided using a supply tank and a circulating pump. 

Basic Hydrology System

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
Components of Basic Hydrology System

1. inclination adjustment, 2. circulating pump, 3. flow rate measurement, 4. supply

tank, 5. measuring weir, 6. switch box, 7. Plexiglass cover, 8. 19-tube manometer,
9. sprinkler nozzle, 10. experiment tank filled with sand.

For the calculation of ponding time using equation, we can use Green Amp. Equation
that is given below,
K . Ψ ..θe
Tp =
i(i−K )
Where,i= rainfall intensity (cm/hr), effective porosity θ e =0.417, tp= ponding time, K =
hydraulic conductivity (=0.65 cm/hr for silty loam sand), Ψ = metric pressure on
wetting front (=16.68 cm for silty loam sand).

PROCEDURE
1. Level the Basic Hydrology System Instrument.
2. Switch on power supply.
3. Open the valve and start the gauges.
4. Start the stop watch.
5. When infiltration completes and ponding start on the surface, stop the stop
watch.
6. Close the rain gauges and wait for some time to flow out all the water.
7. Repeat the procedure for different rainfall intensities (at least 6).
8. Wait every time for complete water drainage.
9. Plot graph for tp (experimental) ~ tp (Equation).
10. Plot another graph for tp (experimental) ~ Intensity (i).

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sr. Inflow Inflow Rainfall Ponding Time (sec) Difference Results
3
No. (lit/mints (cm /sec) Intensity Experimental Calculated
) (cm/hr)

GRAPH BETWEEN TP (OBSERVED) VS TP (CALCULATED) USING MS-EXCEL

GRAPH BETWEEN RAINFALL INTENSITY VS PONDING TIME (TP ) USING MS-

EXCEL

COMMENTS:

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
DESIGN EXERCISE NO 1
TO PLOT A GRAPH FOR THE GIVEN DATA OF TEMPERATURE “T”
AND THE SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE (ES) OF AIR SHOWING
THAT THE SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE IS A FUNCTION OF
THE TEMPERATURE. ALSO FIND THE FOLLOWING FOR THE
GIVEN CONDITIONS:
i. Saturation deficit (es – e)
ii. Relative Humidity (f)
iii. Dew point temperature (Td)
Condition No Air Temperature (T) Vapour Pressure (e)
(oC) (mm of Hg)
1
2
3
4

1.1 RELATED THEORY

1.1.1 Hydrology

It is the scientific study of hydrological cycle. Schematic diagram showing the

hydrological cycle is presented in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Principal view showing the global hydrological cycle.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
Hydrology is the science of water of earth, their occurrence, circulation and distribution over
the globe, their physical and chemical properties and their interaction/ reaction with the
physical and biological environment. (Awan N. M., 1981)

Hydrology is concerned with the circulation of water and its constituents through the
hydrological cycle. It deals with precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, groundwater flow,
runoff, stream flow and the transport of substances dissolved or suspended in flowing water.
Hydrology is primarily concerned with water on or near the land surface; ocean waters are
the domain of oceanography and the marine sciences (Maidment, 1993).
Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement, and
properties of the waters of the earth. Knowledge of hydrology is fundamental to decision
making process where water is a component of the system of concern. Water and
environmental issues are inextricable linked, and it is important to clearly understand how
water is affected by and how water affects ecosystem manipulations (Viessman Warren,
1996).

1.1.2 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Engineering Hydrology includes those segments of the field pertinent to planning, design and
operation of engineering projects for the control and use of water (Linsley, 1982).

1.1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF HYDROLOGY

Study of water is extremely necessary as:
It is the basic need for the sustenance of human life over the planet (drinking, agriculture and
industry).
To cope with extreme hydrological events (Floods and droughts).
To determine input data for the design of hydraulic structures (Design floods and Sediment
inflows).

1.1.4 METEOROLOGY
It is the science of atmosphere which is gaseous envelops surrounding the earth (Awan N. M.,
1981).

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
1.1.5 CLIMATIC FACTORS
Metrology of the region is affected by certain climate factors:
 Amount and distribution of the precipitation
 To occurrence of snow and ice
 Wind velocity
 Temperature
 Humidity

1.1.6 IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF METEOROLOGY

i. Cloud formation
ii. Occurrence of precipitation
iii. Thunder storm formation
iv. Movement of rain storms
v. Weather forecast
vi. As the meteorological phenomena are the forerunners of floods, flood warnings and
forecasts may be issued in advance if one can make use of the metrological conditions
that are likely to produce floods. Knowledge of meteorology is also essential
prerequisite in the understanding of evaporation phenomenon.

1.1.7 ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is the gaseous envelop around the earth surface. It consists of many gases like
N2, O2, CO2 etc. and water vapors. The term is derived from the Greek word “atmos” (vapor
of breath) and “sphaira” (sphere or ball) (Awan N. M., 1981).
Various components of atmosphere are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and
Thermosphere and are shown in Figure 1.2, on average basis they extend up to 12, 50, 80 and
320 km, respectively from the ground surface.

1.1.8 TROPOSPHERE / HYDROSPHERE

It is the layer of atmosphere adjacent to the surface of the earth, which contains about 99% of
total atmospheric water. Its average thickness is about 12 km. For Civil Engineers, this is the
most important atmospheric layer. All processes like cloud formation, thunderstorms, and
precipitation take place in this layer.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

Figure 1.2: Photograph showing layers of atmosphere and their average thickness.

1.1.9 ATMOSPHERIC WATER

It is the water available in the atmosphere (troposphere / hydrosphere), in the form of water
vapors, ice crystals, clouds and precipitating particles etc. The quantity of water in
atmosphere is approximately 12,900 Km3, which is about 0.001% of total global water and
0.5% of volume of the atmosphere (Chow, 1988).

1.1.10 VAPORIZATION
It is the process of transformation of water from liquid state to vapor state. The
process of vaporization of global scale is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Conceptual diagram showing the phenomenon of evaporation

1.1.11 VAPOR PRESSURE (E):

Pressure exerted by the water vapors in air is known as Vapor Pressure. The commonly used
units are mm to Hg.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

Figure 1.4: Graph showing relationship between air temperature and saturation vapor
pressure

1.1.12 SATURATION VAPOR PRESSURE (ES)

It is vapor pressure when air is fully saturated at a given temperature. It is the measure of
moisture holding capacity of air, which increases with increase in air temperature as shown in
Figure 1.4.
Table 1.1: Data for the saturation curve

Sr. No. Air Temperature (oC) Saturated Vapor Pressure (mm of Hg)
1 -4 4.32
2 -2 4.10
3 0 5.61
4 2 6.35
5 4 7.36
6 6 8.29
7 8 9.32
8 10 10.41
9 12 11.73
10 14 13.25
11 16 15
12 18 16.89
13 20 18.91
14 22 21.1
15 24 23.75
16 26 26.6
17 28 29.95
18 30 34.40

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
1.1.13 SATURATION DEFICIT
The difference between the saturation vapor pressure and the vapor pressure of the air at a
given temperature is called Saturation deficit.
e = es – e (1.1)
Where “e” is saturation deficit, “es” is the saturation vapor pressure and “e” is the vapor
pressure.

1.1.14 HUMIDITY
It is the presence of moisture in the air. Humidity in the atmosphere can be assessed by vapor
pressure of air.

1.1.15 RELATIVE HUMIDITY

It is the ratio between the vapor pressure and the saturation vapor pressure of air at a given
temperature. It is usually expressed in percentage.
e
f= ×100
es

1.1.16 DEW POINT TEMPERATURE (TD)

The Dew point Temperature can be defined as the temperature at which the air mass just
become saturated if closed at constant pressure with moisture neither added nor removed
(Awan N. M., 1981).
Once air is cooled naturally to this temperature dewdrops are formed. This usually happens at
late night when temperature falls significantly.

1.2 PROCEDURE
 Plot a graph between saturated vapor pressure (e s) and air temperature (T) choosing
suitable scale.
 Plot the condition 1 for a given value “e” and “T” on e s T graph.
 For point 1, draw a vertical line passing through the point up to the saturation line,
Measure distance between saturation line, it is the saturation vapor pressure for the
point 1.
 Measure vertical distance between point 1 and saturation line , it is saturation deficit
 Compute the relative humidity by using the equation (1.2).
 Draw the horizontal line point 1 to left, it may intersect with the saturation curve.
Note down the temperature for the intersection point, it is the dew point temperature.
Repeat steps 2 to 6 for points 2, 3 & 4.

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL
The results of the design exercise are presented in the last three columns for Table 1.2

Saturated Saturation Relative

Vapor Humidity
Air Vapor Deficit Dew Point
Sr. Pressure e
Temperature Pressure (es – e) f = ×100 Temperature
No. (e) (mm
(oC) (es) (mm (mm of es (Td) (oC)
of Hg)
of Hg) Hg) (%)
1 11 7.9 11.07 3.17 71.36 6

2 17 10.8 15.935 5.135 67.77 11

3 21 13 20.005 7.005 64.98 14.2

4 25 18.4 25.175 6.775 73.008 19.8

Table 1.2: Table of Calculations

1.3:GRAHICAL REPRESENTATION:

Air Temperture Vs Vapour Pressure

20
18.4

15
Vapour Pressure(mm/g)

13
10.8
10
7.9

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Air Temperature( C)

1.4:COMMENTS:
1.4.1: DATA

BSCE01183094
HYDROLOGY LAB MANUAL

1.4.2 Computed saturation deficit

1.4.3 Computed relative humidity

1.4.4 Computed dew point temperature

BSCE01183094