Fluid Mechaincs Lab Manual

Experiment no 1:
To carry out the layout of fluid mechanics lab
1 Fluid mechanics lab manual

Instruments used in fluid mechanics lab:
Instruments name
1. Viscometer
2. Hydrostatic pressure gauge
3. Impact of jet apparatus
4. Venturi meter
5. Bernoulli’s apparatus
6. Orifice apparatus

7. Notch apparatus
8. Fluid friction apparatus
9. Hydraulic bench
10. Wash hand basin
11. Meta centric apparatus
12. Orifice apparatus
Fluid Mechanics Lay Out instrument’s details:

1.1: Scope and significance:
As fluids mechanics deals with the resolution of forces, equilibrium to
parts of structure and analysis to multi-forces on fluids so after performing experiments in this
lab, students will better get the concepts of engineering mechanics and their use in civil
engineering. For this we have to make layout to know about a little about our lab experiment.
1.2: Viscometer:
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure
the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an
instrument called a rheometer is used. Thus, a rheometer can be considered as a special type of
viscometer.] Viscometers only measure under one flow condition.
 Orifice viscometers
 Capillary viscometers
 Falling piston viscometers
 Rotational viscometers
 Falling ball viscometers
 Vibrational viscometers
1.3: Hydrostatic
pressure gauge:
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic
pressure increases in proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the increasing
weight of fluid exerting downward force from above.
 Working principle:
Its works on principle that the hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly

proportional to its depth and hence to the level of its surface.
 Uses and practical applications:
Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are

called pressure meters or pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good example,
as it uses the surface area and weight of a column of liquid to both measure and indicate
pressure. Likewise, the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures
and indicates and is probably the best-known type of gauge.
1.4: Impact of jet apparatus:

The Impact of a Jet apparatus shows students the force produced by
a jet of water as it strikes a flat plate or hemispherical cup. They can then compare this to the
momentum flow rate in the jet.
To perform experiments, students level the apparatus and zero the weigh beam
assembly. They set the flow from the hydraulic bench to maximum, and measure the jet force.
They reduce the flow from the hydraulic bench in several increments. At each increment they
record the force of the jet on the plate and the flow rate. They then repeat the experiments for
different test plates. Students compare their experimental results to those calculated from theory,
working out graphs of rate of delivery of momentum against force on the plate.
One of the applications of jet impact is used to generate electricity. Impact of jet is used to

rotate the turbine namely Pelton wheel in the generator. The water jet is applying force tangential to the
wheel.
Venturi meter:
Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging
section of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from
which the flowrate can be deduced. They have been in common use for many years, especially in
the water supply industry.
Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate or discharge of fluid through a
pipe. Venturi meter is an application of Bernoulli's equation. Its basic principle is also depending
on the Bernoulli equation i.e. velocity increases pressure decreases.
 Uses:
A Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate through a tube.
It is based on the use of the Venturi effect, the reduction of fluid pressure that results when a
fluid runs through a constricted section of pipe. It is called after Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746-
1822), an Italian physicist.
1.5: Bernoulli’s
apparatus:
It is a law which states that for a steady flow of a fluid the total energy remains
constant along the route. When the velocity increases the pressure energy of the fluid decreases
to maintain a constant level of energy.
From the energy balance feature of the equation we can say the increase in
velocity results in the drop in the pressure at the outlet of the nozzle. Flow through a Siphon:
Siphon is used to drain a fluid from a reservoir at a higher level to a lower level.
1.6: Orifice apparatus:

An orifice is an opening made in the side or bottom of tank, having a closed perimeter, through
which the fluid may be discharged. Orifice and mouthpiece are used to measure the rate of flow
of liquid. The apparatus is designed to measure the co-efficient of discharge of orifice &
mouthpiece.
The reduction of the cross section of the following stream in passing

through the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure head. This reduction
in the pressure between the taps is measured by manometer.
 Uses: Orifice and mouthpiece are used to measure the rate of flow of liquid.

The apparatus is designed to measure the co-efficient of discharge of orifice &
mouthpiece.
1.7: Notches apparatus:

Notch Apparatus is designed for the study of flow measurement in open channels
using notches & calibration of notches. The set-up consists of an Open Flow Channel,
rectangular in cross-section. Water enters from one end of the channel & at the other end,
a notch is fitted.
The notch uses the principle of gravitational discharge of water over a triangular or rectangular
opening in a plate. For a given profile size and shape, discharge is a function of head water at
notch. The discharge of the liquid thoroughly depends on the central vertex angle.
 Uses and Practical applications:
It is used for the measurement of discharge in open channels. In real life applications it is used
for seepage measurement of dam in foundation, inspection and top galleries and toe-drains in
reservoirs. It has limited use in waste water and laboratories. It is a conventional device.
1.8: Fluid friction apparatus:

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. ... Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a
viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.
This apparatus is designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head ... The results and
underlying principles are of the greatest importance to. John Nikuradse extended the work to
cover the case of rough pipes and one such pipe.
 Uses and Practical applications:
There are several major applications of the special properties of fluids. The pressure of fluids can
be amplified through the use of hydraulic mechanisms. Changes in pressure with the velocity of
the fluid allow airplanes to fly. Fluids are also used to reduce friction.
1.9: Hydraulic bench:

The basic hydraulic bench is a simple, mobile, self-contained module that allows a supply of
"hydraulic energy", i.e. an accurately controlled and measurable flow of water.
the working principle of the hydraulic bench is the use of the load to measure the resulting
discharge (actual discharge) and also take into account the time required by the water flow from
the start of the current until the loaded lever is lifted due to the water load within the hydraulic
bench appliance.
The Volumetric Hydraulic Bench is used in a wide variety of hydraulic experiments and student

projects that include such topics as: Jet trajectory and orifice flow. Pipe work energy losses.
1.10: Wash
hand basin:
Basin typically fixed to a wall or on a pedestal, used for washing hand and face.
1.11: Meta Centric height:

By means of a pendulum (consisting of a weight suspended 10 a long pointer) the angle of tilt
can be measured on a graduated arc. ... Pendulum and graduated arc are suitably fixed at the
center of the cross bar. A set of weights is supplied with the apparatus.
 Working Principle:
A floating body displace a volume of liquid equal to its weight. Meta centric height is the
measure of static stability of a floating body. For a floating body to be stable, its meta center
must be above the center of gravity.
Each vessel has a mast that is used to measure the angle of list, and an attachment on the side to
hang the jockey weight. A small jockey weight for each vessel. A tank filled with water deep
enough to allow the vessels to float.
Job # 2
Determination of Various Physical Properties of Fluid
Apparatus:
 Tube Type Viscometer.
 Flask.
 Distilled water.
 Stopwatch
Related Theory:
Density:
It is defined as the mass per unit volume. Density of water varies with the variation in
temperature. It is denoted by “𝛒”
It can be calculated by the given formula.
Density = mass/volume
Where
 ρ = Density of water.
 m = Mass of water.
 V = Volume of water.
13 Specific Weight: Fluid mechanics lab manual
It is defined as weight per unit volume. It is denoted by"𝛄". It can be calculated by

the given formula.
Specific weight = Weight/volume
Where
 γ = Specific weight of water.
 W = Weight of water.
Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of water at 4°C. It is denoted by
“S”. It can be calculated by the given formula.
S = psub/pwater Ɣsub/Ɣwater
Where
 S = Specific Gravity of water.
 ρsub = Density of substance.
 ρwater= Density of Water.
 γsub = Specific Weight of substance.
 γwater= Specific Weight of water.
Specific Volume:
It is the volume per unit mass. It is denoted by "𝛖" and is calculated by the given
formula.
u = V/m
Where
 υ = Specific Volume of water.
 m = mass of water.
Viscosity:
It is the property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to deformation under
the influence of shear forces. Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow. It
is calculated by the given formula.
𝐮
14 𝛕 = 𝛍. ⁄𝐲 Fluid mechanics lab manual
Where
 𝛕 = Shear Stress between the layers of fluid
 𝛍 = Absolutely viscosity of water
 u = velocity of particles of water

 y = Thickness layer of water
Compressibility:
It is the property of a material due to which a material can compress. A compressible
fluid is one which undergoes the change in volume w.r.t change in pressure. It is
expressed in percentage.
Table 2.1: Units for measurement of various physical properties.

Units
Quantity Symbols
S.I F.P.S C.G.S
kg slug g
Density 𝛒 ⁄ m3 ⁄ ft3 ⁄
cm3
Specific Wt. kN⁄ lb⁄ dyne

𝛄 ⁄ cm 3
m3 ft 3
m3 ⁄ ft3 cm3
Specific Vol. 𝛖 kg ⁄slug g
⁄
Viscosity N. sec⁄ slug. sec dyne. sec

𝛍. m2 ⁄ 2ft ⁄ cm 2
Specific
S No Units No Units No Units
Gravity
Viscometer:
It is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. There are two types of Viscometer
which are given below.
 Tube type Viscometer
 U-shaped type Viscometer
Tube type Viscometer:
 Main Factor:
 Time is the indicative of viscosity in tube type viscometer.
 Derivative:
 DCONT = Diameter of Container
 DT = Diameter of Tube
 L = Length of the tube
 H = Initial Height of Liquid
 h = Drop in height
 hL = Average imposed head
 VL = Volume Collected
 T = Time Collection
 Q = Discharge
As we know that
Q = unƔnL
128uL
vL/t = πD4ƔhL/128uL
Rearrange the above relation:
(For Absolute Viscosity) = μ = KTγt u = πD4γhLt/
128VLL
KT = πD4hL/128VL
(For Kinematic Viscosity) = υ = KTgt
Procedure:
Firstly, measure the mass of flask (m1), then pour liquid in the
flask and again measure mass (m2).
Mass of Liquid = m1-m2
Cover the tube hole with a rod and fill the container up to the required level H1. Put the measuring flask
under the tube of viscometer and fill it up to 50ml.The temperature during experiment should be noted.
Note down the time taken for filling of 50ml liquid in the flask from Viscometer
16 U-Shaped Viscometer: Fluid mechanics lab manual
Following figures u shaped viscometer:
Figure 2.1 U shaped Viscometer
Procedure:
 Clean and wash viscometer.
 Then dry it. Insert water in tube B up to approx. half of the level of bulb. By
using suction arrangement on tube, A
 Take level of water above mark C, and release it.
 The time duration for level drop from level C to mark D is noted. Repeat the
experiment, take 3 to 4 reading and take mean of all.
μ1= Viscosity of water
μ =Viscosity of given liquid
ρ1= Density of water
ρ2=Density of given liquid.
T1 = time for water C and D
T2 = time for liquid
Mass Mass Mass Vol. Temp Specific Specific Weight Specific Specific Specific
of of of of Vol. Density (mg) weight gravity weight
empty flask liquid liquid (v/m) (m/v) (w/v)
flask +
No. of liquid
obs.
Sp . wt . of liq D . of liq .
(kg) (kg) (kg) (ml) (°C) m3/kg kg/m3 (N) N/m3 sp . wt . of water D. of water
1 0.269 0.487 0.218 0.2 x 30 0.917 x 1090.50 2.1396 10698 1.0905 1.0905
(Milk) 10-3 10-3
2 0.157 0.377 0.219 0.2 x 30 0.193 x 1098.50 2.1553 10776.5 1.0985 1.0985
(Juice) 10-3 10-3
Calculation and Observation:
No. of Temp Volume of liquid Time 𝛍𝟐 =

Obs.
𝛍𝟏.𝛒𝟐.𝐭𝟐
𝛒𝟏𝐭𝟏
(°C) (ml) (m3) T1 (sec) T2 (sec) N-sec/m2
1 30 25 0.025 x 10-3 6.43 11.46 0.00155

(Juice)
2 30 25 0.025 x 10-3 6.43 7.42 0.00101
(Milk)
Comments:
After performing this experiment we learnt about the purpose of viscometer calculation of
viscosity, specific gravity by this tool.
Job # 3
To determine the Hydrostatic force and to locate the pressure
Objective:
To determine the hydrostatic force which acts on a plane surface immersed in water
with surface partially submerged or fully submerged and to find the position of the
line of action of force.
Apparatus:
The apparatus required for this experiment includes:
 Rectangular water tank.
 Centre weight.
 Hook gauge.
 Counterbalance arm or weight beam.
 Bubble.
 Leveling screws.
19  Toroid (the plane surface to be used) also called quarter circle.
Fluid mechanics lab manual
Hydrostatic Force (F):
Hydrostatic force is the resultant force of pressure on any side of submerged plane exerted by the fluid
when it is at rest. It can be calculated by the following mathematical expression.
F = γ. hc . A
Where:
 hc = The depth of center of submerged plane.

 A = The area of submerged plane.
 γ = The specific weight of water.
Center of pressure:
It is the point where the hydrostatic force acts on the surface submerged in the
water.
Center of area:
The center of submerged plane is known as center of area.
Depth of Center of Pressure:
 It is the depth from the point of application of pressure from water level.
 It is the vertical distance from free surface of liquid up to the center pressure.
hp= hc+ (Ic/Ahc)
Where:
 Ic = The second moment of area of submerged plane about

centroidal axis.
 A = Area of the submerged plane.
 hc = The depth of center of submerged plane.
 hp = Depth of center of pressure.
Case-I:
For partially submerged (d<D).

Parameters are described as follows.
 b = width of the submerged plane.
 W =weight applied.
 C = centroid of the submerged plane.
20  P = center Of Pressure Fluid mechanics lab manual

 r1= inner Radius of Toroid
 r2 =outer Radius of Toroid
 d =vertical Distance from Water level to bottom of Toroid.
 D = total vertical distance of plane.
Fig.3.1: The schematic diagram of case 1

Experimental Value:
∑Mo = 0
 W×x = Fexp (r2 –d1+ hp)

 Fexp = (W×x)/r2-d1+hp
 hc=d/2
 hp = 2d/3
Theoretical value:
F = 𝛾× hc × A
F = 𝛾 × (d/2) × (bd)
F = 𝛾×bd2/2
Case 2:
For fully submerged. (d>D)
 Parameters are described as follows.

 b = width of the submerged plane.
 𝛄 = specific weight of water.
 W = weight applied.
 C= centroid of the submerged plane
 P= center Of Pressure.
 r1=inner radius of Toroid
 r2 =outer radius of Toroid
 d= vertical Distance from water level to bottom of Toroid

 D= total vertical distance of plane.
Figure 3.2 The Schematic diagram of case 2
Experimental values
∑Mo= 0
W×x = Fexp(r2 – d + hp)
Fexp = (W×x)/ (r2 – d + hp)
hc = d-D/2
Theoretical value;
F=𝛾×hc×A
F=𝛾× (d-D/2) ×bd
Procedure:
 Level the apparatus by using bubble/leveling screws and weight beam.
 Bring the tip of the hook gauge up to the top free surface of water and set the
main scale and Vernier scale zero.
 Add water in rectangular tank up to the bottom of toroid.
 Let the apparatus no longer in horizontal position by applying some weighs
in weighing pan. Add more water so that the moment generated by
22 hydrostatic force becomes equal to moment generated by weight.Fluid mechanics lab manual
 Determine ‘D’ by using hook gauge
 Determine ‘D’ by using hook gauge
Case 1 (Partially Submerged):
1. Data for calculation:

 Inner radius of toroid= r2=0.21m
 Outer radius of toroid = r1 = 0.4m
 Depth of toroid =d = 0.1 m
 Width of toroid = b = 0.075m
 Moment Arm distance = x = 0.31m
 Specific Weight of water = γ = 9810 N/m3
Observation and calculations:
Case- II (fully submerged):

No. of Mass added to pan Weight d1 hp hc Fth Fexp
Obs.
(g) (kg) (N) (mm) (m) (m) (m) (N) (N)
1 40.7 0.0407 0.4 120.70 40.2 x 26.82 x 20.10 594.50 x 630.65x

10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
2 41.0 0.041 0.4 44.5 0.044 0.029 0.022 0.7254 0.6375
No. of Mass added to Weight d1 hp hc Fth Fexp

Obs. pan
(g) (kg) (N) (mm) (m) (m) (m) (N) (N)
1 244.6 0.2446 2.4 114 0.114 0.0771 0.064 4.7088 4.2980
2 240.0 0.24 2.4 93 0.093 0.019 0.043 3.164 4.40
23 Comments: Fluid mechanics lab manual
After performing this experiment, we came to know about the partially submerged and fully
submerged properties of things, about the density and viscosity of different things.
Job # 4
To determine a Metacentric height of floating body and to
location position Buoyancy and center of gravity
Objective:
 To determine the experimental value of a meta-centric height.

 To investigate the effect of weight, placed vertically above the centre of gravity on the
stability of a floating body.
Apparatus:
 A model of ship. (Floating body)
 Water tank.
 Jockey
Metacentric height
Related Theory:
24 a) Buoyancy: Fluid mechanics lab manual

It is the tendency of fluid to lift up a submerged body. Or the up thrust of the fluid on
any submerged body. It does not depend on the shape of the object. It always acts
upward.
b) Force of buoyancy (Fb):
It is the resultant upward force or thrust exerted by a fluid on submerged body. It can
be calculated by using following mathematical expression:
Fb=(γ)(V)
Where:
Fb = weight of volume of fluid displaced by the body.
V = volume of water displaced by the body.
γ = specific weight of fluid.
Note: If force of buoyancy is greater than weight then the body will float and if it is less than
weight then it will sink.
a) Archimedes principle:
It states that “An object immersed in a fluid is acted upward by a force equal to the
weight of volume of fluid displaced by the object.”
b) Centre of buoyancy(B):
it is the point on which force of buoyancy is acting. Centre of buoyancy is center of
gravity of volume of liquid displaced by the body.
c) Meta center(M):
Meta center defines the stability of the floating. It is the point of intersection of
symmetrical axis of floating body and new line of action of force of the buoyancy.
Fig 4.2 gives the position of M.C and B for a body to be in stable condition.

Figure # 4.2
d) Meta centric Height(CM):

It is the centre between center of gravity (C) and meta center. It is the measure of
static stability of a floating body. A large meta centric height means greater stability
against overturning. Fig 4.3 gives the position of M,C and B in unstable condition.
1
CM =
Frequency
Figure 4.3
e) Meta centric Radius:

It is the distance between meta center and center of buoyancy.
BM = I/V
Where:
I = second moment of water line area about longitudinal axis.
V = volume of fluid displaced by the body.
Procedure:
1. Place the model of ship in the water tank.
2. Shift the jockey weight to zero position and note the corresponding angle of rotation.
3. If it is on zero then it is correct and if not then note the error and its direction.
4. Now shift the jockey to either side by 1 inch, 2 inch and finally 3 inch and keep noting
the corresponding angles.
5. Now shift the jockey weight to other side and take similar readings.
6. Take the mean of left and right angles and make a table for it.
Data for calculations:

 Weight of ship=12.5kg=27.55lb
 Weight of jockey=0.345kg=0.760lb
 Length=20inch
 Width=10inch
 Drowned radius=5inch
 Volume=area x drowned radius =785.3cubic inch
 Specific weight=62.4lb/in3=0.0361lb/ft3
 Force of buoyancy=V x γ= 785.39 x 0.0361=28.369l
Observation and calculations:

No. Displacement Angle of Metacentric Position of center Metacentric Center of
of of Jockey(x) Deflection(𝜽) Height(inches) of buoyancy (B) (M) Gravity
Obs. Inches Degrees
left Right Mean CM= 𝐖𝐨.𝐱 𝐖.𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝚹 (C.G)
4r/3π BM - (4r/3π) C.M –M
1 1 8⸰ 5⸰ 6.50⸰ 0.235310775 2.121790791 0.000275116 0.235036
2 2 14⸰ 10⸰ 12⸰ 0.252264866 2.121790791 0.000275116 0.25199
3 3 18⸰ 15⸰ 16.5⸰ 0.271529927 2.121790791 0.000275116 0.271255

Comments:
After performing this job we learnt how to find the position of buoyancy, metacenter and also
centre of gravity, to use the Metacentric Height apparatus.
Job # 5
To check the validity of Bernoulli’s Equation for water flow
Objective:
 To verify Bernoulli’s theorem.
 To investigate the behavior of fluid through pipe.
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic Bench used to note time of collection for volume of water under
control pressure.
 Bernoulli’s apparatus.
 Stop watch.
Related Theory:
Flow:
The quantity of fluid passing from any given section per unit time.
Types of flow
5.1.W.R.T Time:
28 Steady Flow: Fluid mechanics lab manual
Steady flow is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like area, velocity,
discharge, density and pressure etc. remains constant during time interval under
consideration.
dQ = 0 dV = 0 dP = 0
dt dt dt
Unsteady Flow:
Type of flow in which fluid parameters like area, velocity, discharge, density and pressure etc. doesn’t
remain constant during time interval under consideration.
dQ ≠ 0 dV ≠ 0 dP ≠ 0
dt dt dt
5.2. W.R.T Space:
Uniform flow:
It is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like velocity, discharge, density,
pressure etc. remains same at the given section of channel w.r.t distance.
dQ = 0 dV = 0 dP = 0
dx dx dx
Non uniform flow:

It is the type of flow in which fluid parameters like velocity, discharge, density,
pressure etc. are not same at given section of channel w.r.t distance.
dQ ≠ 0 dV ≠ 0 dP ≠ 0
dx dx dx
5.3. W.R.T Density:
Compressible flow:
It is the type of flow in which the density of fluid changes from one point to another point
OR
The type of flow in which the density is not constant for the fluid at two different
points in a given section.
Incompressible Flow:
The type of flow in which density of fluid remains unchanged throughout the length
of the section.
29
5.4. W.R.T Energy: Fluid mechanics lab manual
Energy:
The ability of a body to do work is called energy of the body. There are different
forms of energy described below.
Types of Energy:
Kinetic Energy:
It is the energy due to the motion of body. It is calculated by the given formula.
K.E = 1/2 × 𝒎 × 𝒗2
Where,
 m = mass of the body.
 v = velocity of the body
Potential Energy:
The energy of a body due to its height/position from the datum is called potential
energy. It is calculated by the given formula.
P.E = m × g × h
Where,
 g = gravitational acceleration.
 h = height of object above datum.
 m = mass of the body.
Pressure Energy:
The energy possessed by the fluid due to the pressure acting on it. It is calculated by
the given formula.
E=P×v
Where
 P = pressure acting on the body.
 v = velocity of the body.
Head:
Energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight. Mathematically, it can be expressed
as,
Head = Energy/Weight
Types of Head:
Velocity head/Dynamic head:
It is the kinetic energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight.
Velocity Head = v2/2g
Potential or Elevation head:

30 It is the potential energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight. Fluid mechanics lab manual
Potential Head=h
Pressure or Static Head:
It is the pressure energy possessed by the fluid per unit weight.
Hydraulic Grade Line:
It is the line joining the piezometeric head in the pipe line. It is always below the
energy line.
Energy Line:
It is the imaginary line formed by joining the velocity head. It is always above
hydraulic line
Assumptions of Bernoulli’s Theorem:

 Ideal fluid(zero viscosity)
 Steady flow
 Incompressible fluid
Statement:
For an incompressible fluid, the sum of the velocity head, the pressure head and the
elevation head remains constant.
Total Head=Velocity Head+ Potential Head+ Pressure Head.
Procedure:
 Open the inlet valve slowly and allow the water to flow from the supply tank.
 Now adjust the flow to get constant head in the supply tank to make flow in
and out equal.
 Under this condition the pressure head become constant in the piezometer tubes.
 Note down the quantity of water collected in the measuring tank for a given
interval of time.
 Compute the area of cross section under the tube.
 Change the inlet and outlet supply and note the reading.
 Take at least three readings as described in the above steps.
Observations and calculations:

No. Volume Time Discharg Diameter Area of Velocity Velocity Pressure Total
Of e r (D) tube Head Head Head
Obs. Q=V/ v = Q/A
(A) v2/2g H=(P/ϒ) (H + v2/2g)
t
m3 Sec 3
m /sec m m2 m/sec m m m
1 0.005 8.85 0.000564 0.025 0.000490625 1.15153478 0.067585747 2.39551E-05 0.0676097
2 0.005 8.85 0.000564 0.0139 0.00015167 3.725010287 0.707222306 2.03874E-05 0.70724269
3 0.005 8.85 0.000564 0.0118 0.000109303 5.168839683 1.361717822 3.56779E-06 1.36172139

4 0.005 8.85 0.000564 0.0107 8.98747E-05 6.286219211 2.014095411 7.13558E-06 2.01410255
5 0.005 8.85 0.000564 0.01 0.0000785 7.197092375 2.640068229 1.32518E-05 2.64008148
6 0.005 8.85 0.000564972 0.025 0.000490625 1.15153478 0.067585747 1.63099E-05 0.06760206
Comments:
After performing this job we learnt how to find the discharge, area of tube, velocity head
,pressure head and total head by use of Bernoulli apparatus.
Experiment no 6
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of horizontal venturimeter and
to draw its calibration curve
1. Objective:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge for horizontal venturimeter and to draw its
calibration curve.
2. Apparatus:
1. Venturimeter
2. Hydraulic Bench
3. Stopwatch
3. Related Theory:
a. Manometer:
It is used to determine pressure in a pipe. It has two types.
32 I. Simple Manometer: Fluid mechanics lab manual

Simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of a fluid.
Fig.1: shows the schematic diagram of simple manometer.
II. Differential Manometer:

It is used to find out pressure difference between two different fluids.
b. Fluid Friction Apparatus:
It was developed by Reynolds. It is used to find out the frictional losses in pipes.
c. Venturimeter:
It is a standard tube used to measure discharge of fluid flowing in a pipe. It is named
after a scientist named Venture who first used it in 1971. It has following types.
I. Horizontal Venturimeter.
II. Vertical Venturimeter.
III. Inclined Venturimeter.
Fig.2: shows the schematic diagram of Venturimeter
d. Parts of Venturimeters:
a. Convergent Cone. b.
Divergent Cone.
c. Throat.
d. Inlet.
e. Outlet.
e. Principle of Venturimeter:
Principle of Venturimeter is also the principle of Bernoulli’s equation so Bernoulli’s
theorem which is used in almost all the flow measuring devices.
f. Statement:
For a perfect fluid which is incompressible, the total head at all the section of a
flowing medium remains constant.
g. Constant ‘‘K’’:
K is a constant of venturimeter and its value depends upon dimension of
venturimeter.
h. Theoretical Value of Discharge:

Theoretical value of discharge is based on the assumptions of zero losses and can be
calculated by the given formula.
Qth = A*V
i. Actual Discharge:
It is the actual value of discharge obtained during experiment. It can be calculated by
using the following relation.
Qact = Volume Calculated/Time of collection
34 j. Co-Efficient of Discharge: Fluid mechanics lab manual

It is mathematically expressed as follows.
Cd = Qact/Qth
Qth = A*V
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation X- section
Z1 + P1 /ɣ + V12/2g = Z2 + P2/ɣ + V22/2g
As Z1=Z2 ( for horizontal Venturimeter)
P1/ɣ - P2/ɣ = V12/2g – V22/2g
h = 1/2g (V22- V12)
2gh = V22-V12
Apply Continuity Equation at X- Sec D & (2)
A1V1 = A2V2
V2 = A1V1/A2
Putting value of V2 in eq. (A)
2gh = (A1V1/A)2- V12
2gh = A12V12/A22- V12
2gh = V12 (A12/A22 – 1)
2ghA22 = V12 (A12- A22)
V12 = 2ghA22/A12-A22
Taking square root on both sides
V1 = A2√ 2 gh/√ A12-A22
As we know
Qth = A1V1
Putting value of V1
Qth = A1(A2√ 2gh /√ A12- A22)

Qth = A1A2√ 2 g . √ h / √ A1 - A2
2 2
Qth = K√ h
Where
K = A1 A2√ 2 g /√ A12- A22.
4. Procedure:
1. A venturi meter apparatus is placed on the hydraulic bench and leveled.
2. Connect the inlet of venturi meter apparatus with the outlet of hydraulic bench. Allow
the water to pass through the venturi meter and a specific volume collected.
3. Time of collection for this volume of water is recorded and piezometer’s reading are
taken. In this way an actual discharge is measured and then H.
4. Qth and Cd are calculated respectively. Repeat the above procedure to get different
readings.
5. Observations and Calculations:
Time Volum Qact H1 H2 H H^1/2 K Qth Cd
e
0.00011 0.32863 0.00011
27 0.003 1 0.268 0.16 0.108 4 0.00036 8 0.939168
0.00012
16.7 0.002 0.00012 0.265 0.145 0.12 0.34641 0.00036 5 0.96033
0.00012 0.36055
16 0.002 5 0.24 0.11 0.13 5 0.00036 0.00013 0.963021
0.954173
Hwater =H
Hmercury =12.6xY
Y=h1-h2 ± Zero Correction
Graphical representation:
Qth
36 0 Fluid mechanics lab manual
0
f(x) = 0.82 x + 0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Qact Vs H
0
0
f(x) = 0 x − 0
0
Qact Vs H
0 Linear (Qact Vs H)
Qact
0
0.33 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37
H
6. Comments:
37 In this experiment we learnt how to find the coefficient of discharge Fluid
by themechanics
use of venturimeter
lab manual
different types of venturimeter its parts and calculations with derivation.
Experiment no 7
To determine the Hydraulic co-efficient of the given orifice
1. Objective:
To find out the following perimeter experimentally. a.
Co-efficient of velocity
b. Co-efficient of discharge
c. Co-efficient of contraction
2. Apparatus:
a. Hydraulic Bench
b. Orifice (dia. 5mm and 8mm)
c. Stop Watch
d. Measuring Scale e.
Hook gauge
3. Related theory:
38 a. Orifice: Fluid mechanics lab manual

It is an opening on vertical side or at the base of vessel used to measure the discharge
through container or vessel. In common practice orifice is used in vertical sides of
container.
b. Types Of Orifice:
There are many types of orifice depending upon shape, size etc.
I. W.r.t shape:
i. Circular Orifice: Orifice shape is of circular type.
ii. Rectangular Orifice: Orifice shape is of rectangular type.
iii. Square Orifice: Orifice shape is of square type.
iv. Triangular Orifice: Orifice shape is of triangular type.
II. W.r.t nature:

i. Free or open or simple orifice:
In which discharge is freely open to atmosphere.
ii. Partially sub merged orifice:
In which half of orifice is subjected to atmosphere and other in liquid.
iii. Fully submerged orifice:

In which orifice discharge is fully submerged in water.
III. W.r.t edge or shape:

i. Bell mouth orifice:
In which sides or opening of orifice is of conical shape. ii.
Sharp edge orifice:
In which edge are very sharp.
c. Jet of Water:
It is continuous stream of water flowing out of orifice.
d. Venacontracta:
It is section of jet of water at which streamlines becomes parallel. It is also known as
minimum section of water, normally it occurs at d/2 distance from the face of orifice.
39
Where d is the diameter of orifice. At venacontracta velocity isFluid
maximum, area is low and
mechanics lab manual
diameter is minimum.
Fig.7.1: It shows location of venacontracta.
e. Co-efficient of velocity:
It is the ratio of actual velocity of jet at venacontracta to the theoretical velocity. Its
average value is 0.97. Mathematically, it is given as follows.
Cv = Vact / Vth
Actual Velocity:
Horizontal Velocity:
V = x/t or t = x/v
Vertical Velocity:
S = Vit + ½ at2
For vertical velocity S = y, a = g, V1 = 0
y = 0 + ½ gt2
y = ½ gt2
Put value of A in B
y = ½ g(x/v)2
y = ½ gx2/v2
40 Re-arranging for V Fluid mechanics lab manual
V2 = ½ gx2/yVact = √ gx2/2y
Theoretical Velocity:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section (1)&(2)
Z1-Z2 = V22/2g
H = V22/2g
V22 = 2gh
V2 = Vth = √2gh
For Qth = A.Vth
Qth = A√2gh
f. Co-efficient Of Contraction:
It is the ratio of area of jet at venacontracta and actual area of orifice. Its average value
is 0.64 and is given as follows:
Cc = Av / Ao = Cd / CV
g. Co-efficient Of Discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge and theoretical discharge through the orifice. Its average
value is in the range of 0.6 −− 0.64. Mathematically, it is given as follows:
Cd = Qact / Qth
Where, Qth = √2𝑔
i. Determination of co-efficient of velocity by experiment:

Cv may be found experimentally for an orifice by measuring horizontal and vertical
distance.
Consider a tank containing liquid and an orifice in one of its vertical side. Let
H = Head causing flow

V= Horizontal velocity
41 Jet of liquid has a horizontal velocity V and it is acted upon by gravityFluid mechanics
with lab manual
an acceleration “g”
consider a particle p in the jet if time taken by the particle to flow from section C−−C to point p
then
4. PROCEDURE:
1. Place the orifice apparatus on the hydraulic bench connect the inlet of the apparatus to
the outlet of hydraulic bench,
2. Note the dimensions of the discharge measuring tank, orifice.
3. Check that the zero of the scale of the inlet tank is the same level as the centerline of
the mouthpiece or orifice. If not, measure the difference in elevation and take it as
zero error.
4. Adjust the opening of the inlet valve till the water in the supply tank becomes steady.
5. Note down the head.
Using the hook gauge arrangement measure the co-ordinates of the jet in a
convenient point.
7. Using collecting tank and stop watch setup measure the actual discharge.
8. Repeat the experiment for different inlet valve opening and tabulate
readings.
a. Measure H, X’ and Y
b. Compute X, Y, Vact, Vth, Qact, Qth, Cd, Cv and Cc
c. We have to find repeat the experiment with 5mm and 8mm diameter orifice
5. CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:
Tim Va Vt
dia e H X' Y' X Y dia A Qact Qth Cd ct h Cv Cc
0.00 0.22 0.23 0.09 0.232 0.00 0.0000 0.00002 0.00004 0.6 1.9 2.0 0.9 0.6
3 120 3 5 6 5 0.07 5 2 5 1 1 5 9 3 6
0.00 0.31 0.23 0.17 0.232 0.04 0.00 0.0000 0.00003 0.00004 0.6 2.3 2.4 0.9 0.6
3 100 3 5 2 5 8 5 2 0 9 1 5 8 5 5
0.00 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.232 0.05 0.00 0.0000 0.00003 0.00004 0.6 2.2 2.2 0.9 0.7
3 95 8 5 2 5 5 5 2 2 6 9 0 9 6 2
0.6 0.9 7.0
4 5 4
Qact Vs Qth
0.000035
0.000030 f(x) = 0.7 x − 0
0.000025
0.000020
Qact Vs Qth
Qact
0.000015 Linear (Qact Vs Qth)
42 0.000010 Fluid mechanics lab manual

0.000005
0.000000
0.000040 0.000042 0.000044 0.000046 0.000048 0.000050
Qth
Vact vs Vth
2.50
f(x) = 1.05 x − 0.23
2.00
1.50 Vact vs Vth

Linear (Vact vs Vth)
1.00
0.50
0.00
2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50
Comments:
After doing this job we find out the following perimeter experimentally co-efficient of
velocity co-efficient of discharge co-efficient of contraction their graphical representation
also know the usage of hydraulic bench .
Experiment # 8
To measure the discharge in an open channel using triangular notch
and to determine the co efficient of discharge
1. Scope and significance:
The purpose of this experiment is to measure a discharge from triangular notches and
also to find the co-efficient of discharge. The purpose of this experiment is also to draw a graph
between different values and to show their relations.
2. Apparatus:
 Notch Apparatus
 Hydraulic Bench
 Rectangular Notch
 Hook gauge
Related theory:
 Notch:
It is a metallic plate having a general shape cut. It is used to measure discharge in open channel.
 Types of Notches:
There are 4 types that are generally used
1. Rectangular notch
2. Triangular notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
4. Stepped notch
Rectangular notch
Triangular notch
Stepped notch

Rectangular notch
 Triangular Notch:
dq = Vth.da
= Vth.B.dh
= Vth.2x. dh
Q H
∫ dq=∫ √ 2 gh.2(H-h)tanƟ/2.dh
0 0
Q H
∫ dq √ 2 gh. tanƟ/2 ∫ 2(H-h)

0 0
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2 ∫ H √ h - √ h.hdh

0
H H
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2[H∫ h1/2dh - ∫ h1/2.h dh
0 0
Applying Limit
H
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2 [H.H /3/2 - ∫ h3/2

3/2
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2 [2/3 H5/2 – 2/5 H5/2]

Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2 [H5/2(2/3 – 2/5)
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2 [H5/2(10-6/15)]
Qth = √ 2 gh.tanƟ/2[4/5 H5/2]
Qth = 2(4/15) tanƟ/2 H5/2√ 2 g
Qth = 8/15 √ 2 gH5/2 tanƟ/2.
 End Correction Effects:

When the width of notch is less than the idth of the channel there will be lateral
correction of the napp.
B’ = B - 0.1 nH
 Velocity approach:
Velocity of liquid in channels approaching to the notch is called approach velocity. In our system
we will neglect velocity of approach & because our system is small & increasing velocity head
will be negligible.
Discharge:
 Volume of a Fluid passing through a unit area. And when it is also calculated in
unit time then it is called the rate of discharge.
Co-efficient of discharge (Cd):

 The ratio of the actual discharge to the theoretical discharge.
Hook gauge:
 It is used to measure the depth of the water in open channels
.
Comparison between triangular and rectangular notch:
Triangular notch Rectangular notch

Easy to construct Difficult to construct
End conditions minimum End conditions significant
For small flow For large flows
End conditions:
 When the width of notch is less than the width of channel there will be lateral
time volume Qact H Qth Cd

50.33 0.003 5.96065 0.022 8.45553E-05 0.704941
37.26 0.003 8.05153 0.0245 0.000110662 0.727577
34.96 0.003 8.58123 0.025 0.000116395 0.737251
0.723256
correction of approx.
 Bꞌ = B - 0.1(n) H
o n = no. of end contractions
o For rectangle n= 2 For triangle n= 1

 Procedure:
 Fix the notch in the channel of hydraulic bench.
 When the flow is steady, measure the head over the crest by using hook gauge.
 Measure the dimensions of the notch and apply the contraction effects to
find the effective width.
 Record time for collection of specified volume
 Fix the notch in the channel of hydraulic bench.
 When the flow is steady, measure the head over the crest by using hook gauge.
 Measure the dimensions of the notch and apply the contraction effects to
 Record time for collection of specified volume
 Compute Qact, Qth& Cd
Qact = vol / Time
3. Observation and Calculation:
Graphical representation
Qact Vs Qth
0
0
0 f(x) = 0.82 x − 0
0
0
Qact Vs Qth
0
Qact Linear (Qact Vs Qth)
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Qth
4. Comments:
By doing this experiment we know how to to measure a discharge from triangular
47 notches and also to find the co-efficient of discharge alsoFluid
to drew a graph
mechanics between
lab manual
different values
and to show their relations.
Experiment 9:
To measure the discharge in an open channel using Rectangular
notch and to determine the co efficient of discharge
1. Apparatus:
a. Notch,
b. Hydraulic bench, c.
Hook gauge,
d. Stopwatch.
2. Related theory:
Notch:
It is a metallic plate having a general shape cut. It is used to measure discharge in open channel.
Rectangular Notch:
Rectangular Notch
dq = Vth*da
Q H
∫ dq=∫ √ 2 gh.B.dh
0 0
Qth = B√ 2 g ∫ √ h dh
0
Qth = 2/3 B √ 2 g H3/2

Therefore:
Qth = 2/3 B’ √ 2 g H3/2
End Correction Effects:

When the width of notch is less than the idth of the channel there will be lateral
correction of the napp.
B’ = B - 0.1 nH
Velocity approach:
Velocity of liquid in channels approaching to the notch is called approach velocity. In our system
we will neglect velocity of approach & because our system is small & increasing velocity head
will be negligible.
5. Procedure:
 Fix the notch in the channel of hydraulic bench.
 When the flow is steady, measure the head over the crest by using hook gauge.
 Measure the dimensions of the notch and apply the contraction effects to
 Record time for collection of specified volume
 Fix the notch in the channel of hydraulic bench.
 When the flow is steady, measure the head over the crest by using hook gauge.
 Measure the dimensions of the notch and apply the contraction effects to
 Record time for collection of specified volume
 Compute Qact, Qth& Cd
Qact = vol / Time
6. Observation and calculation:

volume Time Qact H Qth Cd
0.004 25 0.00016 0.018 0.000223866 0.714713
0.004 21 0.00019 0.021 0.000282104 0.675198
0.004 15 0.000267 0.0255 0.000377477 0.706445
0.698785
7. Comments:
By doing this experiment we came to know how to measure the discharge in an open channel
using Rectangular notch its calculations, derivations of formulae correction effects and approach
of velocity.
Job no 10
To Investigate the Operations and Characteristics of Three
Different Basic Types of Flow Meters Including Accuracy and
Energy Losses
Objective:
To investigate the operations and characteristics of Venturimeter, orifice meter, and variable area
meter including accuracy and energy losses.
Apparatus:
 Flowmeter
 Hydraulic bench
 Stopwatch
Related theory:
Flowmeter:
Flowmeter is a device that indicates the flow rate. Different sensors in flow meter include
 Venturi meter
 Orifice meter
 Variable area meter
Venturi meter:
It is standard tube used to measure discharge of fluid flowing in pipes. It is named after a
scientist named venture who first use it in 1971
Parts of Venturi meter:

Venturi meter has following parts:
 Convergent Cone
 Divergent
 Cone
 Throat
 Inlet
 Outlet
Types of Venturimeter:
It has following types.
 Horizontal Venturimeter
 Vertical Venturimeter
 Inclined Venturimeter
Principle of Venturimeter:
The working principle of venture meter is “Bernoulli’s Principle” and “Equation of
Continuity”. According to these principles, the reduction in diameter leads to increase in the
pressure and velocity of fluid while the total energy of fluid at any point remains constant.
 According to Equation of Continuity;
The volume flow rate or discharge remains constant along the two cross-
sections of pipe.
𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝐴2𝑉2
 According to Bernoulli’s Equation;
For a perfect fluid which is incompressible, the total head at all the section of
a flowing medium remains constant.
P 1 (V 1) 2 P 2 (v 2) 2
+ + Z 1= + +Z2
ɣ 2g ɣ 2g
Co-efficient of Discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. It is always less than 1 as the
value of theoretical discharge is always greater than actual discharge.The standard value of Cd
for Venturimeter is 0.98.
Cd = Qact/Qth
Qth = A*V
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation X- section
Z1 + P1 /ɣ + V12/2g = Z2 + P2/ɣ + V22/2g
As Z1=Z2 (for horizontal Venturimeter)
P1/ɣ - P2/ɣ = V12/2g – V22/2g
h = 1/2g (V22- V12)
2gh = V22-V12
Apply Continuity Equation at X- Sec D & (2)
A1V1 = A2V2
V2 = A1V1/A2
Putting value of V2 in eq. (A)
2gh = (A1V1/A)2- V12
2gh = A12V12/A22- V12
2gh = V12 (A12/A22 – 1)
2ghA22 = V12 (A12- A22)
V12 = 2ghA22/A12-A22
Taking square root on both sides
V1 = A2√ 2 gh/√ A12-A22
As we know
Qth = A1V1
Putting value of V1
Qth = A1(A2√ 2gh /√ A12- A22)

Qth = A1A2√ 2 g . √ h / √ A1 - A2
2 2
Qth = K√ h
K = A1 A2√ 2 g /√ A12- A22.

 Actual Discharge:
It is the actual value of discharge obtained during experiment. It can be calculated by using the
following relation
Qact = V/t
 Theoretical Discharge:
Theoretical value of discharge is based on the assumptions of zero losses and can be calculated
by the given formula
Qth = K√ h
Constant K:
K is the constant of Venturimeter and its value depends upon the dimension of Venturimeter.
K = A1A2√ 2 g/√ ¿1)2 – (A2)2)
 Venturimeter meter Flow rate:

Qv = Cd A1 A2√2g∆ h/√ ¿1)2 – (A2)2)
Percentage flow rate error:
Percentage flow rate error is the ratio of the flow rate error to the actual value multiplied by
100. It is calculated
% flow rate error = (Qv - Qt)/Qt x100
 Head loss in Venturimeter:

Head loss or energy loss is due to friction of pipe in which fluid is flowing of viscosity. It is
calculated as
hv = h1 – h3
 Orifice meter:
It is an opening on vertical side or at the base of vessel these are used to measure the discharge
through container on vessel. In common practice orifice in vertical sides are used.
Types of orifice:
W.r.t Size:
 small orifice
 large orifice
W.r.t Shape
53  Circular orifice Fluid mechanics lab manual
 Rectangular orifice
 Square orifice
 Triangular orifice
W.r.t discharge:
 Free or open or simple orifice
 Partially submerged or submerged orifice
 Fully submerged
W.r.t edge or shape:
 Bell mouth orifice
 Sharp edge orifice
Jet of water:
It is continuous stream of water flowing out of orifice
 Venacontracta:
It is section of jet of water at which streamline become parallel. At venacontracta velocity is
maximum and area is low and diameter is minimum normally it occurs d/2 from the face of
orifice.
 Co-efficient of velocity:
It is the ratio of actual velocity of jet at venacontracta to the theoretical velocity. Its
average value is 0.97. Mathematically, it is given as follows.
Hydraulic Co efficient:
1. Co efficient discharge = Cd = Qact / Qth

2. Co efficient of Velocity = Cv = Vact / Vth
3. Co efficient of Jet = Cc = Av / Ao = Cd / CV
Actual Velocity:
Horizontal Velocity:
V = x/t or t = x/v
Vertical Velocity
S = Vit + ½ at2
For vertical velocity S = y, a = g, V1 = 0
y = 0 + ½ gt2
y = ½ gt2
Put value of A in B
y = ½ g(x/v)2
y = ½ gx2/v2
Re-arranging for V
V2 = ½ gx2/yVact = √gx2/2y
Theoretical Velocity
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section (1) & (2)
Z1-Z2 = V22/2g
H = V22/2g
V22 = 2gh
V2 = Vth = √2gh
For Qth = A Vth
Qth = A√2gh
 Actual Discharge:
It is the actual value of discharge obtained during experiment. It can be calculated by using the
following relation
Qact = V/t
Theoretical Discharge:
Theoretical value of discharge is based on the assumptions of zero losses and can be calculated
by the given formula
Qth = K√ h
Constant K:
K is the constant of orifice meter and its value depends upon the dimension of orifice meter.
K = A1A2√ 2 g/√ ¿1)2 – (A2)2)
55 Orifice Meter Flow Rate: Fluid mechanics lab manual
Qo = Cd A1 A2√2g∆ h/√ ¿1)2 – (A2)2)
Percentage flow rate error:
Percentage flow rate error is the ratio of the flow rate error to the actual value multiplied by
100. It is calculated
% flow rate error = (Qo - Qt)/Qt x100
Head loss or energy loss is due to friction of pipe in which fluid is flowing of viscosity. It is
calculated as
ho = h6 – h8
 Variable area flowmeter:
The variable area flowmeter is reversible differential pressure meter use to accurately measure
the flowrate of liquid and gase
Parts of variable of flowmeter:

It comprises of
 a tapered glass tubes
 a weight float (whose diameter is same as base of glass tube)
Types of variable area flowmeter:
It is of two types:
 Rotameter
 Piston type meter
 Working principle of variable area flowmeter:
It measures flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary,
causing a measurable effect. At high flow rate, the float rises to increase the area between the
float and a maintains a constant ∆P.
The flow rate is determined from how far the float has risen up the tube which is measured by
graduations on the side of tube.
56  Variable Area Meter Flow Rate: Fluid mechanics lab manual
This flow meter directly gives the flow rate in lit/min which is represented by 𝑄𝑎. Variable
area flow meter gives maximum value of flow rate because of minimum losses
Percentage Flow Rate Error:
Percentage flow rate error is the ratio of the flow rate rror to the actual value multiplied by
100.
% flow rate error = (Qa - Qt)/Qt x100
Head loss or energy loss is due to friction or viscosity during the fluid flow. It is calculated as
ha = h4 – h5
 Time Flow Rate:
Qt = Vol. collected/ time of collection
4. Observations and calculations:
Variable
Sr No Venturimeter Orifice meter Vol. Time area
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8
meter(l/
3
d1 d2 A1 A2 d1 d2 A1 A2 m sec min)
1 m 0.0317 m 0.015 0.000791
m 0.000176
m 0.0317
m 0.02m 0.000791m 0.000314 M 0.003 9.03 20
2 0.0317 0.015 0.000791 0.000176 0.0317 0.02 0.000791 0.000314 0.003 34.36 6
3 0.0317 0.015 0.000791 0.000176 0.0317 0.02 0.000791 0.000314 0.003 12.22 17
0.332 0.138 0.262 0.245 0.185 0.184 0.05 0.09
0.2 0.184 0.172 0.169 0.152 0.148 0.135 0.115
0.3 0.157 0.245 0.23 0.18 0.166 0.072 0.11
Qa Qt Qo Qv %Qa %Qo %Qv Ha ho Hv
m3 m3 m3 m3
0.000333 0.000332 0.000349 0.000345 0.3 5.1 3.9 0.06 0.094 0.07
0.0001 0.000087 0.000128 0.0000995 14.5 19.8 13.9 0.017 0.033 0.028
0.000283 0.000245 0.000296 0.000293 15.5 20.8 19.6 0.05 0.066 0.055
57
0.1
Fluid mechanics lab manual
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06 Ha Vs Qt
0.05 Hv Vs Qt
0.04
Ho Vs Qt
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 0 0
%Qa
%QvVsVsQt
Qt
%Qo Vs Qt
18
25
16 25
20
14
12
15 20
10 qa
%Qv
Vs qt
Vs Qt
8
10 15 %Qo Vs Qt
6
45
2 10
0
00 00 00
5
0
0 0 0
6. Comments:
In this job we study about the operations and characteristics of Venturi meter,
orifice meter, and variable area meter including accuracy and energy losses by theoretically
analytically and graphically.

Job no 11
To verify the “Impulse Momentum Principal “for a jet of water striking on
45°,90° and 120° deflectors and to investigate the effect of velocity of flow on
impulse force of the jet for various deflectors.
Apparatus:
 Impact of jet apparatus with deflectors. (45,90,120)
 Hydraulic bench
 Stop watch
 Thermometer
Related Theory:
Impulse Momentum Principal:
 According to impulse momentum principal, the algebraic sum of all the external forces
acting on the control volume of fluid is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
 According to this statement,
∂P
ƩF = ∂t
As we know;
P = mv
So,
∂(mv)
ƩF = ∂t
m(∂ v )
ƩF = ∂t
We know that;
m=ρv
ρV (∂ v )
ƩF = ∂t
V
Here is the discharge Q ;
∂t
ƩF = Q ρ∂ v
ƩF = Q ρ Δ v
ƩF = Q ρ (v - v )
2 1
And for vertical case;
ƩF = Q ρ (v y - v y)
2 1
So;
ƩF = Q ρ v k
Where k is the constant.
90o Deflector:
60 ∆ F = ∫ Q ∆V Fluid mechanics lab manual
-F = ∫ Q(VCos 90o-VCos0)
-F = ∫ QV (Cos 90-Cos0)
-F = ∫ QV (0-1)
-F = −∫ QV
F = ∫ QV
45o Deflector:
∆F = ∫ Q ∆V
-F = ∫ Q(VCos45 – VCos0)
-F = ∫ QV (0.707 – 1)
-F = ∫ QV (-0.293)
-F = -0.293∫ QV
F = 0.293 ∫ QV
120o Deflector:
∆F = ∫ Q ∆ V
-F = ∫ Q ¿ ¿o-Vcos0)
-F = ∫ QV (cos120o-Vcos0)
-F = −∫ QV (1.5)
F = 1.5 ∫ QV
Procedure:
 Level the apparatus
 At zero loads and zero flow rates, adjust the position of the pointer.
 Switch on the pump
 Place the load of 100gram and gradually open the valve till collar
reaches its original position. Note down the time t to collect the known
volume of water.
 Repeat step 4 for 100gram load increments till the valve is completely opened.
61  Switch off the motor of the pump. Fluid mechanics lab manual
Observation and Calculation:
For 45°Deflector:
Sr No Mass Fexp=mg Volume Time Vol V= Fth=kρQV

Q=
Time Q
A
kg N m3 sec m3/sec m/s N
1 0.2 1.962 0.003 11.4 0.000236 13.15 3.46
2 0.3 2.943 0.003 8.67 0.000346 17.38 5.99
3 0.35 3.4335 0.003 8.83 0.000340 17 5.78
For 90° Deflector:

Sr No Mass Fexp=mg Volume Time Vol Q Fth=kρQV
Q= V=
Time A
1 0.2 1.962 0.003 8.94 0.000335 16.75 1.64
2 0.3 2.943 0.003 7.58 0.000395 19.75 2.29
3 0.35 3.4335 0.003 7.25 0.000413 20.65 2.50
For 120° Deflector:
Sr No Mass Fexp=mg Volume Time Vol Q Fth=kρQV
Q= V=
Time A
1 0.2 1.962 0.003 14.45 0.000234 11.7 4.10
2 0.3 2.943 0.003 11.11 0.000296 14.8 6.57
3 0.35 3.4335 0.003 10.11 0.000318 15.9 7.58
8
f(x) = 6.19 ln(x) − 0.08
7
6 f(x) = 4.57 ln(x) + 0.53

5
Fth Vs Fexp (45°)
4 Logarithmic (Fth Vs Fexp (45°))
Fth
Fth Vs Fexp (90°)
3 Logarithmic (Fth Vs Fexp (90°))
Fth Vs Fexp (120°)
2 f(x) = 1.55 ln(x) + 0.6
Logarithmic (Fth Vs Fexp (120°))
62 1 Fluid mechanics lab manual
0
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
Fexp
25
20 f(x) = 7.05 ln(x) + 12.03
f(x) = 7.56 ln(x) + 8.29 Velocity Vs Fexp (45°)

Logarithmic (Velocity Vs Fexp
15 f(x) = 7.53 ln(x) + 6.63 (45°))
Velocity Vs Fexp ( 90°)
( 90°))
10
Velocity Vs Fexp (120°)
(120°))
5
0
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
Comments:
In this job we discuss and verify about “Impulse Momentum Principal “and its application on a
jet of water striking and to investigate the effect of velocity of flow on impulse force of the jet
for various deflectors. We seek knowledge about how to use jet apparatus and precautions about
the instrument.

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Experiment no 1:

To carry out the layout of fluid mechanics lab

1 Fluid mechanics lab manual

2. Hydrostatic pressure gauge

3. Impact of jet apparatus

2 Fluid mechanics lab manual

8. Fluid friction apparatus

10. Wash hand basin

11. Meta centric apparatus

12. Orifice apparatus

Fluid Mechanics Lay Out instrument’s details:

3 Fluid mechanics lab manual

Its works on principle that the hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly

 Uses and practical applications:

Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are

4 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.4: Impact of jet apparatus:

 Uses and practical applications:

One of the applications of jet impact is used to generate electricity. Impact of jet is used to

5 Fluid mechanics lab manual

A Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate through a tube.

6 Fluid mechanics lab manual

 Uses and practical applications:

7 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.6: Orifice apparatus:

The reduction of the cross section of the following stream in passing

 Uses: Orifice and mouthpiece are used to measure the rate of flow of liquid.

8 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.7: Notches apparatus:

 Uses and Practical applications:

9 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.8: Fluid friction apparatus:

 Uses and Practical applications:

10 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.9: Hydraulic bench:

 Uses and practical applications:

The Volumetric Hydraulic Bench is used in a wide variety of hydraulic experiments and student

11 Fluid mechanics lab manual

1.11: Meta Centric height:

 Uses and practical applications:

12 Fluid mechanics lab manual

It is defined as weight per unit volume. It is denoted by"𝛄". It can be calculated by

 u = velocity of particles of water

Table 2.1: Units for measurement of various physical properties.

Specific Wt. kN⁄ lb⁄ dyne

Viscosity N. sec⁄ slug. sec dyne. sec

(For Kinematic Viscosity) = υ = KTgt

flask and again measure mass (m2).

Mass of Liquid = m1-m2

Figure 2.1 U shaped Viscometer

μ1= Viscosity of water

μ =Viscosity of given liquid

ρ1= Density of water

ρ2=Density of given liquid.

T1 = time for water C and D

T2 = time for liquid

No. of Temp Volume of liquid Time 𝛍𝟐 =

(°C) (ml) (m3) T1 (sec) T2 (sec) N-sec/m2

1 30 25 0.025 x 10-3 6.43 11.46 0.00155

18 Fluid mechanics lab manual

 hc = The depth of center of submerged plane.

hp= hc+ (Ic/Ahc)

 Ic = The second moment of area of submerged plane about

For partially submerged (d<D).