NCERT Maps Physics

Physical World
1
Chapter
1 SCIENCE 5 PRINCIPAL THRUSTS 7 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE

Systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena Unification Strong nuclear force
in as much detail and depth as possible, and use the To explain diverse physical phenomenon in terms of few concepts and laws.
m Acts between nucleons
knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control Reduction
m Short range (Nuclear size » 10–15 m)
phenomena To derive the properties of a larger and a more complex problem or system
into simpler constituents m Relative strength = 1
m Mediating particles are mesons
2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD 6 PRINCIPAL DOMAINS Electromagnetic force
The scientific method involves several interconnected Macroscopic domain m Force due to virtue of charges
steps: Phenomenon at laboratory, terrestrial and celestial scale Mainly dealt by
m Both attractive and repulsive
m Systematic observations classical physics including mechanics, electrodynamics, optics and
thermodynamics m Range is infinite
m Controlled experiments, m Relative strength = 10–2
Microscopic domain
m Qualitative and quantitative reasoning Constitution and structure of matter at the minute scales of atoms and nuclei. m Mediating particles are photons
m Mathematical modelling, prediction and verification Mainly dealt by quantum physics Weak Nuclear Force
or falsification of theories m Between some elementary particles particularly
8 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS electron and neutrino
m Conservation of energy : In an isolated system, total energy remains m Very short range (» 10–16 m)
3 HYPOTHESIS AND AXIOMS
conserved.
A hypothesis is a supposition without assuming that m Relative strength = 10–13
m m Conservation of linear momentum : In an isolated system, total linear
it is true. momentum remains conserved. m Mediating particles are bosons
m An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model is a m Conservation of angular momentum : In an isolated system, total Gravitational Force
angular momentum remains conserved. m Force of attraction by virtue of mass
theory proposed to explain observed phenomena.
m Symmetry of nature with respect to translation in time is equivalent to the m Always attractive in nature
law of conservation of energy
m Symmetry of the laws of nature with respect to translation in space gives m It is weakest fundamental force
4 PHYSICS
rise to conservation of linear momentum m Range is infinite
Study of the basic laws of nature and manifestation in m Isotropy of space (no intrinsically preferred direction in space) underlies m Relative strength = 10–36
different natural phenomenon the law of conservation of angular momentum m Mediating particle are graviton
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2
Units and Measurements Chapter
1 UNITS 3 MEASUREMENT 4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS 5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME

OF LENGTH SI unit is kilogram (kg)
Measurement of any physical quantity involves m m Atomic standard of time: This is based on
m Large distance is measured Unified atomic mass unit (u). It is used to
comparison with certain basic arbitrarily chosen m caesium clock, uncertainty gained overtime by
by parallax method. measure mass of atoms and molecules 13
internationally accepted reference called units. Basis caesium atomic clock is less than 1 part in 10
m Parallax angle = m 1 u = 1/12 × mass of one C-12 atom.
Classification Distance –27 (loss of 3 ms in one year)
–2 m 1 u = 1.66 × 10 kg –24
m 1° = 1.745 × 10 rad –30 m Time span of most unstable particle 10 s
–6 m Electron mass 10 kg 8
Fundamental units Derived units m 1¢¢ = 4.85 × 10 rad 25 m Travel time for light from nearest star 10 s
m Measurement of very small m Earth mass 10 kg
17
Independent of Expressed as combination of Observable universe
55
10 kg m Age of universe 10 s
distance like size of molecule m
each other fundamental units uses, Optical microscope,
m A complete set of these units, both the base units Electronic microscope and 6 ACCURACY and PRECISION
Tunneling microscope m Every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainty called error.
and derived units is known as system of units. 11
m 1 AU = 1.496 × 10 m m Accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close is the measured value to true value.
m Old system of units: CGS, FPS and MKS system. 15
m In CGS fundamental units are centimeter, gram and m 1 ly = 9.46 × 10 m m Precision tells us to what resolution the quantity is measured.
16
second. m 1 parsec = 3.08 × 10 m m It is not necessary that more precise value is more accurate too.
–15
m In FPS fundamental units are foot, pound and m Size of proton 10 m
7
second. m Radius of Earth 10 m 7 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
26
m In MKS fundamental units are meter, kilogram and m Distance to boundary 10 m Errors
second. of observable universe
Systematic Random
2 SI SYSTEM OF UNITS (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS)
m Presently accepted internationally for measurement is SI system of units, revised
Instrumental Experimental Personal
in 2018. Certain rules to follow with standard symbols
m It is decimal system thus, conversion within system is easy and convenient m Every measurement is approximate due to errors.
m It has 7 base unit and 2 supplementary units m Random errors occurs irregularly.
m Least count error is smallest value that can be measured by instrument (occurs within both
Base Units Supplementary Units systematic and random errors).
S.N. Quantity Unit Symbol S.N. Quantity Unit Symbol S(|ai – amean|)
m Absolute error =
1. Plane angle radian rad n
1. Length meter m Damean
2. Solid angle steradian sr m Relative error =
2. Mass kilogram kg amean
3. Time second s Damean
m Percentage error = a × 100
4. Electric current ampere A r mean
ds Combination of errors
5. Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature dq
O
dq = ds/r radian
6. Amount of mole mol r Sum and difference Product or Quotient
substance dW dA DZ = DA + DB DZ DA DB
O = +
7. Luminous candela cd Z A B
a b
intensity AB Dx DA DB DC
2 m If X = c then % =a% +b% +c%
dW = dA/r steradian C x A B C
NCERT Maps Units and Measurements 5
8 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 10 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND SI UNITS OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

m Reliable digits plus first uncertain digit are known as
S. Physical Quantity Relation with other quantities Dimensional Formula SI Unit
significant digit.
No.
m A choice of change of different units does not change
2 –2 2
number of significant digits. Force × (distance) [MLT ] [L ] 2 –2
1. Gravitational constant ‘G’ = [M–1L3T–2] N m kg
m All non-zero digits are significant. Mass × mass M×M
m All zero between two non-zero digits are significant. –2
Force MLT –2
m The terminal zeros in a number without a decimal point are 2. Stress 2 = [ML T ]
–1 –2
Nm
Area L
not significant.
–1 –2
m The trailing zeros in a number with decimal point are Stress ML T –2
significant. 3. Coefficient of elasticity = [ML–1T–2] Nm
Strain 1
Rules of Arithmatic Operations with Significant Figures –2
m Addition/Substraction: Final result contains as many Force MLT –2 0 –2 –1
4. Surface tension = MT = [ML T ] Nm
decimal places as in number with least decimal places. Length L
–2
e.g. 3.307 + 0.52 = 3.83 Force × distance MLT × L
–2
N m or
–1 1
m Multiplication/Division: Result contains as many 5. Coefficient of viscosity 2 –1
= [ML T– ] Pa s or
Area × velocity L × LT
significant figures as in number with least number of decapoise
significant figures. 2 –2
E Energy ML T 2 –1
e.g. 4.11/1.2 = 3.4 6. Planck's constant 'h' = –1
= [ML T ] Js
n Frequency T
Rounding off
–1
m Preceding digit is raised by 1 if insignificant digit to be Velocity LT –1 0 0 1 –1
dropped is more than 5 and left unchanged of latter is less 7. Velocity gradient = T = [M L T– ] s
Distance L
than 5. –1 –2
Pressure ML T
m If insignificant digit is 5 then preceding digit is left 8. Pressure gradient = [ML T– ]
–2 2
Pa m
–1
unchanged if its even and uncreased by 1 if it is odd. Distance L
9 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensions Dimensional Homogeneity Applications Limitations of Dimensional

m Nature of physical equation principle Analysis
m The expression which Physical quantities m Dimensional analysis is useful in
quantity is determined
shows how and which of represented by Checking dimensional Deducing relations among deducing relations among inter
by its dimension.
the base quantities symbols on both consistency of equations physical quantities. dependent physical quantities but
m The dimensions of
represent the dimension sides of a m It is based on homogeneity m We should know the dimensional constant can not be
physical quantity are of physical quantity is mathematical law. An equation is dependence of physical determined.
powers to which base called dimensional m It can test dimensional validity but not
equation must dimensionally correct if quantity on other upto
quantities are raised to formula. exact relationship between physical
have same dimension of fundamental three physical quantities
represent it. m An equation is obtained quantities having same dimensions.
by equating physical dimensions. quantities of each term on and product type of
m The dimension of time m It does not distinguish between the
in speed is –1. quantity with its left side of equation is equal dependence physical quantities having same
dimensional formula. to that on right hand side. dimensions.
0 2 0
m For example [A] = [M L T ]
Motion in a Straight Line
3
Chapter
1 FRAME OF REFERENCE 4 VELOCITY

m A rectangular coordinate system consisting of three m The rate of change of position, It tells how fast position is changing with time and in what direction.
mutually perpendicular axes, along with a clock. The
point of intersection of these three axes is called origin Average velocity
r
(O) r Dx
v av =
m If a body changes its position as time passes w.r.t. frame Dt x x
of reference, it is said to be in motion. m SI units are m s
–1
m Motion of objects along a straight line is called rectilinear

motion. Y Instantaneous velocity
11
12
1 r r 0 0
10
9
2
3 r Dx dx t t
8
7 5
4
v = lim =
6
Dt ®0 Dt dt Fig: Moving with positive velocity Fig: Moving with negative velocity
X m Slope of position time graph

O
Z
5 ACCELERATION
2 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT The time rate of change of velocity
m Distance: Actual path length in motion. During motion it Average Acceleration x x x
is non-zero r
r (v - v ) Dv Positive a Negative a a=0
m Displacement: The shortest path between initial and aav = 2 1 =
final position. Equal to change in position. May or may (t2 - t1) Dt
not be equal to path length travelled. It can be positive, Instantaneous Acceleration
r r
negative or zero. r Dv dv
x(m)
a = lim =
x(m) Dt ®0 Dt dt
Uniform Acceleration
40 Equal change in velocity in equal
intervals of time t t t
20
Non-Uniform Acceleration Fig: Positive acceleration Fig: Negative acceleration Fig: Zero acceleration
t(s) t(s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 Acceleration changes with time
Fig: Stationary object Fig: Object in uniform motion
3 SPEED
m The rate of distance covered with time is called speed,
v v0 t
distance l 0
v= = –v0
total time t
Average Speed
v0 v
total distance total path length
v av = = –v
total time total time interval
Instantaneous speed 0 t 0 t
Dl d l Fig: Motion in positive direction Fig: Motion in positive direction Fig: Motion in negative direction
v = lim = with positive acceleration with negative acceleration with negative acceleration
Dt ® 0 Dt dt
10 Motion in a Straight Line NCERT Maps
6 Kinematic Equations 8 FOR MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

m A mathematical treatment to describe the motion of a m A mathematical treatment to describe the motion of a body in one-dimension under free fall
body in one-dimension. Vertically downward motion
For uniformly accelerated motion When object is released from y = 0
0 2 2 t(s)
m v = – gt
v B
1
m y = - gt 2
(v – u) 2 –5
A C 2
u m v = – 2gy
–10 2
Vertically upward motion –9.8 m/s
u ¹ 0, acceleration a = – g
D
O m v = u – gt 2
m v = u + at t a (m/s )
1
1 2 æu +v ö m S = ut - gt 2 Fig: Variation of acceleration with time
s = ut + at = ç 2
m
2 ÷t
è 2 ø m v2 = u2 – 2gh
2 2
m v = u + 2as m Distance travelled during equal intervals of time by a body falling freely from rest is in ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : 9 : 11 .. (Galileo's law)
a t (s)
m sn = u + (2n - 1)
2 0 t(s)
u +v 1 2 3 4 5 0
m v =
2 –10 –10 1 2 3 4
–20
7 FOR MOTION WITH VARIABLE ACCELERATION –20 –30
dv –40
m = a Þ v - u = ò adt –30 –50
dt
–60
dx
m = v Þ Dx = ò vdt (Area under v – t curve) –40 –70
dt
v (m/s) y (m) –80
vdv
m =a –50 –90
dx
Fig: Variation of velocity with time Fig: Variation of distance with time
d 2x
m =a
dt 2 140 140
A A
x (m) 120 120
9 Relative Velocity A x(m) 100 B x(m) 100
40 B 80 80
m The velocity with which an object moves with respect 60 60
to another object is called relative velocity. 40 40 40
20 20
vAB = (vA – vB) 0 0
2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
4 5 6 –20 1 2 3 4 5 6
t (m) t(s) t(s) B
vAB = (vA + (–vB)) –40
Fig: Position-time graphs of two Fig: Position-time graphs of two
objects with equal velocities objects with unequal velocities, Fig: Position-time graphs of two objects with velocities in
vBA = (vB – vA) showing the time of meeting opposite directions, showing the time of meeting
4
Motion in a Plane Chapter
1 SCALARS AND VECTORS 2 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS 5 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION
P r r r
m Scalar quantity: It has only magnitude with proper m v = v o + at r r r 1r 2 1
r uuur uuuur uuur r m r = r +v t +
o o at , x = xo + v ox t + ax t 2
unit. All base quantities are scalar. The rules A = OP = OQ + QP A 2 2
r v x = v ox + ax t
mb 1
combining scalars are rules of ordinary algebra.
r r r v y = v oy + ay t y = y o + v oy t + ay t 2
A = l a + mb O 2
m Vector quantity: It has both magnitude and direction
r
and obeys the triangle law or parallelogram law of la 6 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO DIMENSIONS
Q
vector addition.
r r The velocity of object A relative to B
m Equality of vector: Two vectors A and B are said to ur ur ur
3 RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS V AB = V A - V B
be equal, if and only if, they have same magnitude r r r ur ur
m A = A1 + A2 y where V A and V B are velocities in the same frame.
and direction. ur ur ur
r
m Multiplication of vector by real numbers: If a vector A = A x iˆ + Ay jˆ Similarly, V BA = V B - V A
r r r A2 ur ur ur ur
A is multiplied by real number l, then A ¢ = l A A = A cos q iˆ + A sin q jˆ A V AB = -V BA and V AB = V BA
r q
if l > 0, magnitude will change and direction remains x
A = Ax2 + Ay2 A1
same y 7 PROJECTILE MOTION
Ay æ Ay ö
if l < 0, magnitude changes l times and direction gets tan q = , q = tan - 1 ç ÷ 1 gx 2
Ax Equation of trajectory y = x tan q 0 -
è Ax ø 2 v o cos 2 q 0
2
reverse. This is equation of parabola.
m Parallelogram law of vector addition: For two co- m Resolution in three. Ay 2v o sin q 0
rectangular components
Ay
b A
m Time of flight Tf =
initial vectors represented by two adjacent sides of a g
parallelogram, the diagonal of a parallelogram A x = A co s a , A y = A sin a g a Ax
(v o sin q0 )2
vy j
x
m Maximum height hm = v
passing through same point will be resultant. A z = A co s g Az 2g vo
r Az
vox i
R = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos q B r v o2 sin 2q0 voy j
A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 m Horizontal range R = vox i
z Ax g
B sin q R q0 vox i
tan f = q v2 O
A + B cos q f for Rmax, q = 45°,Rmax = o voxi –voy j q = – q0
4 MOTION IN A PLANE g
A
r y
m Subtraction of vector: It can be defined as addition r = xiˆ + yjˆ n of v
Directio 8 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION (t + Dt)
of a vector and negative of other vector.
r r r r P¢
r ¢ = x ¢iˆ + y ¢ jˆ Dr P In uniform circular motion particle moves P¢
S = A-B uur r r Dr
r r r r with constant speed. r¢ Dr
S = A + ( -B ) Þ S = A2 + B 2 – 2 AB cos q Dr = r ¢ - r r¢
uur r Arc ( PP ¢) Dq
m Angular displacement Dq = t=t
Unit Vectors: It is a vector of unit Dr = ( x ¢ - x )iˆ + ( y ¢ - y ) ˆj r C P
Y r
magnitude and points in a particular r Dq 2 p
r Dr r ˆ r ˆ O Dx x
m Angular velocity w =
Dt
=
T
= 2 pn
direction. It has no unit and dimension. j v av = = v xi + vy j
Dt r Linear speed v = rw
Unit vectors along the x, y and z axis r dr m
X Instantaneous velocity, v = m Centripetal acceleration-Due to change in direction of velocity and

of a rectangular coordinate system dt
i is always directed towards centre.
represented by iˆ, jˆ and kˆ respectively, k m The direction of velocity at any point on path is tangent to
v2
called basic unit vectors. path and in direction of motion. a= = r w2 = 4 p 2 n 2 r = v w
Z r
5
Laws of Motion Chapter
ST RD
1 NEWTON’S 1 LAW 3 NEWTON’S 3 LAW 5 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS 6 CIRCULAR MOTION
A body continues its state of rest or of motion To every action there is always an equal and Tension Force A body moving in a circular path is called
until unless an external force is acted on it opposite reaction ® ® m Restoring force in string is called tension. circular motion.
Inertia of rest FAB = –FBA m It is due to electromagnetic force
FC = mv2/R is called centripetal force.
The property of body due to which it cannot m Always acts away from the body
m Forces always occur in pairs. Force on
change its state of rest by itself. m It is a contact force. Uniform circular motion
body A by B is equal and opposite to force 2
Inertia of motion m v
on body B by A. Weight a = ac = R = Rw2
The property of body due to which it cannot m It is equal to the gravitational pull i.e.
Some examples of Newton’s 3rd Law m
a = ac = v.w
change its state of motion by itself. W = Mg
m Recoiling of Gun
Inertia of direction m It is non-contact force. Non-uniform circular motion
The property due to which a body cannot m Rowing of boat
m ® ® ®
Normal Reaction a = aT + ac
change its direction of motion by itself. m When a man jumps from a boat, the boat It is always perpendicular to the surface in m ¾
2
moves backward contact. a = Ö a T + ac
2
2 NEWTON’S 2ND LAW m It is difficult to walk on sand or ice. m It is a contact force.

Motion of car on level Road
Spring Force v
The rate of change of Linear momentum of a Rocket Propulsion m ¾
® ® vmax = Ö ms Rg
body is directly proportional to the external u dm a m v m F = –Kx R
a = rel
2
force applied on the body and takes place in m –g It is due to electromagnetic force
m
mmin = v
m dt m ¾
the direction in which force acts Rg
m It is a contact force.
dp Thrust m 2 fs
F= = ma dm ¯ Friction Rmin = v
dt m F = – u rel ¾
m The same force for the same time causes dt urel It is the resistance offered to the relative mg
same change in momentum for different motion between two bodies in contact Motion of car on Banked Road
bodies. 7 PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES m It is parallel to surface of body in contact. ¾
m Rg(ms + tanq)
Impulse
A large force acts for very short duration of
IN MECHANICS Type of Friction
N
vmax =
Ö ¾
(1 – ms tanq)
N N cosq
m Identify the unknown forces and m Static friction: Fs = Fapplied

time produces a finite change in momentum. ®
® m ¾ N sinq
Fs voptimum = ·
Product of force and time duration for which it accelerations m Limiting friction Flim = msN M Fapp ÖRgtanq
acts is impulse. m Draw FBD of bodies in system m Kinetic friction Fk = mkN ¾
Mg m Rg(tanq – ms ) f
Impulse = F × Dt = Dp
Equilibrium of a particle
m
m
Resolve forces into components
®
Apply SF = 0 in the direction of equilibrium
msN
Frictional force
vmin =
Ö ¾
(1 + mstanq) mg
® ® ® ® ® ®
FK = mKN Bending of cyclist on a circular turn
pp
SF = 0 Þ SFx = 0, SFy = 0 and SFz = 0 m Apply SF = Ma in the direction of Fa R cosq R
s =
Conservation of Liner Momentum accelerated motion m Angle of Bending

F
Total momentum of an isolated system of m Write constraint relations if exists.

intracting particles is conserved if there is no
external force acting on it.
® ®
m
m
®
Solve the equations SF = 0 and SF = Ma
®
For equilibrium of concurrent forces use

®
(Fs = Fapp) applied force

q = tan
–1
( )
v2
Rg
q
R sinq
pinitial = pfinal m Acceleration of body sliding down a rough

sine rule F1
g inclined plane mg
4 NON-INTERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE F1 F2 F3
® = = F2 b a = g(sinq – mcosq)
Pseudo Force Fpseudo = –Maframe
®
sin a sin b sin g m Numerically: a = q
a m Angle of friction: q = tan–1(ms) m Kinetic friction is usually less than
® ® ®
Fext + Fpseudo = Ma F3 m Angle of repose: a = tan–1 (ms) maximum value of static friction.
Work, Energy and Power
6
Chapter
1 SCALAR PRODUCT 3 ENERGY Some common units of energy

6
m Also called dot product Kilowatt hour 3.6 × 10 J
ur ur m Capability of an object to perform work is its energy.
m A × B = A B cos ( q ) –7
ur ur ur ur erg 10 J
m A ×B = B × A
ur ur ur ur ur ur ur Electron volt 1.6 × 10
–19
J
m A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C
Calorie 4.186 J
m iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 1 Mechanical energy is of two forms
m iˆ × ˆj = ˆj × kˆ = kˆ × iˆ = 0
m ( A x iˆ + A y jˆ + A z kˆ ) × ( B x iˆ + B y jˆ + B z kˆ ) = A x B x + A y B y = A z B z Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
m Energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. m It is form of stored energy, by virtue of position or
2 WORK configuration of body.
1 2
Scalar product of force and displacement is work.
m KE = mv
m 2 m Notion of potential energy is applicable to class of
m Work done by a force can be positive, negative or zero. m Its unit is joule conservative forces. Work done against such forces gets
m Work done by gravity in horizontal displacement of object is stored up as potential energy. When constraints are
zero. m Work is related to KE of body by theorem called work-
energy theorem. removed, this energy may appear as kinetic energy.
m Work done by tension in pendulum bob is zero.
x2
m Work done by spring elastic force during stretching or m Change in potential energy for a conservative force; DU
DK = K f - K i = W = ò F ( x ) dx
compressing is negative. is equal to negative of work done by the force
x1
m Work can be done by a constant or variable force. r ur uur
ur r m This theorem is in scalar form. m DU = - ò F × dr
A. Constant force W = F × D r ¥
ur r2 m Shape of graph between KE of a body and its speed is
r m A force is conservative if it is derived from a scalar
B. Variable force W = ò F ( r ) × dr parabola.
r1
(Fc + Fnc) Dx = DK , when both forces are present dU
C. When force-displacement graph is given, Area under
m quantity U(x) by relation Fx = –
dx
force-displacement curve gives work done by the force. Fc = Conservative forces
D. Work done in stretching a spring by distance Dl is m Work done by a conservative force depends only on
1 Fnc = Non-conservative forces initial and final points. Zero of potential energy is
W = K ( D l )2
2 m Kinetic energy of a body of fixed mass is directly arbitrary.
F proportional to square of its momentum.
= F 2 m Work done by gravity depends on initial and final position
– Kxm P2
Kx Area = - K= only Uh = mgh (Gravitational potential energy at height h)
2 2m
xm m Potential energy of a stretched spring
x m Kinetic energy of fast moving air is used to generate
0 B electricity in wind mill. 2
Kx m
U=
m If two objects have same momentum, then the lighter has 2
more kinetic energy and vice versa.
A m Kinetic energy of fast flowing stream has been used to K is spring constant. Spring is said to be stiff if K is high,
1 grind corn and now to generate hydro-electricity. xm = extension of spring.
(Potential energy) U = - W S = kx m2
2
24 Work, Energy and Power NCERT Maps
4 LAW OF CONSERVATION MECHANICAL ENERGY 7 COLLISION

m If conservative and non-conservative forces acts on a m Exchange of momentum between objects is consequence of collision, due to material impulsive forces. The laws of
body then momentum and energy conservation are used in collision.
m Collision are classified as elastic and inelastic collision depending on nature of colliding bodies.
(Fc + Fnc) Dx = DK
m In all collisions, total linear momentum of the systemis conserved. Initial momentum of system is equal to final momentum of the
Now, Fc Dx = –DU system.
D(K + U) = Fnc Dx COLLISION
DE = FncDx
E = Total Mechanical Energy (Consequence of work PERFECT INELASTIC COLLISION INELASTIC ELASTIC COLLISION
energy theorem). If Fnc = 0 then DE = 0 A collision in which two colliding An intermediate collision case Both linear momentum and kinetic energy of
m Mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the forces particles move together (in one where the deformation is partly system of colliding particles will remain conserved.
doing work on it are conservative. dimensions) after the collision is restored and some of initial kinetic m In one dimensional collision with target initially
complete inelastic collision. Kinetic energy is lost. Momentum of two at rest
energy is always lost in such collisions. colliding bodies before and after æ m - m2 ö
Conservative Forces Non-conservative Forces will remain conserved. v 1f = ç 1 ÷ u1
For m1 moving at u1 and m2 at rest.
m In two dimension, inelastic è m1 + m2 ø
The work done by or against The work done by or against m1u1
the force in moving a body the force in moving a body vf = collision if target at rest, two 2 m1u1
m1 + m 2 v 2f =
depends only on initial and from one position to another object don’t move at right m1 + m 2
final position of the body depends on the path Loss in KE on collision angles to each other (glancing
collision) even when identical. m If two masses are equal and target is at rest
and not on path followed in followed between the initial
v1f v1f = 0
between. and final positions. 1 æ m1 m2 ö 2 y
DK = ç ÷ (u1) m1 v 2f = u1
2 è m1 + m2 ø
m1 u1 First one comes to rest and pushes off the
5 VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION q1
x second with its initial speed. Thus, velocities
m2 q2 are exchanged
VC C MV02 1 m If m2 >> m1
VB TA = + Mg and E A = MV02
L 2 v2f
TC 6 POWER v1f = –u1 and v2f ; 0
1
EC = MVC2 + 2 MgL = constant m Rate at which work is done is power. Heavier mass is undisturbed while lighter
O B 2
dW dr ur r mass reverses its velocity.
MVC2 when string slackens
m P = =F × = F ×v
TA Mg = dt dt m Fraction of kinetic energy lost by targetting
L (just completes loop)
V0 m Rate at which energy is transferred is power. body when target at rest
A
5 MV02 2
Mg E A = EC = MgL = Average power is ratio of total work to total time æ m - m2 ö
2 2
m
f1 = ç 1 ÷
taken. è m1 + m2 ø
\ V0 = 5 gL W and fraction of KE gained by target b e i n g a t
m Pav =
t rest initially
Minimum speed at different VC = gL m SI unit of power is watt. 4 m1 m2
f2 =
locations to complete loop m Another unit of power is horse power. (m1 + m2 )2
m When two equal masses undergo two
VB = 3 gL [1 hp = 746 W]
dimensional elastic collision with one of them at
m A machine which performs same amount of work rest, after collision they will move at right
KA : KB : KC = 5 : 3 : 1 over a shorter period of time has more power. angles to each other.
System of Particles and Rotational Motion
7
Chapter
1 RIGID BODY 3 MOTION OF COM 4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF SYSTEM OF
m Ideally a rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging PARTICLES
shape. The distances between all pairs of particles of such a body do not MR = åmiri m Velocity of COM for a system of n particles
change.
m In pure translational motion at any instant of time all particles of the body \ MV = åmivi P = p1 + P2 + .....+ pn = m1v1 + m2v2 + .....+ mnvn
have same velocity.
m Velocity of COM of system r m vr + m vr + ..... + m vr
m The motion of rigid body which is pivoted or fixed is rotation. Every particle V = 1 1 1 2 n n
M
of the body moves in a circle. åmivi
\ V= This is the velocity of centre of mass
m The motion of rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is either M
a pure translation or is combination of translation and rotation m Total linear momentum of system of particles is
m Acceleration Of Com of System equal to the product of total mass of system and
2 CENTRE OF MASS å mi a i velocity of its centre of mass.
A or acm =
m COM is an imaginary point where mass of an extended body is assumed M m When total external force acting on a system of
to be concentrated m Total mass of system of particles times the particles is zero, total linear momentum of system is
m This concept is used to study indepedently translatory and rotatory acceleration of its centre of mass is vector sum of constant. The velocity of centre of mass remains
motion under effect of external forces. all forces acting on system of particles. constant.
m The laws of motion which are applied to particles can be applied to large ur r r r
sized bodies by converting body into a particle at location of COM. M A = F1 + F2 + F3 + .... + Fn P = mv
Centre of mass for two particle system ur r
if Fext Þ dP=0 P = constant
m
y M A = Fext
r r dt
ur m1r1 + m2r2
R cm = x Fext Total external force å mi a i m If centre of mass was initially at rest, for no external
m1 + m2 A= = =
m1 m2 M Total mass of system M force, centre of mass will remain at rest.
x
m For x and y plane O x1 C m Centre of mass of the system of particles moves
x2 as if all mass of a system was concentrated at
m x + m2 x2 m y + m2 y 2
X cm = 1 1 and, Ycm = 1 1 centre of mass and all the external forces were 5 CROSS PRODUCT
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
applied at that point. C B j
m For a system of n particles distributed in space, m A projectile following parabolic path explodes into
åmixi åmiyi åmizi fragments in mid air. The forces leading to
Xcm = ,Ycm = , Zcm =
M M M explosion are internal, they contribute nothing to q
motion of COM. Total external force gravity acting A i
m COM For Continous Mass
m If the body has continous distribution of mass (RING, DISC, ROD) on body is same before and after explosion. The k
COM under influence of external forces continue
along same parabolic trajectory as it would have i ×i = 0
1 rdm M = total mass of body
R= followed without explosion. m C =A ×B j ×j = 0
M
y | C | = | A | | B | sinq k×k = 0
Parabolic path
The co-ordinates of COM of body, i ×j = k
of the projectile q is angle between A and B
1 1
Xcm = 1 xdm,Ycm = M ydm, Zcm = M zdm Explosion
m Properties
j ×k =i
M k× i =j
m If we choose centre of mass at origin rdm = 0, xdm = ydm = zdm = 0 Path of the CM of A ×B ¹ B ×A j ×i = –k
fragments
m For homogeneous bodies of regular shape, centre of mass lies at A × B = –(B × A ) k×j = –i
geometric centre. x1 x2 x
O A ×A =0 j × k = –i
NCERT Maps System of Particles and Rotational Motion 29
6 MOMENT OF FORCE (TORQUE) 7 ANGULAR MOMENTUM MOMENT OF INERTIA OF DIFFERENT RIGID BODIES
m Analogue of force in case of rotational motion is torque, (Regular Shaped)
m It is referred as moment of linear momentum. For a
which is turning effect of a force.
particle, Body Axis I
m t = r × F when forcer acts on a particle whose position
2
vector w.r.t. origin is r . L =r×P Thin circular ring, radius R Perpendicular to MR
plane, at centre
m This is a vector quantity having SI units N m. The magnitude of angular momentum vector is L = rpsinq
y Thin circular ring, radius R Diameter 2
m Magnitude of torque P M R /2
L = r × Psinq = r × P^
z
r q q Thin rod, length L Perpendicular to 2
M L /12
t = r Fsinq L = rsinq × P = r^ × P rod, at mid point
r F O x
rs Circular disc, radius R Perpendicular to 2
t = (rsinq) × F = r^F inq M R /2
disc at centre
P q
r t = rFsinq = rF^ 2
r^ = (rsinq) = is perpendicular distance of directional line Circular disc, radius R Diameter M R /4
O y
rs of P from origin and 2
inq Hollow cylinder, radius R Axis of cylinder MR
x P^ = component of P in the direction perpendicular to r
r^= rsinq = perpendicular distance of line of action m Angular momentum will be zero when P = 0 or particle is at Solid cylinder, radius R Axis of cylinder M R /2
2
of force from origin (axis of rotation) and F^ is origin or or line of P passes through origin.
2
Angular Momentum Conservation Law
Solid sphere, radius R Diameter 2 M R /5
component of F Perpendicular to r. m
2
m If direction of r and F are reversed, the direction of time rate of change of angular Hollow sphere, radius R Diameter 2 M R /3
moment of force remains same. dL momentum of a system of particles
t = dt THEOREMS OF MOI
is equal to torque acting on it.
m Couple : A pair of equal and opposite forces with different
lines of action is known as a couple. A couple produces m If total external torque on a system of particles is zero,
rotation without translation example : opening a bottle. total angular momentum remains constant for the system. Theorem of perpendicular Theorem of parallel
axes axes
dL Theorem is applicable to The theorem is applicable
t = 0 ® dt =0 m m
bodies whose thickness is to body irrespective of any
small compared to other shape.
Bottle L = constant dimensions. (Planar body) m MOI of a body about any
m MOI of a planar body about an axis is equal to the sum of
8 EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY axis perpendicular to its plane MOI of the body about a
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium if both is equal to the sum of its MOI parallel axis passing
its linear momentum and angular momentum are not about two perpendicular axes through its COM and the
9 MOMENT OF INERTIA : MOI concurrent with perpendicular product of its mass and
changing with time or equivalently, the body has neither Analogue of mass, in rotational motion is rotational inertia
m axis and lying in plane of body. the square of distance
linear acceleration nor angular acceleration. also called moment of inertia. between the two parallel
z axes.
m Vector sum of forces on rigid body is zero åFi = 0 m This is a characteristics of rigid body and the axis about z¢ z
which it rotates. It depends on distribution of mass and
m Vector sum of torques on rigid body is zero. åti = 0 position of axis of rotation. O
Rotational equilibrium condition is independent of m This parameter is independent of magnitude of angular y
m COM
location of origin about which torques are taken. velocity of body, For a system of particles moment of
n x d
m A body may be in partial equilibrium i.e. rotational 2
inertia is given by I = å miri
equilibrium but not transnational. i =1 Iz = Ix + Iy Iz¢ = Iz + md2
30 System of Particles and Rotational Motion NCERT Maps
10 TRANSNATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL MOTION ANALOGY 12 KINETIC ENERGY OF TRANSLATING AND ROTATING BODIES:
Linear motion Rotation about a fixed Axis m K.E of translation + K.E of rotational motion
Displacement x Angular displacement q KE = 1 MVcm + 1 Iw

2 2
2 2
dx 2
Velocity v= Angular velocity w = dq where I = MK , K is corresponding radius of gyration
dt dt
Radius of Gyration : Distance from axis of rotation of a point mass whose mass is equal to mass of whole body
Mass m Moment of inertia I
and whose moment of inertia is equal to moment of inertia of body about the axis.
Force F = ma Torque t = I a m Kinetic Energy In Case Of Pure Rolling Motion
Work dW = Fds Work = dW = tdq Vcm = Rwcm
2 2
mv 2 Kinetic energy k = lw 2 Vcm
KE = 1 MVcm + 1 MK
2
Kinetic energy k=
2 2 2 2 R
2
Power P = F. V Power P = t. w 2
K
KE = 1 MVcm
2
Linear momentum P = mV Angular momentum L = Iw 2 1+ 2
R
dp dL
F= t=
dt dt This formula can be used to all rolling bodies like ring, disc, cylinder sphere.
11 ROLLING MOTION 13 KINEMATICS OF ROLLING BODIES DOWN ROUGH INCLINE PLANE

We apply conservation of mechanical energy to rolling bodies as Rolling friction performs no work.
m All wheels used in transportation have rolling motion.
R
m It is combination of rotation and translation with axis moving. DP.E. = DK.E.
m When disc rolls without slipping, At any instant of time bottom of
2
disc which is in contact with surface is at rest with respect to K
mgh = 1 mVcm
2
surface. 2 1+ 2
R
VP S
VPO Q
r r r h
VP = VPO + Vcm 2gh Vcm
q Velocity at bottom Vcm =
Vcm K2
P 1+ 2
Vcm R q
O
w g sinq
Acceleration of COM ; a = 2
1 + (K/R)
2 2 1/2
|VP| = [(VPO) + Vcm + 2VPOVcm cosq] 2
K
Minimum coefficient of friction required for pure rolling m = 22 tanq
m In pure rolling with out slipping Þ v = Rw R +K
m Top of a rolling body has magnitude of velocity 2
1 2h K
Time to reach the bottom = sinq × g × 2 +1
VQ = Vcm + wcmR = Vcm + Vcm = 2 Vcm,Bottom is at rest w.r.t. surface R
8
Gravitation Chapter
1 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION 2 NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION 3 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY 7 EARTH’S SATELLITE
Law of Orbits m The Gravitational force (F) between two m For a body falling freely under gravity, the
Orbital Speed of Satellite
Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical acceleration of body is called acceleration
bodies is directly proportional to product
orbit and the sun in situated at one of its foci. due to gravity m The speed required to put satellite into
of masses and inversely proportional to
GMe 4 a given circular orbit
B m g= = pGrRe
square of distance between them. Re2 3
v0 = GMe g
® –Gm1m2 = Re
F= r Where G = Gravitational constant Re + h Re + h
2b 2
P S
r r ® Average density of earth
S' A m For satellite very close to earth orbital speed
Characteristics of Gravitational Force Me ® Mass of earth
m It is alway attractive Re ® Radius of earth v0 = GMe = gRe = v e
C
Re 2
2a m It is independent of the medium
5 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
Law of Areas m It is a conservative and central force
ENERGY Time Period of Satellite
m It has infinite range m The work done in bringing a body from
The areal velocity of the planet around the sun 2p 2p
infinity to a point in the gravitational field m T= (Re + h )3/ 2 = ( Re + h )3
is constant i.e. dA = L = constant Superposition Principle GMe Re g
dt 2m is gravitational potential energy
v The Gravitational force on a point mass m1 For two point mass system m For satellite very close to earth’s surface
P¢
is the vector sum of the gravitational forces Gm1m2
A P (Planet) U=–
S r T = 2p Re
r F exerted by m2, m3 .... Gravitational Potential due to a point mass
= 84.6 min
g
® ® ® It is the work done in bringing a unit mass
Sun i.e. F1 = F12 + F13 + ....
from infinity to a point in the gravitational
Energy of Satellite
Gm
field. V = – GMe m
Law of Periods Due to Depth (d) r m Kinetic energy K =
2(Re + h )
The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet is directly proportional to the cube of semi The value of g decreases with depth 6 ESCAPE SPEED
GMe m
d The minium speed of projection of a body m Potential energy U = –
major axis length of the elliptical orbit i.e. T2 µ a3 gd = g 1– m
(Re + h )
Re from surface of earth so that it just m Total energy (E) = K + U
4 VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO g crosses the gravitational field of earth GM e m
=–
GRAVITY (g) 2GM e 2(Re + h )
gO ve = = 2gRe = 8pGr Re
Re 3
Due to Altitude (h) m Binding energy (BE) = – E
The value of g goes on decreasing with height (h) It is independent of angle of projection. GM e m
=+
m Escape velocity from moon is about 5 2(Re + h )
GM e O r = Re r
gh =
( R e + h )2 times smaller than earth.
36 Gravitation NCERT Maps
8 TYPES OF SATELLITES
Polar Satellite Geostationary Satellite

m Revolves in polar orbit around the earth m Time period is 24 h.
m Height is approximately 500 to 800 km m Height is approximately 35800 km.
m Time period is nearly 100 min m Have same angular speed and sense of rotation as of earth
m Used in military spying, weather forecasting, meteorology etc. m Used for satellite communication, GPS
N m INSAT is group of Geostationary satellites sent up by India.
9 WEIGHTLESSNESS
An Astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. This is not because the gravitational force is small at that location in space. It is because both the astronaut
and every part of satellite has an acceleration towards the center of the earth which is exactly the value of earth’s acceleration due to gravity at that position.
Mechanical Properties of Solids
9
Chapter
1 ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY 3 HOOKE’S LAW 5 VARIOUS OF MODULUS OF 7 ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
m Elasticity : Property of a body to regain its original shape and ELASTICITY (IN A STRETCHED WIRE)
size, on removing the deforming force Stress µ strain
(a) Young’s Modulus 1 YA × DL
2
1 FDL
m Plasticity: The inability of a body to regain its original size and Stress = k strain U= =
longitudinal stress FL 2 L 2
shape on the removal of the deforming forces Y = longitudinal strain =
k = modulus of elasticity ADL 1
2 STRESS AND STRAIN = × stress × strain × volume
6 POISSON’S RATIO (b) Bulk Modulus 2
Restoring force
= F unit : N m
–2
m Stress = Elastic potential energy per unit volume
Area A Lateral strain (Dd/d) hydraulic stress
s = Longitudinal strain
= (DL/L) B= 1 1 s
(a) Longitudinal stress : volume strain
u= stress × strain = e
Tensile stress : When a cylinder is stretched by two equal forces 2 2
Dd : Contraction in diameter p
normal to its cross-sectional area the restoring force per unit area of stretched wire. =–
(Dv/v) 8 APPLICATIONS OF ELASTIC
is called Tensile stress.
Compressive stress : If the cylinder is compressed under the 1 BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
4 STRESS - STRAIN CURVE Compressibility k = B
action of applied forces, the restoring force per unit area is called m For a metal m Minimum area of cross - section of
compressive stress. su
Proportional limit D (c) Shear modulus or wire of crane
(b) Tagential stress (or shear stress) : The restoring force per unit yield point E modulus of rigidity
Fracture
area developed due to applied tangential force is called sy point
Mg
B C shearing stress FL A=
tangential or shearing stress. A G = shearing strain = A D x sy
(c) Hydraulic stress : It is the restoring force per unit area. When a
Stress
body under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides, Y m Designing beams for bridges
the magnitude is equal to hydraulic pressure. For most materials, G =
3
Change in dimension (No unit) Permanent set
m Strain =
Original dimension 0 30%
F Strain
<1%
O to A : linear curve(Hooke’s Law)
DL
(a) Longitudinal strain = L + DL A : Proportional limit
L L
B : Yield point(elastic limit) ® Corresponding stress is yield strength(sy)
D : Ultimate tensile strength (su)
(a) F E : Fracture point
m Material is brittle if D and E are close and ductile if D and E are far apart
Dx Wl3
(b) Shear strain = = tan q d =
L (4bd3Y)
m For an elastomer
Stress (106 N m–2)
1.0
(b) (c) Very large elastic region, even
d µ d–3
if material does not obey
0.5 So I shaped beam is preferred
Hooke’s law and there is no well
DV defined plastic region. m Maximum height of a mountain
(c) Volume strain =
V 0
0 0.5 1.0 E , E is elastic limit
h=
(d) Strain rg
Mechanical Properties of Fluids
10
Chapter
1 PRESSURE 4 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE 6 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

m Average pressure is defined as the normal force acting m Loss of weight of a body submerged (partially or m It states that for a steady flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of
per unit area completely) in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid pressure energy per unit volume (P), kinetic energy per
F displaced.
Pav = rb unit volume and potential energy per unit volume remains
A Weight of fluid displaced = rl Vs g = FB
constant.
DF If rb < rl; then body will float rl
P = Lim , It is a scalar quantity. 2
P + 1/2 rv + rgh = constant
DA ® 0 DA
m Phenomenons associated: Heart attack, magnus effect
If rb = rl; body will just float with fully submerged
2 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH and aerofoil (lift of aircraft)
If rb > rl; then body will sink m Venturi-meter: It is a device used to measure the flow
Pressure difference
speed of incompressible fluid.
P2 – P1 = rgh 1
m Law of Floatation
Vs rb
If point 1 is at free surface of liquid For Floating object = 2 rm gh A –1
2 –1/2
h Vb rl v1 =
then P2 = Pa + rgh mg r a
Fraction of vol. submerged = ratio of density of body and
2
P – Pa = rgh (called gauge pressure) fluid
m Instruments used to measure pressure
m Buoyant Force a
A v1 v2 v1
Pa Buoyant force is equal to weight of the fluid displaced.
Pg Buoyant force depends on geff

h Pa h
h Buoyant force acts opposite to geff Liquid of
A B density rm.
rb h
rl
m Speed of efflux: Torricelli's Law
Mercury barometer The open tube
used to measure manometer, used to measure A1v1 = A2v2, if v2 << v1
atmospheric pressure pressure of gas
5 STREAMLINE FLOW
Pa = rgh Pg = Pa + rgh 2(P – Pa)
m The flow is said to be steady if at any given point, the v1 = 2gh + r
velocity of each passing fluid particle remains constant in A2
3 PASCAL'S LAW When P >> Pa and 2gh may be P2 = P
time. The path taken by fluid particle under steady flow m
m When ever an external pressure is applied on any part of a called streamline. ignored. A1
fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished m Equation of continuity: In stream line flow, mass of liquid m On the other hand tank is open
v1
and equally in all directions. coming out equals to the mass of liquid flowing in to atmosphere, then P = Pa Pa
Devices based on Pascal's law A1v1 = A2v2
v1 = 2gh
(i) Hydraulic lift (ii) Hydraulic brakes It is based on conservation of mass.
NCERT Maps Mechanical Properties of Fluids 45
7 VISCOSITY 10 SURFACE TENSION 12 DROPS AND BUBBLES

m The property of fluid due to which it opposes relative m Surface: It is the thickness of few molecular size. m Pinside > Poutside (For liquid-gas interface, the convex side
motion between its different layers in steady flow called m Surface Tension: The property of liquid by which the free has lower pressure than on concave side.)
viscosity. surface of liquid at rest tends to have minimum surface
l Liquid drop, air bubble in water have one surfaces so,
m Tangential force between the layer area called surface tension.
dv Surface tension can be defined as the force per unit length DAeff = DAGeo
F = –hA
dr v + dv on imaginary line drawn at the surface of liquid
h = coefficient of viscosity P0 P0 P0
F
Shearing stress v S=
h= r r + dr l Pi Pi
m Pi
Shear strain rate r
m Surface tension of a liquid falls with temperature.
m SI unit is poiseiulle (rl).
m Surface energy: Molecules on the surface of liquid have Drop Cavity Bubble
some extra potential energy in comparison to molecules in 2S 2S 4S
8 STOKE'S LAW the interior. A liquid thus tends to have minimum surface Pi – P0 = Pi – P0 = Pi – P0 =
r r r
4 3 area.
m The viscous force acting on a spherical FB = pr sg
3
body of radius a. F = –6phav
FV
11 SURFACE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION 13 CAPILLARITY
m Terminal velocity: FV = 6pr hv
2
2 r (r – s)g 4 3 m Work done in increasing d m When a capillary tube is dipped in any liquid then liquid
vt = W = pr rg
9 h 3 surface area. either rise or fall inside the capillary tube.
r = density of sphere material Height of liquid column rise or fall inside a capillary tube is
v W = S(DAeff) l DA m
s = density of fluid l Thin film, liquid bubble have

vt 2Scosq
two surfaces so, h=
m Variation of Velocity with Time a rg
t DAeff = 2DAGeo. 1
hµ
m Angle of contact: a
Sla Pa
9 REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re):
q
Sla
Inertial force q q h
Re = (dimensionless) a
Viscous force
Ssa Ssl Ssa Ssl
r vd At the point of contact, the angle between tangent planes
Re = h m
drawn at the surface of liquid and at surface of solid inside
Where v = velocity of liquid liquid called angle of contact.
r = density of liquid l If q < 90° ® Surface will be concave, liquid stick to solid m In a tube of insufficient length, liquid will rise to the top of
and rise in capillary. capillary, increase radius of curvature and stay there.
m The flow is turbulent for Re > 2000.
l If q > 90° ® Surface will be convex, liquid does not stick Never comes out in the form of fountain.
m Flow is unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000. to solid and fall in capillary.
m This is consequence of pressure difference across a
m Flow is streamline for Re less than 1000. l If q = 90° ® Surface will be plane, liquid does not stick to curved liquid air interface a well known effect that water
m Critical Reynold number is one at which turbulence sets. solid neither rise nor fall in capillary.
rises up in narrow tube inspite of gravity.
m Reynold number helps study nature of fluid flow. l Water forms droplets over a lotus leaf while spreads
m Turbulence dissipates kinetic energy in the form of heat. over a clean plastic plate.
Thermal Properties of Matter
11
Chapter
1 TEMPERATURE 2 HEAT 3 CALORIMETRY 5 CHANGE OF STATE

m Temperature is a relative measure of A form of energy transferred between two or m Heat lost by a part at higher temperature is
hotness or coldness. more systems by virtue of temperature equal to heat gained by the part at lower m Change of state from solid to liquid is
difference. temperature. called melting or fusion.
m Heat transfer takes place between system
and surrounding medium until they are at Thermal Expansion m Calorimetry means measurement of heat. m Change of state from liquid to vapour is
same temperature. m A change in temperature of a body m A device in which heat measurement can be called vaporisation
m Measure of temperature is obtained using a causes change in its dimensions. done is called a calorimeter. CHANGE
m OF STATEat
The temperature ONwhich
HEATtheSUPPLY
liquid
thermometer. and vapour states of substance
Three types of expansion 4 HEAT CAPACITY
m Some properties of material change with coexist is called its Boiling point.
The change in temperature of a substance, when
temperature to be used as basis of Boiling point increases with increase in
1. Linear Expansion a given quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected is m
constructing thermometer. Dl 1
al = ´ characterised by a quantity called heat capacity. pressure and vice versa.
m For standard scale a fixed reference point l DT
m The change from solid state to vapour
is taken. DQ
S= state without passing through the
m A relationship for conversion between DT
Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scale is 2. Area Expansion liquid state is called sublimation and
t F - 32 t Specific heat capacity substance is said to sublime.
= c DA 1
180 100 aa = ´ Latent heat
A DT This is unique value of heat absorbed or given
m A temperature –273.15°C is designated as off, to change unit mass of it by one unit m Amount of heat transferred during
absolute zero. This is foundation of Kelvin aa = 2al temperature change. change of state of substance is called
temperature scale. For anisotropic solid aa = al1 + al2 its latent heat.
m Size of unit of Kelvin and Celsius 3. Volume Expansion s=
S
=
1 DQ
DQ
temperature scales is the same. Relation m m DT L= J kg –1
M
between scales is DV 1
aV = ´ Molar specific heat
V DT L depends on pressure.
TK = tC + 273.15 m
If the amount of substance is specified in terms m Solid-liquid state change ® Latent

m aV is constant only at high temperature of moles heat of fusion (Lf)
6 TRIPLE POINT we define heat capacity per mole
P The temperature and pressure at which m Pyrex glass and invar has low aV. m Liquid-gas state change ® Latent heat
(atm)
A
the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve m Alcohol has high volume expansion S 1 æ DQ ö -1 -1 of vaporisation (Lv)
C= = ç J mol K
and the sublimation curve meet and all coefficient than mercury. m m è DT ÷ø
the three phases of a substance coexist 1 5
22.6 × 10 J/kg
m aV = for ideal gases For gases two molar specific heat (540 kcal/kg)
T Boiling Phase
218
Solid
C
(aV )gases > (aV )liquid > (aV )solids capacities point change
100 5
3.33 × 10 J/kg Gas
Liquid AO ® Fusion curve
Temperature (°C)
(80 kcal/kg) phase
BO ® Sublimation curve m When a solid rod has its ends rigidly Molar specific heat Molar specific heat Melting Phase
(steam)
point change Liquid phase
O CO ® Vaporisation curve fixed, it results in thermal stress in capacity at constant capacity at constant 0 (water)
0.006 B Vapour material which is proportional to pressure CP volume CV Solid phase
B temperature change. (ice)
–220 0.01 374 T(°C)
Thermal Stress = Y×al×DT
Pressure-temperature phase diagrams for water CP – CV = R (for ideal gases)
50 Thermal Properties of Matter NCERT Maps
HEAT TRANSFER MODES
7 CONDUCTION 8 CONVECTION 9 RADIATION
m It is a mechanism of heat transfer between In convection mode heat transfer by actual motion of matter occurs. m This heat transfer mechanism needs
adjacent parts of a body due to temperature m Convection occurs in fluids only. no medium.
difference. m Two types of convections are m Energy transferred by waves is called
m At steady state, the temperature of bar, through 1. Natural convection radiant energy.
which heat is flowing, decreases with distance, 2. Forced convection m Heat transferred from sun to earth is
and heat starts flowing at a constant rate. m Trade winds is example of natural convection in which gravity plays an important role. by radiation.
m The rate of flow of heat m In forced convection material is forced to move by a pump. Human circulatory m Radiations emitted by hot bodies are
system, cooling system of automobile engine are forced convection method. called thermal radiations.
æ T - TC ö
H = KA ç H ÷
è L ø
L LAWS OF RADIATIONS
H Conduction 10 Wien's Displacement Law 11 Stefan-Boltzmann's Law
TH TC Convection Wavelength for which radiation For a black body which is perfect
energy is maximum decreases with radiator energy emitted per unit
TH = Hot end Temperature time is given as
increasing temperature.
TC = Cold end Temperature 4
lmT = constant H=AsT
L = Length of rod Radiation
Value of constant (Wien's constant) A is area, T is absolute temperature
A = Cross -section of rod
o f b o d y, s i s c a l l e d S t e f a n
K is called thermal conductivity of material. –3
is 2.9 × 10 m K. Boltzmann's constant
m Greater value of K for a material, more rapidly m This law is used to measure –8 –2 –4
–1 –1
loge (T2 – T1) s = 5.67 × 10 Wm K
will it conduct heat. Its SI units are Wm K surface temperature of celestial
DT(°C) m But if a body is surrounded by
bodies like stars, moon and sun.
surroundings at temperature Ts.
12 Newton's law of cooling time For perfect radiator net rate of heat
O time
cooling curve radiated
Rate of heat loss of a body is directly H = sA(T 4 - Ts4 )
proportional to difference of temperature of Average method
Change in temperature
dQ = kDT m For body with emissivity e
body and surroundings. - = k (TB - TS ) time
dt modified relation is
m This law holds for small temperature DT = (Tav – Ts) 0<e£l
difference only. H = esA(T 4 - Ts4 )
loge (T2 – T1) = –kt + C
13 Greenhouse effect: The absorption of infrared waves by greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane (CH4) nitrous dude (N2O) chlorofluorocarbon (CFxClx) and ozone (O3). Heating of
atmosphere ® More energy to earth ® Warmer surface. Without Greenhouse effect temperature of earth would have been –18°C
Thermodynamics
12
Chapter
1 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM 4 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY 6 THERMODYNAMIC STATE VARIABLES

m Temperature of a body is related to its average internal m Molar specific heat at constant volume. m Thermodynamic state variables describe equilibrium state of
energy, not to kinetic energy of motion of centre of mass. system. These state variables are not necessarily independent.
æ DQ ö æ DU ö
CV = ç ÷ =ç ÷ m The connection among state variables is called equation of state.
m Equilibrium in thermodynamics refer to situation when è DT øV è DT ø
macroscopic variables defining thermodynamic state of m Equilibrium state of thermodynamic system is described by state
m Molar specific heat at constant pressure variables. The value of state variable depends on particular state
system don't depend on time. not by the path used to arrive that state. Pressure, volume,
æ DQ ö æ DU ö æ DV ö
CP = ç ÷ =ç ÷ +Pç ÷ temperature and mass are state variable. Heat and work are not
è DT øP è DT øP è DT øP
2 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS state variables.
æ DV ö
m Two systems in thermal equilibrium with third system PV = RT \ P ç ÷ =R m For an ideal gas, equation of state is PV = mRT
è DT øP
separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. m Thermodynamic state variables are of two types
m If TA = TC and TB = TC, then TA = TB CP = CV + R (MAYER'S Equation)
m (1) Extensive
m Thermodynamic variable whose value is equal for two
C C +R R (2) Intensive
systems in thermal equilibrium is called temperature. m g= P = V = 1+
CV CV CV m Extensive variables indicates size of system.
3 HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK CP = g × CV m Internal energy, volume and mass are extensive variables. But
m Heat is energy transfer arising due to temperature difference pressure, temperature and density are intensive variables.
between system and surroundings. 5 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
m Internal energy is simply the sum of kinetic energies and 7 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
m DQ = DU + DW (Energy conservation law)
potential energies of the molecules in the frame of reference m Spontaneous processes in nature are irreversible.
to which centre of mass of system is at rest. DQ = heat supplied to system by the surrounding
m A process is reversible if the process can be turned back such that
m Internal energy depends on state of the system, not how the DW = work done by the system on the surrounding both the system and surrounding return to their original states with
state was achieved. DU = Change in internal energy of a the system no any other change anywhere else in universe.
m There are two ways to change internal energy of a m Heat supplied to system goes in partly to increase
thermodynamic system m A quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder
internal energy and rest in work on environment. fitted with a frictionless movable piston is a reversible process.
(1) To do work on system m This is simply the general law of conservation of
(2) Supply heat to system energy applied to any system in which energy m A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that system
So heat and work are two modes of altering the state of a transfer is taken into account. remains in thermal and mechanical equilibrium with surroundings
thermodynamic system and changing internal energy. throughout. In this process pressure and temperature of the
m DW = PDV environment can differ from those of system only infinitesimally.
m Heat and work in Thermodynamics are not state variables. \ DQ = DU + PDV
m U is a state variable. DU depends only on initial and final
states and not on path taken by gas to go from one to 8 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
another.
m DQ and DW will depend on path taken to go from initial to m A thermodynamic process is an activity where a
final state. thermodynamic system is taken from one
m Work done during thermodynamic process equilibrium state to another.
v2
DW = m Reversible process
ò PdV
v1
m Irreversible process
m Area under the P – V diagram with the volume axis gives the
work done in thermodynamic process. No accelerated motion of Piston
m Cyclic process
56 Thermodynamics NCERT Maps
9 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS 12 ISOCHORIC PROCESS 14 HEAT ENGINE

m For isothermal process Temperature during the process m For isochoric process volume during the process should be m Heat engine is a device in which a system undergoes a
should be constant constant cyclic process resulting in conversion of heat in to the
PV = constant P sink.
= constant
m So pressure of given mass of a gas varies inversely as its T m Efficiency of the engine is
volume. m Work done in isochoric process, DW = PDV = 0 W Q1 - Q2 Q
h= = = 1- 2
m Work done in isothermal process. m DQ = DU + DW Q1 Q1 Q1
If a system of ideal gas at temperature T goes from DQ = DU Q1 = heat absorbed from source
(P1, V1) to (P2, V2) equilibrium state, then work done m Heat absorbed by gas goes entirely to change its internal Q2 = heat released to sink
æv ö æP ö energy and its temperature. h = efficiency of heat engine
W = mRT ln ç 2 ÷ = mRT ln ç 1 ÷
è v1 ø è P2 ø
m Change in internal energy is determined by specific heat at
constant volume and temperature change. W
m Here DT = 0 \ DU = 0
Cold Reservoir T2
Hot Reservoir T1
æV ö 13 CYCLIC PROCESS
DQ = DW = mRT ln ç 2 ÷
è V1 ø m In any cyclic process system returns to initial state, DU = 0 Q1 Q2
m Hence total heat absorbed equals the work done by the system, Engine
10 ADIABATIC PROCESS DQ = DW
m In adiabatic process heat interaction between system and
surrounding is zero. i.e. DQ = 0 15 REFRIGERATOR
g
m PV = constant m A refrigerator is the reverse of a heat engine. Working
m Heat engine based on idealised reversible processes
Where g = ratio of molar specific heats at constant substance extracts heat from cold reservoir, some external
achieve the highest possible efficiency.
pressure and at constant volume. work is done on system and heat is released to reservoir at high
m System is insulated from surroundings and heat absorbed temperature.
or released is zero. heat extracted 17 CARNOT ENGINE
m Coefficient of performance of refrigerator = Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between
m Work done by gas results in decrease in its internal work input m
energy. two temperatures T1 and T2. Carnot cycle consists of

Q2 Q2 T2 1- h two isothermal and two adiabatic processes. Its
m If system change from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) b= = = =
W Q1 - Q2 (T1 - T2 ) h efficiency is
mR(T1 - T2 ) (PV - P2V2 ) (P1, V1, T1)
DW = = 1 1 where g = CP/CV T2
g -1 ( g - 1) m Coefficient of performance for heat pump is h = 1- P (P2, V2, T1)
m If work done by gas (W > 0), then, T2 < T1 T1
Q T1 1
b= 1 = =
W T1 - T2 h
11 ISOBARIC PROCESS
m For isobaric process pressure during the process (P4, V4, T2)
should be constant 16 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (P3, V3, T2)
V m Kelvin-Planck statement : No process is possible whose sole V
= constant result is absorption of heat from a reservoir and complete
T m Engine efficiency of Carnot engine does not depend on
conversion of heat into work.
m Work done in isobaric process nature of working substance.
W = P(V2 – V1) = mR(T2 – T1) m Clausius statement : No process is possible whose sole Carnot Theorem: Any other engine working between
result is transfer of heat from cold reservoir to hotter object. temperature T1 and T2 can not have efficiency more than
m Heat partly to do absorbed goes partly to increase internal
Two statements are completely equivalent. that of Carnot engine. The Carnot engine's efficiency is
energy and mechanical work. m
independent of nature of working substance.
DQ = DU + DW m It shows that efficiency of a heat engine can never be unity so In Carnot cycle
DU = mCVDT, DQ = mCPDT and DW = mRDT heat released to cold reservoir can never be made zero.
DW R g -1 DU CV 1 m Kelvin Planck and Clausius deny the perfect heat engine and Q1 T1 is universal relation and this relation can be
= = and = = =
DQ CP g DQ CP g refrigerator. Q2 T2 used to design universal thermodynamic scale.
Kinetic Theory
13
Chapter
1 LAWS ASSOCIATED WITH KTG 3 KINETIC INTERPRETATION 4 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

m An ideal gas is only theoretical model of a gas. No real gas is truly OF TEMPERATURE m Specific heat capacity for solids = 3R
ideal. Without interactions gas behaves like an ideal gas. At low m Average kinetic energy of molecule m Specific heat capacity of water = 9R
pressure or high temperature, molecules are far apart and 1 3 3 2
= mv 2 = K BT m CV (monoatomic gas) = R m g = 1 +
molecular interaction is negligible. 2 f
2 2
Ideal gas 1 5 7
1 VRMS = (V 2 ) 2 m g=
3
(monoatomic) m g= (rigid diatomic)
5
3K BT Polyatomic gases in general a polyatomic molecules has 3
J mol–1K–1
T1 m
= translational, 3 rotational degree of freedom and a certain
T2 m
T1 > T2 > T3 > number (f¢) of vibrational modes. Then for one mole of gas
m In a mixture of gases at a given temperature,
3 3
heavier molecule has lower average speed. U= K T + KBT + fKBT NA
pV
mT
T3 2 B 2
m Translational kinetic energy of gas CV = (3 + f)R (4 + f )
3 2 E 1 3 g=
0 200 400 600 800 CP = (4 + f)R (3 + f )
E = K B NT and PV = E , = mv 2 = K BT
P (atm) 2 3 N 2 2 m Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy with
m Boyle's Law : Pressure of a given ideal gas is inversely m Average KE is proportional to temperature. corresponding energy equal to KBT.
proportional to its volume if temperature is kept constant. m Molecules of a monatomic gas have only translational degree of
m Charle's Law : Volume of given ideal gas is directly proportional to m R.M.S. speed of gas molecule, freedom.
its temperature in kelvin if pressure is kept constant. 3RT m Molecules like CO even at moderate temperature has mode of
VRMS =
m Gay Lussac’s Law : Pressure of an ideal gas is directly M vibration.
proportional to its absolute temperature if volume is kept constant. m Diatomic molecule, like a dumbell, has five degree of freedom.
m Most probable speed of molecule
m Polyatomic molecule has 3 transitional, 3 rotational and a
m Avogadro's Law : Equal volume of all the gases under similar 2RT degree of a certain number of vibrational modes.
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of =
M
molecules. PV PV
1 1 Average speed of gas molecule 5 MEAN FREE PATH
= 2 2 = KB m
N1T1 N2T2 m Molecules of gas have rather large speeds of the order of
8RT
= speed of sound.
Ideal gas equation connecting the variables is pM
rRT m Molecules of gas undergo collisions and their paths keep
PV = mRT = KBNT P= m This concept of maxwell energy distribution getting deflected.
M0
predict specific heat of gases theoretically. m Average distance a molecule can travel without collision is
m Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure : Total pressure of a mixture of LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY called mean free path.
non-reactive gases is the sum of their partial pressures. m Mean free path of gas molecule is related to number of
m KTG is consistent with ideal gas equation. molecules per unit volume and size of gas molecule.
2 AVERAGE PRESSURE OF GAS m For a system in equilibrium at absolute temperature 1 KBT
T, total energy is distributed equally in different l= 2
º l = 2
2pnd 2pPd
1 1 modes of absorptions. Energy of each mode is
P= n mv 2 and PV = nV mv 2
3 3 n : number density; d : diameter of molecules
equal to 1/2 KBT.
m Mean free path in gases is of order of thousands of angstrom.
n ® Number density m ® Mass of molecule m Each translational and rotational degree of freedom P : Pressure of gas; T : Absolute temperature
v 2 ® Mean of squared speed corresponds to one energy mode of absorption. KB : Boltzmann's Constant
14
Oscillations Chapter
1 SPECIAL TYPES OF MOTIONS 2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
m Periodic Motion m Simple harmonic motion is an example of periodic m Velocity displacement graph will be an ellipse
–1
oscillatory motion. (w ¹ 1) or a circle (w = 1 rad s ).
A motion which repeats itself after regular intervals of time, (T) is
m Special type of oscillatory motion which satisfies
periodic. Examples: following conditions. m The maximum velocity of particle executing SHM
A. Oscillatory amplitude of particle is small. will be at mean position and at extremes speed
l Motion a particle in circle with constant speed becomes minimum (zero).
B. During oscillation, acceleration towards mean
l Skipping position, due to net restoring force, is directly m Different graphs for a particle executing SHM
l Spring block system proportion to displacement from mean position. (A) Displacement - time graph
m Force displacement relation in S.H.M.
l Simple pendulum If at t = 0 particle is at mean position
F = –ky, where K is force constant (Force law in
l Motion of Earth around sun S.H.M.), y is displacement from mean position. A
m Acceleration of particle F F
l Motion of needle of sewing machine y A
F æK ö
A boat tossing up and down in a lake a= = - ç ÷ y = - w2 y T
l
m èmø –A +A (t)
l Piston of engine going back and forth can be periodic \ Acceleration and displacement are antiparallel –A
m Oscillatory Motion d 2y K y = A sin(wt)
+ w2 y = 0 , here w = (Angular frequency)
Special type of periodic motion in which a particle moves to and fro dt 2 m
(B) Velocity - time graph
about a fixed point. The force acting on the particle in a direction m is mass oscillating, K is force constant.
vP
directed towards equilibrium position is called restoring force. m General equation for displacement in S.H.M. wA
l Every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion y = A sin (wt + f) or y = A cos (wt ± f)
may not be oscillatory. 2p
w= = 2 p n is angular frequency and (wt + f) is
T T (t)
l Back and Forth motion can be oscillatory or vibratory. When called phase, a time varying quantity.
oscillations frequency is small we call it oscillatory, at high –wA
Here f is called epoch or initial phase.
frequency we call it vibratory.
A. If particle at t = 0 is at equilibrium position. v = Aw cos (wt)
Oscillations can be (y = 0)
(C) Acceleration time graph
A. Free oscillations y = A sin wt n
2 acc
B. If particle at t = 0 is at extreme right position +w A
l When a system oscillates with its natural frequency the
(y = A)
oscillations are called free oscillations.
y = A cos wt 0
B. Damped oscillations T T
m Velocity of particle in SHM.
l If some external resisting force appears opposing restoring dy 2 2
vP = = w A cos ( w t ± f ) –w A
force, oscillatory amplitude starts decreasing with time. dt
2
If at t = 0 particle is at origin. a = –w A sin (wt)
C. Forced oscillations
l Velocity leads displacement by a phase
v P = wA cos wt = w A2 - y 2
l Forced oscillations are those in which damping is not allowed of (p/2) rad.
by applying an external time varying force, which m Acceleration of particle in SHM
2 l Acceleration leads velocity a phase of p/2
compensates the effect of damping force acting on it. aP = –w A sin wt, at t = 0 particle is at mean position. rad.
NCERT Maps Oscillations 65
3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND UNIFORM 5 MECHANICAL ENERGY IN SIMPLE 6 OSCILLATIONS DUE TO A SPRING
CIRCULAR MOTION HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
1 2
m Projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter of m Potential energy in SHM U = ky + U 0 (1) Oscillations of a spring block system
2
the circle follows simple harmonic motion.
U0 is generally taken zero at equilibrium. k
dU m
B Y Fint =- ; instantaneous force on particle.
dy
m Maximum potential energy occurs at extreme positions and
P(t) minimum at mean position. (Linear S.H.M.)
y R
wt (t) = 0 m Graph of potential energy versus displacement of particle will
x be parabolic, symmetric about y-axis. Force law, F = –kx
O A
m Kinetic energy of particle in S.H.M. varies directly as square 2
F = –ma = –mw x
of its velocity at any location.
1 1 k
KE = (mw2 ) ( A2 - y 2 ) = mw2 A2 cos2 (wt + f) 2
\ k = mw or w =
2 2 m
Particle position m Kinetic energy can not be negative. Potential energy increases
y = R sin wt is SHM. at expense of KE and vice versa. Where k spring constant of spring and m is mass
of block executing SHM.
m Kinetic energy will be maximum at mean position and zero at
extreme position. (2) For two Identical Springs
This is an equation of S.H.M. for particle
displacement at any time. m Total mechanical energy is independent of time.
This is also linear harmonic oscillator
m Potential energy and kinetic energy peaks twice during every
period. Element of springiness stores potential energy and x
element of inertia stores its kinetic energy. F1 F2
4 SPECIAL PARAMETERS IN SHM k k
m Graph of kinetic energy versus position of particle will be m
m Since particles speed is not constant ; from mean an inverted parabola.
position to half of amplitude it takes half of time than m In absence of damping ; total mechanical energy of harmonic
to move from half of amplitude to extreme position. oscillator will remain constant.
1 When displaced right, restoring forces towards left
m Minimum velocity in S.H.M. is vmin = 0 at extremes E = kmax = Umax = mw2 A2
2 T
and maximum velocity at equilibrium position. m Potential energy and kinetic energy is periodic with period .
2 F1 = –kx, F2 = –kx, F = F1 + F2
vmax = wA
m The graphs for energy versus position are
m Maximum acceleration of particle is at extreme F = –2 kx
2
positions amax = w A and minimum (zero) is at Since force acting on mass is proportional to
U
equilibrium. 1 2
displacement and directed towards mean position. It is
E = const. = K + U = KA
(U) 2
m Maximum force on particle is at extreme positions SHM. The period of oscillation is
and zero at mean, in between it varies linearly (E)
always directed towards equilibrium. (K) KE
(Displacement) m
2 T = 2p
Fmax = mw A and Fmin = zero –A O +A 2k
66 Oscillations NCERT Maps
7 SIMPLE PENDULUM 8 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Simple Pendulum m A viscous surroundings will apply force on simple pendulum or a spring pendulum
m By attaching a small mass to an inextensible string, a simple pendulum can be made. and system will ultimately come to rest.
m The mass executes SHM for small displacements only. m The damping force depends on nature of surrounding medium. When damping is
Rigid Support high, energy is quickly dissipated. This force is generally proportion to velocity
of oscillator.
q ur r ur r
F d µ v Þ F = - bv
L
m Net force F = –ky – bv (b ® damping factor)

m
ma = –ky – bv
mg
2
md y dy
I +b + ky = 0 is damped equation, whose solution is given by
T = 2p 2
Also here I = mL , about rigid support point. dt 2 dt
mgL
- bt
y = Ae 2m cos ( w ¢ t + f ) for displacement of oscillator.
L
T = 2p
g k b2
Where w¢ = -
m The time period of a simple pendulum depends on its length and acceleration due to m 4m 2
gravity but is independent of its mass and amplitude.
m Time period of a clock pendulum which ticks every second is 2s and its length is 10
approximately 1 metre.
5
9 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE
x(t)
0
m An external agency can maintain motion by resisting damping forces.
These are called driven or forced oscillations. An external force which is –5
periodic is applied to damped oscillator. Equation of oscillations of mass
–100
md 2 y dy
is +b + ky = F0 cos wd t , and after natural oscillation, die out eqn. is 5 10 t 15 20 25
dt 2 dt
y = A cos(wdt + f) and A depends on wd and w.

F0 b
m If wd is close to w then A = l Small damping means << 1
wd b km
m The phenomenon of increase of amplitude when driving frequency is close to natural é 1 2 - bt / m ù
frequency of the oscillators is called resonance.
l ê E = 2 kA e ú energy eq n .
ë û
15
Waves Chapter
WAVE 2 DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A 3 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

It is a disturbance produced, which transfer energy and PROGRESSIVE WAVES
momentum without transfer of matter. m If y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) be the displacement due to two wave
m y(x, t) = a sin(kx – wt + f)
a = amplitude of wave disturbances in the medium and the waves arrive in a region
1 TYPES OF WAVES
is linear combination of sine and cosine function simultaneously and overlap, the net displacement y(x, t) is
m Electromagnetic Wave – wave propagates in the form of
time varying electric and magnetic fields. It require no y(x, t) = A sin(kx – wt) + B cos(kx – wt) given by
medium. Amplitude of resultant wave, a = A + B 2 2
y(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
m Matter waves – wave associated with the particles having
f = tan
–1 B
momentum. A Similarly, resultant waveform
w
Speed of wave v = k = nl n
m Mechanical waves – The waves which require a material
2p y = å fi (x – vt)
medium for their propagation. k= called angular wave number) i=1
l
MECHANICAL WAVES In the phenomenon of interference of two waves
(kx – wt + f) = Phase of wave
y1(x, t) = a sin(kx – wt)
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves m Speed of a Transverse Wave on a Stretched String
and y2(x, t) = a sin(kx – wt – f)
The individual particle of The individual particle of v= T
m
The net displacement
medium vibrate perpendicular medium vibrate parallel to
to direction of propagation. direction of propagation Here f f
T = tension in string (in newton)
y(x, t) = 2a cos
2 )
sin kx – wt +
2 )
Rarefaction
Crest Trough Amplitude
Displacement
Wavelength m
m = l ( mass per unit length of string) So, amplitude is a function of phase difference
v v
Speed of a Longitudinal wave
A(f) = 2a cos ) 2f )
Compression Y
m Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid bar v = r
Wavelength For f, = 0, A = 2a (Constructive interference)
where Y = Young’s modulus of material of bar For constructive interference, path difference between two
m Trasverse waves are possible in solids like strings (under
r = Density of material of bar waves, Dx = 0, l, 2l,....nl
tension), due to shear modulus.
m Speed of longitudinal wave in gases For f = p, A = 0 (Destructive interference)
m Longitudinal waves, involve compressive stress, i.e. (Bulk
For destructive interference, path difference between two
modulus), so is possible in both solids and fluids According to Newton, v= P
r (Isothermal)
waves,
m Waves on the surface of water are of two kinds capillary waves
gP l 3l ,....(2n – 1) l
and gravity waves According to Laplace, v = r (Adiabatic) Dx =
2 2 2
72 Waves NCERT Maps
4 REFLECTION OF WAVES 5 NORMAL MODES OF ORGAN PIPES 6 BEATS

m Rigid Boundary – At rigid boundary wave suffer a Closed organ pipe m When two harmonic sound waves of nearly same
phase change of p. frequencies travel in the same direction then the intensity
yi = a sin(wt – kx) of resultant wave produced from their superposition
increase and decrease continuously at same point with
yr = – a sin(wt + kx)
time. It is called beat formation.
m Open Boundary or Free boundary : At open boundary m Two waves of angular frequencies w1 and w2 superimpose
phase change is 0. at , x = 0 at time t
s1 = a1cosw1t, s2 = a2cosw2t
yi = a sin(wt – kx)
from superposition, s = s1+ s2
yr = a sin(wt + kx) w – w2 w + w2
s = 2a cos 1 t.cos 1 t
2 2
Standing Waves and Normal Modes
When two waves of same amplitude and of same (w1 – w2) (w + w2)
wb = and wa = 1
frequency travel in opposite direction then resultant wave Seventh Ninth Eleventh 2 2
pattern from their superposition is called standing waves. harmonic harmonic harmonic Beat frequency, nbeat = |n1 – n2|
From open boundary. m We hear a waxing and warning of sound with frequency
1 l equal to difference between the frequencies of
L= n+ : for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....
yi(x, t ) = a sin (wt – kx), 2 2
superposing waves.
2L
Possible wavelengths l =
yr(x, t ) = a sin (wt + kx) 1
n+ 7 DOPPLER EFFECT
2
y = yi + yr for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 Generally, if there is relative motion between a source(s)
1 v and observer then observed frequency will be other than
y(x, t) = 2a sin wt coskx Natural frequencies n = n + 2 , for n or = 0, 1, 2, 3 real frequency. This apparent change in frequency is
2L
m The amplitude varies from point to point, but each element Open Organ Pipe called Doppler effect.
of string oscillate with same angular frequency (w) m Both source and observer moving
A A A v + v0
m Nodes – The point at which amplitude is zero or there is no
N n = n0
motion called nodes. Distance between two consecutive N A v + vS
nodes is l/2. L N A N here v is the speed of sound through the medium, n0 is the
N A
m Antinodes – The points at which amplitude is maximum A N velocity of observer relative to the medium, and vs is the
called antinodes. Distance between two consecutive A A
source velocity relative to the medium. In using this
antinodes is l/2 First Second Third formula, velocities in the direction O to S should be
harmonic harmonic harmonic
Normal modes of stretched string Fixed At Both Ends treated as positive and those opposite to it should be
l taken to be negative.
L=n , for n = 1, 2, 3...
A (a) 2 m When source and observer stationary and wind is blowing
L = nl , n = 1, 2 3 fundamental or
Wavelength of stationary wave, l = 2L
2 A first harmonic n , for n = 1, 2, 3... towards stationary observer with speed vw, apparent
A A (b)
nv wavelength
Frequencies of different second harmonic Frequencies of different modes, n = 2L , for n = 1, 2, 3...
A N A
modes (c) (v0 –vw)
A A A
third harmonic m A compression is reflected as compression from the closed la = n
n = nv , n = 1, 2 3-- A N A N A
end of the organ pipe and as rarefaction from the open end. m When source is moving towards the stationary observer
2L A A A (d)
A with medium at rest, apparent wavelength
fourth harmonic m A rarefaction is reflected as rarefaction from the closed end
N N N
A A A A of the organ pipe and as compression from the open end. (v –v )
la= n s
Electric Charges and Fields
1
Chapter
1 ELECTRIC CHARGE 3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 4 CHARGES INTERACTION

Positive and negative charges were named by Benjamin Franklin. Coulomb’s law is quantitative statement about force
m Some substances which readily allow passage of
Charging can be done by electricity through them are called conductors between two point charges.
1. Friction 2. Induction 3. Conduction m Metals, human body and earth are conductors. m Force varies inversely as square of distance between
Charging by friction m Materials which opposes flow of charge through them the charges and directly proportional to product of
When glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one type are insulators. magnitude to two charges and acts along the line
of charge and silk acquires other type of charge. m Glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood etc are insulators. joining two charges
Earthing m Two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r in
2 PROPERTIES OF CHARGES A process of sharing charges with earth is called grounding vacuum, the magnitude of force (F) between them
m Two types of charges exist. or earthing
| q1q2 |
F =K
m Like charges repel unlike attract. r2
m A body is charged by loss or gain of electrons. m Accelerating charges emit radiations. K depends on system of units and medium. In SI unit
m In an isolated systems, total charge remains conserved. m Gold leaf electroscope detects charge on a body. in vacuum K = 9 × 109 . Unit of charge is coulomb(C)
m Charge exists in discrete nature. q = ± n × e m Charge is scalar and additive in nature. 1 (q1q2) , e0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2N–1m–2
F=
m Moving charge has magnetic effects along with electric effects. 4pe0 r2
5 FORCE BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES 6 ELECTRIC FIELD OF GHARGES

Force on any charge due to number of other charges is the vector sum of all m A charge placed at a point produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding. When another charge is
brought in field, field there acts on it and produces a force. Faraday introduced field concept.
the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time, the
m Electric field intensity produced by a charge Q at a point distance r is given by
individual forces are unaffected by presence of other charges. This is termed 1 Q
E(r) = r
as superposition principle of electrostatics. Vector sum of forces is obtained 4pe0 r2
by parallelogram law of addition of vectors. Force on first charge due to other m SI unit of electric field is N/C. Field intensity at a point due to charge Q in space is defined as the force
n qi that a unit positive charge would experience if placed at that point.
® q r1i
is given as F1 = 1
4pe0 i =2 r1i2 ®
® F
lim
m E =q®0
q
7 ELECTRIC DIPOLE
m An electric dipole is an arrangement of pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by m Field vary from point to point and is a vector quantity. Field can transport energy.
a distance.
m Direction from –q to +q is direction of dipole moment. Field Due to System of Charges
Electric fields due to dipole Electric field at a point P in space due to system of charges is defined as force
experienced by a unit test charge placed at that point
On Axis of Dipole On Equatorial Plane
® ® ® 1 n qi
® 1
®
2pr 1 2p ® –1
®
p –1 p E(r) = 2
rip
E = 4pe » 4pe (if r >> a) E = 4pe » (if r >> a) 4pe0 i =1 r i p
0 (r 3 – a 2) 2 0 r3 0 (r 2 + a2) 3/2 4pe0 (r3)
78 Electric Charges and Fields NCERT Maps
m Polar molecule : H2O have permanent electric dipole moment even in absence of electric field. 10 ELECTRIC FLUX
m Non polar molecule : CH4, CO2. The Dipole moment is zero. m Similar to fluid flow an analogous quantity exists in electrostatic called electric flux.
m A dipole in external uniform electric field experience torque but no net force. There is no flow of observable quantity.
® ® ® qE E
t=p×E E q m The number of (field) lines crossing a unit area placed normal to field at a point is
|t| = PE sinq P –q +q measure of strength of electric field at that point.
qE m Number of field lines crossing DS area is proportional to EDScosq. This is called
Force Force
electric flux through area element DS.
8 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES ® ®
Df = E·DS = EDS cosq
(Lines of force by Faraday) ® ®
Region of q = angle between E and outward drawn normal to area element DS .
Field lines carry information about direction of weak field –1 2
S m Units : NC m
electric field at different points in space. Relative ® ®
m Total flux f » SE·DS
density of field lines at different points indicates Region of
strong field
Approximate sign is because electric field is taken uniform over area element.
P ®®
relative strength of electric fields at these points. If DS ® 0 then, f = E·ds
R P2
Faraday introduced non mathematical way of
r1 = OP1 r22 DW
visualizing electric field around charge r12 DW
11 GAUSS’S LAW
O q
configuration. q DW r2 = OP2 m Total electric flux through closed surface s = e , where q = Total charge enclosed by s
0
m Total flux is zero if closed surface encloses no charge.
9 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES PROPERTIES m Gauss law is true for any surface, no matter what its shape or size is.
m It is a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration of charges. m q is total charge enclosed by surface, located anywhere inside.
m A line is a curve drawn in such a way that tangent to it at each point is in the direction of m Gaussian surface should not pass through discrete charges.
net field at that point. m Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure of inverse square law.
m A field line is a space curve (A curve in three dimension)
Application of Gauss’s law
m Field lines of a single positive charge are radially outward.
m Electric field due to infinitely long wire
m Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges.
l
E= , at distance r from linearly charged rod.
m From a single charge, line can start from or end at infinity. 2pe0r
m In a charge free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves m Field of Uniformly Charged Shell m Electric field due to infinite plane sheet
without any breaks. q ® s
E= (r ³ R) n is independent of distance from sheet.
4pe 0 r 2 E=
m Two field lines can never cross each other. 2e0
m Electrostatic field lines don’t form any closed loop. This follows from their Directed out for q > 0, directed inwards for q < 0
conservative nature. E = 0 (r < R) field is zero inside shell.
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
2
Chapter
1 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY 3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 7 RELATION BETWEEN FIELD AND POTENTIAL
m
Work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive E
Work done by external force in moving a charge against V + dV
charge from infinity to that point without acceleration is equal
electrostatic repulsive force gets stored in it as potential
energy. to electrostatic potential at that point. dl
m Electric potential energy difference between two points Its SI unit is volt.
is work required to be done by an external force in slowly E = – dV/dl
moving charge from one point to another against 4 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
electric field of any charge configuration. POINT CHARGE
8 POTENTIAL DUE TO UNIFORMLY CHARGED
m Potential energy of a charge at a point in electric field Q SPHERICAL CONDUCTING SHELL
V(r) =
due to any charge configuration, is the work done by 4pe0r
external force in slowly bringing the charge from infinity V V
For Q > 0, V > 0
to that point. For Q < 0, V < 0
r r 1 q
0 r m
V = 4pe r (r ³ R)
U = Fext . dr = – FE . dr 0 O R (r)
¥ ¥ q is charge on shell and R is its radius.
5 POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
(SUPERPOSITION LAW) m Potential is constant inside shell and is equal to
2 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM
OF CHARGES potential at surface.
m Potential at a point due to total charge configuration is 1 q
V=
m For assembly of two charges the algebraic sum of the potentials due to individual 4pe0 R
charges
q1 q2 9 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
for q1 and q2 at separation r q
1
r V = V1 + V2 + V3 + .......= å ri m It is a surface with a constant value of potential at all points
4pe0 i
on its surface.
1 q1q2 m Equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are
U= (Depends on charge nature)
4pe0 r concentric spherical shells centered at the charge.
6 POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
m m For any charge configuration, an equipotential surface is
For assembly of three charges
U=
1
) q 1q 2 q 1q 3 q2q3
r12 + r13 + r23
) m V=
pcosq
4pe0r2
m
normal to electric field at that point
No two equipotential surfaces cut each other.
4pe0 (r >> dipole length at general point) For dipole : Equipotential surfaces :
q2
r23 m Potential on axis of dipole
r12 q3 1 p + For q = 0 – ––
V=±
4pe0 r2 – For q = p
r13
m
q1 Potential in the equatorial plane of dipole is zero
84 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance NCERT Maps
10 POTENTIAL ENERGY IN EXTERNAL FIELD 13 DIELECTRICS 16 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
m Dielectrics are non conducting substances

V2 e0A
having no charge carriers. C= d
E q2 ++++++++++++
m Polar dielectric : Polar dielectric has E d Plate area : A (For each)
permanent dipole moment. Ex. HCl, H2O.
r12 m Non polar dielectric : Non polar dielectric has Plate separation : d
V1
no dipole moment. Ex. O2, H2.
q1
m A dielectric with polar/non polar molecules Dielectric inserted occupying full intervened region
develops a net dipole moment in an external Ke A
C = d0
q1q2 electric field. The dielectric is polarized.
U = q1V1 + q2V2 + 4pe r K = dielectric constant of the substance
0 12 Dipole moment developed per unit volume
called polarization P.
17 COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
11 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE P = e0ceE, ce = electric susceptibility of
dielectric medium. Series Combination of Parallel Combination of
Capacitors Capacitors
U(q) = –pEcosq = –p. E ce = (K – 1)
Charges on plates ± Q are same Same potential difference is
on each capacitor. applied across each
+q 14 DIELECTRIC STRENGTH + Q1 –
capacitor.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 Plate charges not
m Maximum value of electric field that a dielectric necessarily same.
1 1 1 1 + C1 –
p medium can withstand without breakdown (of = + +
E C C1 C2 C3 Equivalent capacity Q2
its insulating property) is called its dielectric +– +– +– C = C1 + C2 + C3 A B
+ C2 –
strength . A B Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
m For air dielectric strength is + –
C1 C2 C3 m Equivalent capacity
E = 3 x 106 V/m Q3 C3
–q Equivalent capacity decreases.
m increases in parallel
m For any capacitor, the electric field do not
12 ELECTROSTATICS OF A CONDUCTOR exceed the break down limits. There is limit to 18 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
charge amount that can be stored on a given 1
m Inside conductor, electrostatic field is zero, either is QV 1 Q2 U/V = u = e E2
capacitor without significance leakage. m U= = CV2 = m
2 0
neutral or charged. 2 2 2C
(Enegry density)
m Electrostatic potential is constant throughout volume of
the conductor & same value as on surface. 15 CAPACITANCE OF CAPACITORS
19 CHARGE SHARING IN CAPACITORS
m If a cavity is created inside conductor and a charge is kept Q
C= m When two capacitors of different potential are joined with positive plates
outside cavity. Any electric field outside conductor does V
together and negative together, common potential is
not enter into the cavity. So cavity of conductor remains C is independent of Q and V but depends on
C1V1 + C2V2
shielded. shape, size and separation of system of two V=
C1 + C 2
m No work done is done in moving a charge on a conducting conductors & also on dielectric, separating two m Final energy is less than initial and is lost as heat and electromagnetic
surface. conductors. Every capacitor has limited electric radiation
m When a conductor placed in external electric field, field capacity. 1 C 1C 2 2
lines are always normal to conducting surface. DU = 2 C + C (V1 – V2)
SI unit : F (farad) 1 2
Current Electricity
3
Chapter
1 ELECTRIC CURRENT 4 OHM's LAW 5 RESISTIVITY AND ITS 6 TYPES AND COLOUR CODING
Current through a given area is net charge The current flowing through a conductor is proportional to TEMPERATURE OF RESISTORS
potential difference across it, provided temperature is constant. DEPENDENCE (a) Wire Bound Resistors
passing per unit time through the area.
m Made of materials which are relatively
m Current may not always be steady. We V µ I or V = RI m Materials are classified as
insensitive to temperature.
–1
define current in general R is the resistance of substance. SI unit of is ohm (1 W = 1 V A ) conductors, m Winding of wires are of alloys viz.,
Equivalent form: J = sE (J : Current density vector) semiconductors and manganin, constantan, nichrome etc.
DQ
I = lim rl insulators according to their m Range : fraction of an ohm to few
Dt ® 0 DT Factors affecting R: R = hundred ohms.
A resistivity value.
m Its SI unit is ampere (A) 1. Material of conductor (b) Carbon Resistors
m Metals have resistivity range
2. Area of cross-section of conductor m Compact, inexpensive and have higher
m A cell can maintain a steady current –8 –6
3. Length of conductor, 10 W m to 10 W m. range.
Insulators have resistivity m Colour coding of carbon resistors
2 DRIFT VELOCITY Limitation of ohm's law m
m The relation of V and I is not unique in GaAs. 5 18

Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance
The charge carriers like electrons move with range from 10 to 10 W
m V ceases to be proportional to I. Material becomes non- (%)
an average velocity which is independent of m.
ohmic material. Black 0 1
time, this is phenomenon of drift, and is m For metallic conductor over
m For a diode, relation of V and I depends on sign of V. This Brown 1 101
called drift velocity. material is used in electronic devices. a limited range, resistivity is Red 2 102
–eE approximately given by Orange 3 103
vd = t
m Negative
Non-linear resistance
I rT = r0 [1 + a(T –T0)] Yellow 4 104
1.5 mA
t = relaxation time. region region Green 5 105
I (mA)
rT = resistivity at temp. T
Although collision of electrons don't occur at Blue 6 106
r0 = resistivity at temp. T0
regular intervals but average time between –2 0.2
V Violet 7 107
a = temperature coefficient Gray 8 108
successive collision is taken as relaxation 0
V (GaAs) I mA
(not obeying ohm's law) of resistivity White 9 109
time.
Gold 10–1 5
Silver 10–2 10
3 CURRENT DENSITY AND MOBILITY
W m)
No colour 20
Current through unit cross-sectional area is m Conductivity is due to mobile carriers. V 0.4
–8
(10
called current density. m In metals, charge carriers are electrons. 0.2 7 CELL AND ITS EMF
m It is denoted by J and is a vector. m In ionised gas, they are electrons and r
m It is a simple device which can maintain a
–2
positive charged ions. 0
T(K) steady current in electric circuit.
m SI unit is A m I 50 100 200 m EMF of cell is potential difference
2 m In electrolytes they are positive and (For good conductor) (Copper) between positive and negative electrode
ne
m J = sE = t E negative ions. when no current is flowing through the
(mW m)
m cell.
m Mobility is magnitude of drift velocity per 1.20 r
m V = e – ir (discharging)
s = conductivity unit electric field. 1.10 V = e + ir (charging)
E = electric field inside conductor |vd| et r m r is called internal resistance. The actual
m= = 1.00
E m T(K) T(K) value of r vary from cell to cell.
The relation is Ohm's law in microscopic 2 –1 –1 200 400 600 0 m Internal resistance of dry cell is higher
form. m SI units are m V s (Nichrome) Semi-conductors than electrolytic cell.
90 Current Electricity NCERT Maps
8 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS 10 KIRCHHOFF'S RULES 12 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE B

The resistors are sometimes joined m For complicated electric circuits to m Wheatstone bridge in its balanced condition provide a
together and there are simple rules for R2 unknown
determine all the currents and potential practical method for determination of internal resistance.
R4
calculation of equivalent resistance of differences, Kirchhoff formulated two m If R1 and R2 are two resistances in first and second arm and R3
such combination. A G C
laws: in third arm. R3 is kept on changing till galvanometer shows no
1. Series combination: If only one of
their end point is joined. m Junction rule: At any junction, sum of deflection. The bridge is then balanced and from balance
currents entering the junction is equal R1 R3
B A B condition R4 is known.
A = to sum of currents leaving the junction.
I R1 R2 I Req R2 D
m Mesh or loop rule: The algebraic sum R 4 = R3 ×
R1
Req = R1 + R2 r V
of changes in potential around any
m The value of one resistance is determined knowing other
2. Parallel combination: If one end of all closed loop involving resistors and cells
the resistors are joined together and three resistors.
in the loop is equal to zero.
similarly other ends joined together.
Note: Binding or reorientation of wire does R
(The potential drop across resistors is 13 METER-BRIDGE S
not change the validity of junction law. B
same). m It is based on wheatstone bridge.
m With same principle as of Wheatstone G
R1
(I) 11 COMBINATION OF CELLS bridge it is used to calculate unknown A l1 –l1 C
D
I1 = m Cell can be grouped in series or parallel resistance, R, under balance condition.
I Req l1
I2 R2 depending upon current requirements. R =S×
100 - l1 Metre scale
I = I1 + I2 m In series: Two cells of emf e1 and e2 with m Percentage error in R is minimised by
+ –
1 1 1 adjusting balance point near the middle of
internal resistances r 1 and r 2 the
Req = R1 + R2 bridge.
e K1
combination can be considered as one cell
9 Electrical Energy and Power of emf eeq and internal resistance req 14 POTENTIOMETER
Under a potential difference in a e1 e2 This is a versatile electric instrument used to compare emf(s) and to determine internal resistance
conductor charges are moving. These of a cell.
A r1 B I r2 C
charges suffer collisions with ions and
m The method involves condition of no current flow. In this way it can compare emfs of two cells.
atoms during transit. Energy shared by A eeq
m The potentiometer wire has uniform cross-section and homogeneous material so potential drop
ions and atoms heats up the conductor.
I req C per unit length of potentiometer wire is constant.
Amount of energy dissipated as heat per K2
m The formula for internal resistance calculation of cell is
unit time is called power loss. (eeq = e1 + e2) and (req = r1 + r2) R.B.
2 2
P = I R = V /R = IV I1 e
m In parallel combination of two cells
r=R –1 B A
R is resistance when current I is flowing e1
I2
through it. e1r2 + e2r1 I1 I1 l1 = balancing length without shorting cell
eeq = r1 G
This energy is supplied by source in r1 + r2 A I B1 I
e2 B2 I C
l2 = balancing length with cell by parallel resistance R N2
2 I2 R
circuit. r2
m The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws
m For long distance transmission, no current from voltage source being measured. It C N1
r1 r2 eeq
power loss is minimised by req = º is not affected by internal resistance of the source.
r1 + r2 A I req I C
transmitting it at high voltage. Thus it has high accuracy. K1
Moving Charges and Magnetism
4
Chapter
1 MAGNETIC FIELD 3 VELOCITY SELECTOR 6 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW

m It is space around a current carrying When electric field and magnetic fields are m According to this law, the magnetic field at a point due to a
conductor in which its magnetic effects can crossed and velocity of particle is perpendicular current element of length dl carrying current I at distance r
to from element is
be felt. E
both fieldsthen particles with speed v = pass r mIdl sin q
m Oersted concluded that moving charges or B dB =
currents produced a magnetic field in the undeflected. This principle is employed in mass 4pr 2
uur r
surrounding space. spectrometer. q is angle between dl and r
2 LORENTZ FORCE 5 CYCLOTRON 7 MAGNETIC FIELD ON AXIS OF CIRCULAR COIL

Mechanical force experienced by a moving charge through A machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high m0IR 2
electric and magnetic field B=
energies cyclotron; uses both electric and magnetic field in 2(R 2 + x 2 )3/2
r r r r r
F = q éë E + (v ´ B ) ùû = Felectric + Fm agnetic combination to increase kinetic energy of charge particles where R = radius of coil
m Magnetic force depends on magnitude of charge, its m Frequency of revolution of charge particle is independent x = distance along axis from
nature and its velocity. of its energy.
m When charge is at rest, it does not experience any centre of coil plane
magnetic force. m At the centre of loop, x = 0
qB
m f = . The frequency is called cyclotron frequency. m 0I
m When charge is moving parallel to magnetic field, it does 2pm B=
not experience any mechanical force. 2R
The frequency of electric field is in resonance with cyclotron Field lines form closed loop around circular wire
4 MOTION IN MAGNETIC FIELD frequency. Final KE of ion
In uniform magnetic field charge particle can have three types 8 AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW
r uur
of path. q 2B 2R 2 , R = radius of Dee Law states Ñò B × dl = m 0I , where I refers to current passing the
r r EK = c
1. Straight line: when B || v 2m
loop through open surface S. The sign of current is
r r determined from right hand rule.
2. Circular path: v ^ B Magnetic field out
Deflection plate
of the paper
m If B is directed along tangent to amperian loop of perimeter
Perpendicular force acts as a centripetal force and
L and field is constant in magnitude
produces a circular motion perpendicular to magnetic field.
Exit port
mv 2 pm BL = m0Ie
Radius of circle r = and T =
qB qB Ie = net current enclosed by closed loop.
r r Charged
3. Helical path: velocity v and B are inclined at angle particle
9 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO SOLID CONDUCTOR
q ¹ 0, q ¹ 90° , q ¹ 180°
A long straight wire with circular cross-section B
Velocity component along magnetic field remains of radius a
unchanged, due to other component motion is circular. D1 D2 æ m I ö B
r
Magnetic field in region r < a, B = ç 0 2 ÷ r
µ
The combined path is helical motion. m µ
è 2pa ø 1/
B
r
mv ^ qB 2 pmv || m I
r = ,w = ,p= Magnetic field in region (r ³ a), B = 0
qB m qB OSCILLATOR
m
2 pr 0 r
a
96 Moving Charges and Magnetism NCERT Maps
10 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE CURRENT 14 FORCE BETWEEN CURRENT 17 MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
CARRYING WIRES m Torque due to radial magnetic field on loop of area A with
m Magnetic field at distance R from straight long infinite wire m Two current carrying conductors placed near each other
carrying a current I. N number of turns carrying current I is
experience magnetic forces.
m I t = NIAB
B = 0 , field lines are circles concentric with wire. When conductors are parallel
2pR m deflection on scale
m0I1I2
F= L æ NAB ö
11 DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD 2pd f=ç ÷I
m Force on one conductor of length L due to current in other è K ø
The rule is called right hand rule: Quantity in bracket is constant for galvanometer. This
at separation d. Parallel currents attract and antiparallel m
Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb makes linear scale
currents repel. The results are in accordance with
pointing in the direction of the current, your fingers will curl Current sensitivity of galvanometer
Newton's third law. m
around in the direction of magnetic field.
f NAB
Si = =
15 TORQUE ON CURRENT LOOPS I K
12 LONG SOLENOID
m Torque on magnetic dipole m Current sensitivity can be easily increased by changing N
Magnetic field inside long solenoid (B)
t = mBsinq
When solenoid carries current I is t = NIAsinq 18 GALVANOMETER CONVERSION AMMETER
B = m0nI m Any planner current loop is equivalent to magnetic dipole m Modification of galvanometer by connecting a low
of dipole moment resistance in parallel.
n = number of turns per unit length
m = IA
Q VOLTMETER
Q
m To measure voltage across any section of circuit. It is
16 MAGNETIC MOMENT OF REVOLVING connected in parallel. When a large resistance is in series
P
CHARGED PARTICLES with galvanometer, it becomes a voltmeter.
m Magnetic moment associated with revolving electron with
speed v in a radius of circle r is 19 ROGET'S SPIRAL
evr
m=- m When current passes through spring the effect is length
FOR A TOROID 2
m NI r -e r of parallel current produces attraction, decreasing spring
B= 0 and m = J length, oscillations starts and continue with tick - tick -
2 pr 2me
r tick ...
N = total number of turns and r = average radius Where J is angular momentum of the electron
m For electron, angular momentum is opposite in direction
13 MECHANICAL FORCE ON A CURRENT
to magnetic moment.
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
m In general for any charge q angular momentum and
A current carrying conductor of straight length L carrying Current
magnetic moment are in same direction. source
current I experience force m e
r r r =
F = I (l ´ B ) J 2m
But if wire is of arbitrary shape This is called Gyromagnetic ratio and is constant.
r uur Minimum value of magnetic moment is called Bohr magneton Mercury
F = å i (dl ´ B ) 2
mm = 9.27 × 10–24 Am
Summation can be converted into integration in most cases
Magnetism and Matter
5
Chapter
1 BAR MAGNET 2 THE ELECTROSTATIC ANALOGUE 4 EARTH’S MAGNETISM

m It is a magnet in form of a bar Magnetism Electrostatics m Magnetic field of earth is now thought to arise due to electrical current
m When freely suspended, it points in N - S r r produced by convective motion of metallic fluids in outer core of the earth. This
direction B E is known as dynamo effect .
r r
m Like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract m P m Magnetic poles inside earth change position with times.
each other 1 True North
m Magnetic monopoles do not exist m0
e0
m Magnetic field lines of magnet form continous r r r r r r Nm
t = m´B t = P É
closed loops r r r r
The tangent at a given pointr represents the U = -m × B U = -P × E Magnetic I HE
m
r r
ZE BE
Equator
direction of net magnetic field B at that point r m 2m 1 2P Geographic
Baxial = 0 3 Eaxial = Equator
m Magnetic field lines do not intersect each other. 4p r 4pe0 r 3
r r
r -m0 m r -1 P
i Beq = Eeq =
4p r 3 4pe0 r 3
3 GAUSS'S LAW FOR MAGNETISM m Earth's magnetic field varies from point to point on earth surface, its value being of
–5
r r order of 10 T.
ii
m
Ñò B × dA = 0 m Magnetic field lines of earth resemble that of a hypothetical magnetic dipole
m Isolated magnetic poles do not exist. located at the centre of earth.
m The net magnetic flux is zero for any closed m The vertical plane which passes through the imaginary line joining the magnetic
m When magnet cut transverse to length or along north and the south poles is called magnetic meridian.
surface.
its length M¢ = M/2
m The vertical plane containing longitudinal circle and axis of rotation of earth is
m Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid called geographic meridian.
5 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC INTENSITY
m 2m
B= 0 3 r m Inclination or magnetic dip(I)
4p r r m Net magnetic moment
m Magnetic moment of solenoid
m
M = net = Angle made by the net magnetic field of earth with the horizontal
2
V Volume
m = nI (2l) × (pa ) Iequator = 0
m Net field in the interior of a solenoid
m Bar magnetic in uniform magnetic field r r r
r r r B = B0 + Bm
r Ipole = 90º
t = m´B r
r B0 : Field in free space
Um = -m × B = -mB cos q r m Horizontal component (HE)
Bm : Field contributed by material core
m q = 0º (Most unstable position) r r r r Horizontal Component of net magnetic field of earth
B0 = m0H Bm = m0M
m q = 180° (Most unstable position) r r r r r m Magnetic declination(D)
m Time period of oscillation of a magnet when r
(
B = m0 H + M
r
) M = cH
Angle between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian
freely suspended B = m0 (1 + c)H mr = 1 + c m Declination in India is small. It is 0°41¢ E at Delhi.
r r
I 4 p2 B = m0m r H m = m0mr = m0 (1 + c) m Declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller near equator.
T = 2p and B = r r
mB mT 2 B = mH m BEsinI = ZE, BEcosI = HE, tanI = ZE/HE
102 Magnetism and Matter NCERT Maps
6 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 7 HYSTERESIS LOOP

Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic B
c –1 £ c £ 0 0 < c < k (k is a small positive c >> 1 (Tesla)
number)
a
mr 0 £ mr < 1 1 < mr < 1 + k mr >> 1
b
m m < m0 m > m0 m >> m0
Magnetisation Weak magnetisation is Weak magnetisation Strong magnetisation
opposite direction in same direction in same direction
Movement in (Weak tendency) from strong (Weak tendency) from weak (Strong tendency) from weak c H
O f
non-uniform to weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field to strong magnetic field A/m
magnetic field
Magnet Weak Repulsion Weak Attraction Strong Attraction
e
E.g. Bi, Au, Pb, Si, H2O, NaCl Al, Na, O2 (STP), Pt, W Fe, Co, Ni, Fe2O3 and Gd
N2 (STP), Ag, superconductor d
m Retentivity: The value of B at H = 0

Mag. Field lines
m Coercivity: The value of H for which net magnetic field becomes
zero.
Susceptibility Independent of temperature Inversely proportional to Curie temperature: The m Energy is lost in the form of heat during complete cycle of
temperature temperature at which magnetisation and de-magnetisation.
ferromagnetic substance
becomes paramagnetic m Hysteresis curve of soft iron is tall and narrow.
Disappearance of m Hysteresis curve of steel is broad
magnetisation with
temperature is gradual.
Beyond curie temperature 8 PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS
Susceptibility obeys
Curie-Weiss law Permanent Magnets Electromagnets
Cm0 C
cm µ T 0 cm = cm = (T > TC ) Material should have Material should have
T T - TC
Where C is curie constant TC for iron is 1043 K m High Retentivity m Low Retentivity
c TC for nickel is 631 K
cm c m High Coercivity m High permeability
m High permeability m Low Coercivity
m Material used for making these m Material used for making these
magnets are Alnico, Cobalt, magnets is soft Iron
0 T Steel, Ticonal
0 m Electromagnets are used in
0 T
T TC m These materials retain their electric bells, loud speakers
ferromagnetic property for long and telephone diaphragms.
m Domain formation is special characteristic of ferromagnetic material. Typical domain size is 1 mm and
11 period of time.
domain contains about 10 atoms.
Electromagnetic Induction
6
Chapter
1 FARADAY’S EXPERIMENTS 2 MAGNETIC FLUX 5 MOTIONAL EMF

®
(a) First experiment : Relative motion Magnetic flux through a surface of area A placed in uniform (1) Straight conductor in motion: In uniform and time independent
® ® ®
between a bar magnet and wire loop magnetic field B is written as fB = B·A = BA cosq magnetic field.
produces a small amount of current. Slider e = B/v (emf across rod)
For non-uniform magnetic field
× × × ×
l B V e Blv DfB 2 2 2
B l v
× × × × i=R= R DQ = R P=
N S R
G 3 FARADAY’S LAWS OF INDUCTION x
(b) Second experiment : If one coil is Conclusion of experiments was formulation of laws:
m Mechanical energy which is needed to move arm is converted into
connected to a battery and another coil is (1) The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the
electric energy and then to thermal energy.
moved towards or away from it, electric time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
(2) Rod rotated about one end :
current is produced in neighbouring coil. (2) Mathematically the emf induced is given by
× × × ×
dfB Fleming’s Right hand Rule : This gives the
e=– direction of induced emf or current in a conductor
C1 dt × ×
w × ×
R
C2 moving in a magnetic field. If we stretch forefinger,
m Negative sign indicates the direction of e and hence the × × × ×
central finger and thumb of our right hand in
direction of current in the closed loop. × × × × mutually perpendicular directions such that
m If loop contains N turns, change of flux is associated with each 2
forefinger along field, thumb along direction of
BwR
turn. e= motion of conductor then central finger will give the
dfB 2
I e=–N direction of induced current.
G dt
m The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of
6 EDDY CURRENTS
turns of closed coil.
Fig. : Current is induced in coil C1 due to
Electric currents are induced in well defined path in a conductor like
motion of the current carrying coil C2. circular loops, when bulk piece of conductor is subjected to changing
4 LENZ’S LAW
(c) Third experiment : Galvanometer m LENZ’S LAW: This law gives the polarity of induced emf. The magnetic flux, induced currents are produced in them known as eddy
polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current currents.
shows a momentarily deflection when
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. The eddy currents are also called Foucault currents after its discovery.
tapping key K is pressed
m The law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. m The changing magnetic flux induces current.
C1
m These currents are used to advantage in many applications.
C2
(1) Magnetic braking of trains
(2) Electromagnetic damping
(3) Induction furnace
N N
m Eddy currents dissipate energy in the form of heat energy.
(a) (b)
G m Eddy currents are minimized using laminations of metal to make a
K
Fig. : Illustration of Lenz’s law. metal core
NCERT Maps Electromagnetic Induction 107
7 INDUCTANCE 9 AC GENERATOR
The current can be induced in a coil by the flux change The magnitude of induced emf depends on rate of
m This technology is based on electromagnetic induction
produced by same coil OR another coil. change of current and mutual inductance of two phenomenon.
m In both cases, flux through a coil is proportional to coils: l Modern A.C. generator has output capacity upto
current m SI unit of inductance is Henry and is denoted 100 MW.
dfB dI by H. Its dimensional formula is ML2T–2A–2.
µ l This machine converts mechanical energy into
dt dt electric energy.
For two long co-axial solenoids each of length l
m Constant of proportionality is called inductance. M12 = m0n1n2Al l The emf induced is sinusoidal.
m Inductance is the ratio of flux linkage and current. M12 is coefficient of mutual induction e = NBAw sinwt Coil Axle
m This inductance depends on geometry of the coil N2
and intrinsic material properties. NBAw is the maximum value of emf when sinwt = ±1.
SELF INDUCTANCE e0 = NBAw e = e0 sinwt

N1
Phenomenon of induced EMF in a single isolated coil
due to changing flux through the coil by means of w is angular speed of rotor of ac N S
generator.
varying the current through same coil is self induction.
M12 = M21 Slip
The direction of current and emf changes rings Alternating emf
Total flux linkage = Li periodic with time
m Mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids
L is called self inductance. depends on their separation as well as their e = e0sin(2pnt)
relative orientations. Carbon brushes
di
e = –L m n in India is 50Hz
dt m For two concentric circular coils with radius r
m n in USA is 60Hz
m Self induced emf always opposes any change of and R (R >> r) coils are coplanar also.
current in the coil. Stage-1 : The Stage-2 Stage-3 Stage-4 Stage-5
2
2 m0p(r) plane of the When the Armature Armature Armature
Self inductance of a solenoid is L = m0n Al M12 = M21 = armature is armature after a after a after a
2R
n is number of turns per meter of solenoid length. perpendicular rotates about rotation of rotation of rotation
to the through 90° 180° 270° through
When solenoid is filled with some material 8 MAGNETIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
magnetic the plane of 360°
L = m0mrn2Al m Energy required to built any current I in a field. the armature
system of self inductance L is parallel to
m Self inductance plays the role of inertia. It is magnetic
1 2
electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics. W= ×L×I field.
2 R Q R
m Unit of self inductance is henry (H) in SI units.
m This work done gets stored as magnetic Q R R
m Self inductance of the coil depends on its geometry P Q S
N S Q S N S N R S N S N S Direction of
potential energy. Q
and on the permeability of the medium. A A A magnetic field
P
2 BP A S BS S P
1 2 B Al P B
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE UB = LI = B A B
2 2m0 Induced
m Varying current in one coil can induce emf in emf
m Magnetic energy per unit volume. 0° 90° 270° 360°
neighbouring coil.
2 180° time
di B
e1 = M 2 uB = ® Energy is proportional to
dt 2m0 square of field strength 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4
Alternating Current
7
Chapter
1 ALTERNATING CURRENT 5 PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT 7 SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Current which changes continuously in m Let applied voltage is e = e0 sin wt m e = e0sin wt and I = I0 sin (wt – f)
magnitude and periodically in direction. m Current leads the voltage by a phase angle p/2 e0
m I0 = , where z = R 2 + ( X L - X C )2 , e 02 = (VRo )2 + (VCo - VLo )2
æ pö z
m I = I0 sin ç wt + ÷ X L - XC
2 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE è 2ø m Phase difference between current and voltage is f, tan f =
R
r.m.s. value of a function over a period T is
e
I0 = 0 = w C e 0 , where XC =
1 m If XL > XC Þ f is +ve (Inductive)
m
XC wC
2 If XL < XC Þ f is –ve (Capacitive)
given by
ò f (t ) dt u m
V i
ò dt Vmsin wt1
m If XL = XC Þ f = 0 (Resistive)
m RMS current is equivalent to dc current I Impedance and Voltage Triangles
wt1
that would produce same average
0 wt1 p 2p wt VLo - CCo
power loss as alternating current. tan f =
imsin(wt1 + p/2) VRo
Z (XL – XC) V (VL – VC)
3 AVERAGE VALUE
f X L - XC f
Average value of a function over a period T (a) (b) tan f =
T e I R VR
1 m Instantaneous power = 0 0 sin[2wt ] R
is given by < f (t ) > = f (t )dt
T ò0 m Average power = 0
2 Impedance Triangle Voltage Triangle
4 PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT 6 PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT 8 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

m Let applied voltage is e = e0 sin wt m Let applied voltage is e = e0 sin wt e 0I 0 2
Pavg = erms Irms cos f = cos f = IRMS Z cos f
m Current lags behind the voltage by a phase angle p/2 2
m Alternating voltage is in phase with current
m I = I0 sin (wt – p/2) 2 æ e2 ö
e = Irms R = ç rms R
m I = = I0 sin wt m Current reaches maximum value later than voltage by one fourth of period. ç z2 ÷÷
R è ø
e0 e
m I0 = = 0 , where X L = w L
e X L wL
m I0 = 0 V 9 POWER FACTOR
R i
V R
I 2 m Power factor: cos f =
m Pav = I0 R Z
2
Vmsin wt1
v wt1 wt1 wt m In pure resistive circuit
i p 2p f = 0° Þ cos f = 1
v I
m In pure inductive circuit or pure capacitive circuit
I imsin(wt1 – p/2) p
wt1 f = ± Þ cos f = 0
m
p 2p wt 2
0 wt1
imsin wt1 (a) (b) m In series LCR circuit at resonance, XL = XC
vmsin wt1 I0Vm
m Instantaneous power supplied = - sin 2 w t Þ Z = R and f = 0°
2
(a) (b) m Average power supplied by an inductor over one complete cycle is zero. Þ cos f = 1 (POWER FACTOR)
NCERT Maps Alternating Current 113
10 RESONANCE IN LCR SERIES CIRCUIT 11 LC OSCILLATIONS 12 TRANSFORMER
m When XL = XC Þ Z = R d 2q 1 m To change an alternating voltage from one to another of greater or smaller

m + (q ) = 0 value, we use transformer.
m Current become maximum dt 2 LC i
+ A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. It works
V m q = q0 cos (w0t + f) + on mutual induction principle.
m i0 = 0 q
R i C
– Soft iron-core
–
1 1
m w0 = m w0 =
LC LC
w
w0
Secondary
R
Primary
2
m Dw = qm 1 2
2L m UTotal = = Li m
2C 2
where w1 = w0 + Dw
Analogies Between Mechanical and
w2 = w0 – Dw
Electrical Quantites
eP IS NP fP
m Quality factor = = = = constant
Mechanical system Electrical (system) eS IP NS fS
It is a measure of sharpness of resonance
Mass (m) Inductance (L) m Efficiency of transformer
w0 Resonance frequency
Q= = Force constant (K) Reciprocal capacitance Pout e S IS
2 Dw Band width h= =
æ 1ö Pin e P IP
w0 L çC ÷
= è ø
R Step-up Transformer Step-down Transformer
Displacement (x) Charge (q) m Number of turns in primary binding is m Number of turns in secondary
1
=
w0 RC lesser than in secondary binding binding is lesser than in primary
æ dx ö æ dq ö
Velocity ç v = Current ç i = binding
dt ÷ø
÷
è è dt ø
1 L m NS > NP m N S < NP
Q=
R C Mechanical energy Electromagnetic energy m ES > EP m ES < EP
Resonance circuits are used in tuning 1 1 q2 1 2
m
E = kx 2 + mv 2 U= + Li m IS < IP m IS > IP
mechanism of radio or TV set. 2 2 2C 2
m Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a m Output voltage of transformer is out of phase with input.
circuit having both L and C present in circuit. m Every inductor has resistance. This introduces m Energy losses in a transformer are due to
m If resonance is not sharp, maximum current is damping effect on charge and current and
A. Flux Leakage
less, the circuit is close to resonance for a oscillation finally die away.
B. Resistance of winding
larger range of Dw of frequencies and tuning of m Total energy is radiated away from the system in
circuit will not be good. For good quality L be the form of electromagnetic waves. The Radio and C. Eddy currents
large and R low. TV transmission depend on this radiation. D. Hysteresis
Electromagnetic Waves
8
Chapter
1 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 4 NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Sources of Waves m Waves are sinusoidal, having variation of electric and magnetic field at
q
E.dA = e (Gauss’s Law of electrostatics) m Through accelerating charges right angles to each other and perpendicular to direction of wave
0
m Through oscillating electric dipoles propogation.
B.dA =0 (Gauss’s Law of magnetism) m By harmonically oscillating electric charges m Frequency of electromagnetic wave equals the frequency of oscillating
m Oscillating fields of electromagnetic waves charge.
df (Faraday’s Law of EMI) Energy associated with propagating wave comes from energy of source,
E.dl = – dtB can accelerate charges and can produce m
oscillating currents the accelerated charge.

Produced and detected by Hertz in 1887 in laboratory. This verified a
B.dl = m0 ic + e0 dfE
m
Maxwell-Ampere’s circuital theorem m Electromagnetic waves in interaction with
dt matter interacts through its electric and basic prediction of Maxwell’s equation.
These equations express all basic laws of electro- m No material medium is involved in vibration of electric and magnetic
m magnetic field which set in oscillating
fields.
magnetism charges present in all matter
m E.M. wave carry energy and energy is shared equally by electric and
m Mechanism of absorption and scattering magnetic fields.
2 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT depends on wavelength of electromagnetic m Electromagnetic wave other than light also have same velocity in
m Source of a magnetic field is not just the conduction electric wave, nature of atoms and molecules in vacuum.
current but also time varying rate of change of electric field. medium m Wave transports momentum and exerts pressure
m It arises whenever the electric flux is changing with time. U
df E. UV RAYS P= , (U = Energy transfer for complete absorption by surface)
id = e0 E c
dt m Wavelength 400 nm to 1 nm
m Changing electric field must also produce a magnetic field. m Sun is import ant source m The magnitude of total momentum delivered.
m Absorbed by glass used by m So wave can carry energy from one place to another.
5 SPECTRUM OF ELECTRO- C. INFRARED WAVES welders m Ex = E0sin(kz – wt) and B0 = E0/c x
MAGNETIC WAVES AND m Wavelength 1 mm to 700 nm m Used in eye surgery (LASIK) E
PROPERTIES By = B0 sin(kz – wt) (wave equations) z
m Produced in vibration of atoms m UV lamps for water purefication
A. RADIO WAVES and molecules B
F. X-RAY m k = wave vector and speed of y
m Wavelength greatest –4
m These are called heat waves m Wavelength 10 nm to 10 nm w
m Produced by vibrating electrons propagation is, v =
m Used in physical therapy Obtained from bombarding a k
m AM BAND : 530 kHz to 1710 kHz , m 1 ORDER OF FREQUENCY
Trapped by greenhouse gases metal target by high energy in medium, speed of wave, v =
m SHORT band: 3 MHz to 54 MHz m
1 me m Gamma rays > X rays >
FM band : 88 MHz to 108 MHz m Remote switches electron In vacuum, c =
m
m0e0 U.V > Visible > Infrared >
m UHF band : CELULAR PHONE m Infrared detector m Used as diagnostic tools to treat
microwaves > short radio
B. MICRO WAVES D. VISIBLE RAYS cancer. m This is fundamental constant. These
Photographic films waves > FM and TV > AM
m Wavelength 0.1 m to 1 mm (Frequency m Wave length 700 nm to 400 nm m
waves can be polarized.
GHz) Radio > Long Radio
from electrons in atom by G. g-RAYS 1 2
m Produced by special vacuum tubes –10 –14 m Energy density in E field , uE = e0E waves
transitions from high to lower m Wavelength 10 m to 10 m 2
(Klystrons, Magnetrons and Gunn
level m Produced in nuclear reaction
diodes) B
2
m Used in radar system m Detected by human eye m Emitted by radioactive nuclei m Energy density in B field, uB =
2m0
m Micro wave oven works with m Different animals are sensitive m used in medicine to destory
m uE = u B
microwaves to different ranges of wave cancer cells
2
m Used in speed guns length m I = e0 Erm c
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
9
Chapter
1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors m Optical denser medium has high refractive index. Mass density of optical denser
m The image by a mirror is real if rays after reflection actually medium may be less than mass density of rarer medium.
Law of Reflection
meet and virtual if rays are not actually meeting but appear m Elementary results from laws of refraction are
m Incident ray, reflected ray and normal to reflecting surface
at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. to diverge from a point. (1) n32 = n31 × n12
m Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. m An incident ray passing through centre of curvature of mirror (2) For rectangular slab with parallel Medium ift
sh
(Class) teral
Sign-convention retraces its path. faces, the emergent ray is parallel La
m In sign convention, all distances measured in the same 1 1 1 to incident ray, there is no
m Mirror equation is and magnification (1) r2
direction as incidence ray are taken positive and those + =
u v f deviation but Medium i2
measured in the direction opposite of incident ray are taken formula Medium
(Air)
A has lateral shift. r1 (Air) (1)
negative. M
v f i1
m The heights taken above the principal axis are positive and m=– =
u f–u (2)
B¢ P
below negative. f–v
= B C F
Mirror
f f (3) Bottom of tank filled with water appears to be raised.
Object on left A¢
Incident light v Observer
Heights
upwards u N
positive
D
Observer
Distance against
incident light 2 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Heights negative
downwards Distances along m When a beam of light encounters another transparent
negative incident light
positive medium, part of light is reflected back. This called internal
Focal Length of Spherical Mirrors reflection. The rest of light enter other medium.
m The distance between focus and pole of a mirror is called m When light is incident obliquely, its propagation direction
Apparent
focal length. changes in other medium, this phenomenon is called depth
h1
Real depth
m Focal length is equal to half of radius of curvature of the O¢ O¢
refraction.
curved spherical mirror. h2
m Red light travels faster than blue light in same medium.
Law of Refraction
O O
R m The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to interface at the
f=
2 P point of incidence, (1)
(a) (b) Apparent position
C F Normal of the Sun
all lie in same plane. Incident ray Reflected ray Real depth
The ratio of sine of angle Apparent depth =
m n21 Horizon
(Concave) of incidence to the sine i i Observer
(4) Sun is visible a little before the
of angle of refraction Reflecting
surface actual sunrise and until a little Actual position
P F C is constant. of the Sun
(2) r after the sunset, this time
sin i = n
21
(Convex) sin r Refracted ray difference is about 2 minute,
Atmosphere
n21 is refractive index of second medium with respect to first. the sun appears oval shaped.
122 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments NCERT Maps
3 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 4 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
m If angle of incidence, for light traveling from denser to rarer

N n 2 n1 n 2 - n1
medium is greater than certain angle called critical angle for n1 - =
i n2 v u R
the media, no light is transmitted. r
O C I R = radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface.
1 M R
sin ic = n : refractive index of denser medium w.r.t rarer medium. It holds for any curved surface (for paraxial approximation).
n12 12
u v
(2) B
Rarer
medium
(Air) 5 REFRACTION BY LENSES
Water-air
r O2 r¢ D O4 interface
O1 O3 m A lens is a transparent optical medium bounded by Object
v
(1) i¢ N ic i > ic two surfaces.
i h F¢
N N Totally At least one surface should be spherical.
reflected ray F h¢
Denser m After two refraction through a lens, image is formed.
medium Partially
(water) The thin lens formula becomes u image
reflected ray
A C
1 –1 =1 (a)
v u f
m Higher is value of refractive index, smaller will be critical angle.
Size of image h¢ v
Substance Ref. index Critical angle m= = = = f = f–v Object
Size of object h u f+u f
Water 1.33 48.75°
m Formula is valid for convex and concave lenses and 2F F image F¢ 2F¢
Flint glass 1.62 37.31°
Diamond 2.42 24.41° magnification produced by lens (for paraxial
approximation) (b)
Phenomenon based on TIR are
l Mirage
l Sparkling of diamond 6 POWER OF THIN LENS
l Special prisms of flint glass to bend light by 90° m It is measure of its convergence or Lens maker’s formula
and 180° divergence ability. m A lens of shorter focal length
l Optical fibre for communication
bends incident ray more and 1 1 1
P= = (n – 1) –
f R1 R2
d has high power.
7 THIN LENSES IN CONTACT
h
m When thin lenses are m Net power is individual power’s d 1 m n is relative refractive index of
O
f
F P=
kept in contact algebraic sum. Some terms f glass with respect to surrounding
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .... may be positive (convex) and m Its SI unit is dioptre (D) and R1 and R2 are radii of curvature
some terms may be negative m The power P of a lens is defined as of two surfaces.
1 1 1 1 1D = 1 m–1
= + + + .... the tangent of the angle by which it m A converging lens in a transparent
f f1 f2 f3 (concave) on right hand side.
converges or diverges a beam of m It is positive for converging lens liquid of refractive index greater
This combination helps to get diverging or converging lens light parallel to the principal axis
m than lens glass behaves like a
falling at unit distance from the and negative for diverging lens.
combination of desired magnification. diverging lens and vice versa.
optical centre.
NCERT Maps Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 123
8 REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
m Refractive index of prism is calcutated by formula.

m For any triangular prism angle between When d = D m Dispersion by a prism
incidence ray and emergent A + Dm
i = e, D m = 2i – A sin
d n2 2
ray is called angle of deviation r = r 1 = r 2 or r 1 = A/2 n21 = =
n1 sin (A/2)
d=i+e–A A The refracted ray inside prism i=e
m For small angle thin prism
m d remains same becomes parallel to its base.
S R 0 White light
if i and e are Q i Dm = (n21 – 1)A beam White light
e
r1 r2 (Angle of incidence) spectrum
interchanged. m It implies thin prism don’t deviate light much
P Glass Prism
S
B C
9 NATURAL PHENOMENA DUE TO SUNLIGHT 10 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Dispersion of Light
Compound Microscope
m The phenomenon of splitting of light into constituent colours is known as dispersion. Eye Defects Cure m For large magnification objective and eye piece
m Dispersion takes place due to different refractive index of medium for different wavelengths. should have low focal length
m Myopia Concave lens
m Chromatic aberration in thick lenses is due to dispersion. m Final image at near point
m Hypermetropia Convex lens
m Rainbow is an example of dispersion of light (sun) by water drops vo
m Astigmatism
D
m In vacuum speed of light is independent of wavelength. So Vacuum is non dispersive medium. Cylindrical lens m = mo × me = 1+
uo fe
ht
Rainbow nlig Simple Microscope
Su m Final image at infinity
Sunli
ght 1 m Microscope : A simple magnifier or microscope
Raindrop vo D
is a converging lens of high power. m=
Raindrops uo fe
2 m Angular magnification is equal to ratio of
Telescope
42° 40° angular size of image to angular size of object
m It is used to provide angular magnification for
m Final image at near point distant objects
40°
Observer 42° m Final image at infinity
(a) D
m=1+ fo
(b)
f m= and L = fo + fe
fe
Raindrops m Final image at infinity m Final image at near point

fo fe Dfe
D m= 1+ and L = fo +
Sunlight m= fe D D + fe
f
Scattering of light: Light of shorter Sun nearly overhead

50° 53°
wavelength is scattered much more
Observer Distance of atmosphere
(c) than of longer wavelength. Amount of through which sunlight
Rainbow: (a) The sun rays incident on a water drop get refracted twice and reflected internally by a drop; Sun near travels in atmosphere
scattering is inversely proportional to
(b) Enlarge view of internal reflection and refraction of a ray of light inside a drop form primary rainbow; and horizon
fourth power of wavelength. Observer
(c) Secondary rainbow is formed by rays undergoing internal reflection twice inside the drop.
Wave Optics
10
Chapter
1 HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE 3 REFLECTION OF A PLANE WAVEFRONT AT 6 COHERENT SOURCE
m Huygen gave a geometrical method for the PLANE SURFACE If the phase difference between two waves reaching at a point remains
propagation of wave in any medium. constants with time, then the sources are said to be coherent.
From DABC and DACD, BC = AD = vt
m Wavefront : Surface of constant phase. The When the phase difference between two waves change with time it is
ÐABC = ÐADC = 90° incoherent.
line drawn perpendicular to wavefront gives
direction of propagation of wave and energy. AC is common. 7 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
m Each point on primary wavefront behaves like So DABC and DACD are congruent If number of waves reach at a point, then the resultant displacement of
a new wave source from which secondary \ ÐBAC = ÐDCA or Ði = Ðr (This is law of reflection) point is the vector sum of displacement of individual waves at that point
waves emit in all directions. and at that time.
m If we draw the envelope of these secondary D Consider two waves reach at origin y1 = a1coswt, y2 = a2cos(wt + f)
wavelets then it will give the position of B From superposition law resultant amplitude is A = a21 + a22 + 2a a cosf
secondary wavefront. Incident Reflected 1 2
wavefront wavefront For Amax or constructive interference
m The shape of wavefront depends on shape
of wave source. r Phase difference, f = 0, 2p, 4p ... 2np
i
Point source - Spherical wave fronts i r
m Path difference, Dx = l, 2l, ... nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
m Line source - Cylindrical wavefronts A C
Amax = (a1 + a2), Imax µ (a1 + a2)2
at a large distance from the source, a small
portion of wavefront is planar. For Amin or destructive interference
Phase difference, f = p, 3p, 5p ... (2n + 1) p
4 REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVE BY PRISM, LENS
2 REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVEFRONT AND MIRROR Path difference, Dx = l/2, 3l/2 ..., (2n + 1) l/2 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Amin = (a1 – a2), Imin µ (a1 – a2)2
BC
From DABC, sini = If a1 = a2 = a, A = 2acos(f/2) and I1 = I2 = I0 Þ I = 4I0 cos2(f/2)
AC m
m When phase difference between two vibrating sources changes
AE Incident plane Refracted rapidly with time, two sources are incoherent and the intensities just
From DAEC, sinr =
AC wavefront wavefront add up. i.e. I = I1 + I2
sini BC v1t v1 m2 Screen
8 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
sinr = AE = v2t = v2 = m1 (a) P
Incident Spherical Incident plane m Path difference,
plane wavefront wavefront Spherical
wavefront wavefront
v1 > v2 Dx = S2P – S1P, Dx = yd/D
S1 y
m For constructive interference
Incident B or bright fringes
wavefront Rarer (m1) F
v1t F S d O
yd/D = n l, n = 0 ±1, ± 2, ...
i (b) m For destructive interference S2
i
A r C (c) or Dark fringes Dx
D
yd/D = (2n + 1) l/2, n = 0 ±1, ± 2, ...
5 THE DOPPLER’S EFFECT m Distance between two consecutive bright (or dark) fringe called fringe
v2t
When the source moves away from observer the frequency as width(b)
E 90° Denser (m2) measured by source will be smaller and wavelength will be longer, b = xn+1 – xn = lD/d
this is called red shift. Towards the observer, there is an apparent m The fringe pattern is hyperbolic, for large distances the fringe will be
Dn nradial nearly straight lines.
decrease in wavelength, this is called red shift. =–
n C
NCERT Maps Wave Optics 129
9 DIFFRACTION 11 VALIDITY OF RAY OPTICS

m The phenomena of bending of waves To P Fresnel’s Distance :
at the narrow holes and sharp edges is
called diffraction. This is exhibited by L q m Distance at which diffraction spread is equal to the size of aperture. zf ; a2/l
all types of waves. q
m Single slit diffraction
m This gives the distance beyond which divergence of beam of width a becomes significant.
a M To centre
Path difference at point P Q m Ray optics is valid in the limit of wavelength tending to zero.
q
Dx = NP – LP = NQ; Dx = asinq ; aq N
Dx 12 POLARISATION
m For central maxima q = 0
m For secondary maxima : q ; (n + 1/2) l/a where n = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... m The phenomena of restricting the vibration of electric vector only in one direction perpendicular to
m For minima : q ; nl/a where n = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... the direction of propagation is called polarisation.
m Width of central fringe WC = 2lD/a m Malus’ law : The intensity of transmitted light passed through an analyser is I = I0cos2q
m Width of secondary fringe W = lD/a
where, I0 = Intensity of polarised light after passing through polariser.
Intensity q = Angle between axis of polariser and analyser
I0 m Polarisation by scattering : An observer looking at 90° to the direction of sun. The radiations
scattered by the molecules perpendicular to the incident unpolarised light (figure) is polarised.
m Scattering of light by molecules studied by C.V. Raman is called Raman effect.
Incident sunlight
Ÿ Molecule
0 sinq Scattered
– 3l – 2l –l l 2l 3l
polarised light
D D D D D D
10 RESOLVING POWER OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

TO OBSERVER
m It is the ability to resolve the image of two nearby objects distinctly.
m Resolving power of microscope = 2nsinb/1.22l m Polarisation by Reflection : When an unpolarised light is incident at Brewster’s angle (iB), then
Image reflected light is polarised and refracted light is partially polarised. Brewster’s angle depends on
D refractive index of two media,
b 1.22 f l
q m = tan iB and iB + r = 90°
f D
Object
Incide
Object nt To observer
v Air
plane d
Image plane
Objective lens iq
ecte
m The product nsinb is called the numerical aperture. Refl
m Resolving power of telescope = a/0.61l r
Refracted
Medium
2a 0.61lf
a
m Electric field vector perpendicular to plane of incidence is reflected.
f
11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Chapter
1 ELECTRON EMISSION 3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF 3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping
Thermionic Emission PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT potential:
m The process of emission of electrons when a metal is Quartz (i) Saturation current is independent of frequency
heated is known as thermionic emission window S (ii) Stopping potential depends on frequency of radiation.
m The emitted electrons are called thermions
Evacuated
Photosensitive glass tube
(hn – hn0 = eV0)
m Emitted number of thermions depends on temperature of plate
metal surface Electrons
Field Emission
m The process of emission of free electrons when a strong n3 > n2 > n1
8
electric field (;10 V/m) is applied across the metal Commutator Saturation current
n3 n2 n1
surface is called field emission or cold emission, as in mA
spark plug. V
0 Collector plate potential
–V03 –V02 –V01
Photoelectric Emission Retarding potential
m The process of emission of electrons when light of
i
m The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons varies
suitable frequency is incident on metal surface is called 1. Effect of Intensity: The number of linearly with the frequency of incident radiation, but is
as photoelectric emission photoelectrons emitted per second independent of intensity.
m Emitted electrons are called photoelectrons or photoelectirc current is directly m For a frequency less than threshold ( n < n 0 ) no
m Number of photoelectrons emitted depends on the proportional to the intensity of photoelectric emission is possible even if intensity is
intensity of incident light radiation. Intensity of light large.
2. Effect of potential on m Threshold frequency (n0): The minimum frequency of
Secondary Emission
photoelectric current: incident radiation required to emit electrons called
m The process of emission of free electrons when highly
(i) For a given frequency of incident radiation, stopping threshold frequency. It is different for different metals.
energetic electron beam is incident on a metal surface is
potential is independent of intensity. m Work function (f0): The minimum energy of incident
called secondary emission.
(ii) Maximum kinetic energy radiation required to emit electrons from metal called
m The emitted electron is called secondary electrons.
work function
Kmax = eV0 f0 = hn0
2 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Stopping potential: –9
Photocurrent
m
m Emission starts in a time of the order of 10 s or less.
m The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was The minimum negative
discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz potential given to plate I3 > I2 > I1
I3
m Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the for which the photo I2
phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail during current becomes I1 Stopping
1886-1902. potential
zero is called the Metal A
m Certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc (V0)
cut-off or Stopping potential Metal B
responded only to ultraviolet light to cause electron n > n0
emission. However, some alkali metals such as Lithium, stopping
–V0 0 n > n 0¢
Sodium, Potassium, Caesium and rubidium were potential. n0 n 0¢
Retarding potential Collector plate
sensitive to visible light. potential Frequency of incident radiation (n)
134 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter NCERT Maps
4 EINSTEIN'S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: 6 WAVE NATURE OF MATTER 7 DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
ENERGY QUANTUM OF RADIATION de-Broglie proposed that the wavelength l associated with a m The experimental set up used by Davisson and Germer is
In 1905 Albert Einstein proposed that radiation energy is built particle of momentum P is as shown in figure to verify wave nature of electrons
up of discrete units-the so called quanta of energy radiation. h h h m The experiment was performed by varying the voltage
Later it was called photon. Each photon has energy (hn). When l= = = from 44 V to 68 V. It was noticed that strong peak
P mv 2Km
energy of photon striking at surface is greater than work appeared in intensity (I) of scattered electron for voltage
m If a charged particle having charge q accelerate from rest
function (f0), electron is emitted 54 V at scattering angle 50°
through a potential V.
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons
h
l= H.T.
Kmax = eV0 = hn – f0 h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js 2mqV
æhö f 1.227
V0 = ç ÷ n – 0 (i) For electron, l = nm .
èeø e V
æhö 0.0286 A Nickel
This is equation of straight line with slope ç ÷ (ii) For proton, l = nm . F Electron Beam
èeø V Target
q
æhö 0.0101 Electron
m ç ÷ is independent of nature of material (iii) For a-particle, l = nm.
èeø V L.T. gun
m All photons of frequency (n), have the same energy (hn), Diffracted
m According to Heisenberg, it is not possible to measure Vacuum
electron
h Movable Chamber
momentum, P = æç ö÷ both the position and momentum of a particle at the same collector beam
èlø
m Photons are electrically neutral time exactly. To galvanometer
Increase in intensity of a given frequency means increase h

m m Dx Dp »
in number of photons per second crossing a given area. 2p
5 PHOTOCELL 8 ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

m It is a device which converts light energy into electrical m It is a practical device that relies the wave characteristics
energy. of electron.
1
m The photocurrent produced is of order of microampere. m Resolving power of electron microscope µ
l 50°
m In gas filled photocell, current is increased due to ionization
of the gas. µ V (V is accelerating potential)
m It is also called electronic eye m Resolving power of electron microscope is approximately
m It is used in operation of control system and in light 105 times the resolving power of optical microscope.
Nickel Crystal
measuring devices
12
Atoms Chapter
1 ATOMIC MODELS 2 IMPACT PARAMETER 3 DIFFERENT QUANTITIES FOR
It is perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of the a particle HYDROGEN LIKE ELEMENTS
Thomson's Model Rutherford Model Bohr's Model from the centre of nucleus. l Radius of the nth orbit:
æqö
Thomson's Model Ze2 cot ç ÷
Atom is a spherical cloud of positive charge with electrons embedded è2ø æ e h2 ö n 2 n2
b= rn = ç 0 2 ÷ = 0.529 Å
into it, like seeds in watermelon. 4pe0E ç pme ÷ Z Z
è ø
Electron orbit
a-Particle Scattering Experiment and Rutherford nuclear model of atom
e 2 n2
Thin gold m radius (r) = Þ rn µ
Z
foil thickness
–7 4pe0 mv 2
Lead bricks 2.1 × 10 m
e2 l Speed of electron in nth orbit:
Small angle m Kinetic energy (K) =
Beam of scattering of some 8pe0 r
a-particles a-particles e2 Z C Z
e2 vn = =
Source of q m Potential energy (U) = - 2he0 n 137 n
4 pe 0 r
a-particles
e2 Þ vn µ
Z
214 ZnS screen m Total energy (E) = K + U = - n
83 Bi 8pe0 r
Large angle Bohr's Model
scattering of some l Energy of electron in nth orbit
Backward scattering a-particles Detector
Bohr combined classical and quantum concepts and gave the
of a very small (Microscope) theory in terms of three postulates. æ me 4 ö Z 2 Z2
fraction (1 in 8000 or so) E n = - ç 2 2 ÷ 2 J = (2.18 ´ 10 - 18 ) 2 J
1. An electron can revolve in certain stable orbits without ç 8e h ÷ n n
è 0 ø
Conclusions emission of radiant energy.
1. Only about 0.14% of incident a-particle scatter by more than 1° 2. Electron can revolve only in those orbits in which angular 13.6Z 2
2. About 1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90° or En = - eV
æ h ö n2
–15 –14 momentum is integral multiple of ç ÷
3. Size of nucleus to be about 10 m to 10 m è 2p ø Z2
nh Þ En µ
4. For large impact parameter the a-particle goes nearly undeviated. L = mv n rn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ... n2
2p
5. In case of head on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and
3. When an electron makes a transition from one of the specified l Time period of revolution of electron in
a-particle rebound back (q @ p) non radiatory orbit to another lower energy orbit then radiate nth orbit.
Rutherford's Model energy equal to the difference of energy equal to final and
initial state. æ 4e h 3 ö n 3
According to Rutherford most of the mass of atom and all its positive T =ç 04 ÷ 2
–14 m Bohr's model is applicable for hydrogen and hydrogen like ç me ÷ Z
charge are concentrated in a tiny space of the order of 10 m, called è ø
elements.
nucleus and electrons revolve around it. Centripetal force is obtained Limitations of Bohr's Model n3
from electrostatic attraction between electron and nucleus. = (1.51´ 10-16 s)
m Bohr's model is applicable for single electron atom/ions. Z2
Draw backs m Bohr's model correctly predict the frequencies of the light
(i) Stability of atom n3
emitted by hydrogenic (hydrogen like) atoms but unable to Þ Tµ
(ii) Line spectrum of atoms explain the relative intensities of light Z2
NCERT Maps Atoms 139
4 HYDROGEN SPECTRUM 5 DE BROGLIE'S EXPLANATION OF BOHR'S SECOND

POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION
1. Lyman series de-Broglie explained second postulate of Bohr's atomic model by assuming
an electron has wave nature.
1 é1 1 ù
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 2, 3, 4 ... ¥ The circumference of orbit should be integer multiple of de-Broglie
l ë1 n û
wavelength of electron in nth orbit.
lies in U.V. region m 2prn = nl, n = 1,2,3,...
or
2. Balmer series nh
mv n rn =
1 é 1 1 ù 2p
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 3, 4, 5 ... ¥
l ë2 n û m This is quantum condition proposed by Bohr for an angular momentum
n=¥ E¥ = 0 of an electron.
Mostly lies in visible region l
n=7
3. Paschen series
n=6
1 é 1 1 ù n=5 Pfund series
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 4, 5, 6 ... ¥
l ë3 n û
n=4 Bracket E4 = –0.85 eV
series Nucleus
lies in near infra red region
n=3 Paschen E3 = –1.51 eV r
series
4. Bracket series
Balmer E2 = –3.4 eV
n=2
1 é 1 1ù
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 5, 6, 7 ... ¥
l ë4 n û
lies in infra red region

n=1 Lyman E1 = –13.6 eV
5. Pfund series series 6 LASER
(Line spectra originate in Transition between energy levels) Acronym: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
1 é1 1ù
= R ê 2 - 2 ú , n = 6, 7, 8 ... ¥ m It involves population inversion.
l ë5 n û
m It is highly coherent
lies in far infra red region m Laser light is highly monochromatic
m Divergence of laser beam is very less

Rydberg constant
m If there are N atoms, each emitting light with intensity I, then net
me 4 intensity produced by ordinary source is proportional to NI whereas in

R = = 1.03 ´ 10 7 m –1 (By Bohr-model)
8e0 h 3c laser source, it is proportional to N2I
m There are low power lasers with a power of 0.5 mW, called pencil lasers
R = 1.097 × 107 m–1 (from Balmer empirical formula)
which serve as pointers. There lasers are used for delicate surgery of eye
or glands in stomach.
m Laser can cut and weld steel.
13
Nuclei Chapter
1 ATOMIC MASSES AND COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS 7 LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 6 NUCLEAR FORCE
m Before discovery of neutron, nucleus was assumed to be dN m Inside the nucleus, a large attractive force is required to bind
made up of protons and electrons but later this was ruled out m Rate of disintegration, = -lN the nucleons against repulsion. The force is called nuclear
–lt dt
using argument of quantum theory. m N = N0e force.
m It is strongest attractive force. FP -P = Fn -n = FP -n
Half life : Tln2 0.6931
2 DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON m
1/2 == m It is charge independent force i.e.
l l
m In 1932 James Chadwick observed emission of neutral m It is short range force.
m l = Decay constant.
radiation, when beryllium nuclei was bombarded with a- m It has property of saturation.
particle on the basis of energy and momentum conservation. m Mean life,t = 1 = 1.44T1/2 m For a distance (r < 0.8 fm) it is repulsive force.
Chadwick concluded that it was a new type of neutral particle l
called neutron. a-Decay : During a-decay, atomic number decreases
9
B e + 24 H e ® 162 C + 10 n by two and mass number by four. 8 NUCLEAR FISSION
4
m All nuclides with same atomic number but having different m It is nuclei of helium m When a slow moving neutron strikes a heavy nucleus, which
A A -4 4
mass are called isotopes. Z X ® Z - 2 Y + 2He + Q breaks into two intermediate mass nuclear fragments. This is
2
m All nuclides with same mass number are called isobars. Q = (mx – my – mHe) C called nuclear fission.
1 235 236 144 89 1
m Nuclides with same neutron but different atomic number are m b-Decay : 0 n +92 U ®92 U ®56 Ba +36 Kr + 30 n
called isotones. (i) b– decay: A X ® A Y + e - + n m The energy released (the Q-value) in the fission of single
m A=Z+N Z Z +1 uranium is of the order of 200 MeV.
Rate of production of neutrons
3 SIZE OF NUCLEUS
Q = ém
ë (
Z ) (
XA -m Z +1 )
Y A ù C2
û m Multiplication factor (K) =
Rate of loss of neutrons
+
1/3 (ii) b decay: A X ® A Y + e + + n m Uncontrolled chain reaction is the principle of atom bomb.
m The radius of nucleus with mass number 'A' is R = R0A where, Z Z -1
–15 m Controlled chain reaction is the principle of nuclear reactors.
R0 = 1.2 × 10 m.
17
Q = ém
ë (
Z ) (
XA -m Z -1 )
Y A - 2me ù C 2
û
3
m Density of nucleus is approximately 2.3 × 10 kg/m and is g-Decay : 9 NUCLEAR REACTOR
independent of mass number. m Like an atom, a nucleus also has discrete energy
m U235 or Pu239 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
levels, the ground state and excited states. When a
4 MASS ENERGY AND NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays to m D2O, graphite and beryllium oxide are used as moderator to
m Mass energy : Einstein showed that mass is another form of ground state (or to lower energy state), a photon is slow down the fast neutrons.
energy and one can convert into other form. Einstein gave the emitted. This is called g-decay. m Rate of reaction is controlled by control rods made of
2
famous mass energy equivalence relation E = mC . m The difference in nuclear energy levels is of the order of cadmium or boron
2
m 1u = 931.5 MeV/C MeV. m Air, ice cold water, molten sodium or CO2 are used as coolant.
5 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY 10 NUCLEAR FUSION

A
m The difference in mass of a nucleus ( Z X ) and its m Binding energy per nucleon is the measure of stability It is the phenomenon in which two or more lighter nuclei
constituents, DM, is called the mass defect. of nucleus. combine to form a single middle weight nucleus.
m The binding energy per nucleon is practically constant
DM = [ZmP + (A – Z)mn] – M Some examples of nuclear fusion.
for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170), with 1 1 2 +
m If one wants to break the nucleus into protons and neutrons. maximum of 8.75 MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 1H + 1H ® 1 H + e + n + 0.42 MeV
2
This extra energy (DM)c , has to be supplied. This energy 7.6 MeV for A = 238. 2
H + 12H ® 32He + n + 3.27 MeV
called binding energy. m Binding energy per nucleon is lower for both light nuclei
1
2
Eb = DMc
2 (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170) 1 H + 12H ® 13H + 11H + 4.03 MeV
Semiconductor Electronics : 14
Material, Devices and Simple Circuits Chapter
1 SEMICONDUCTOR 4 APPLICATION OF DIODE

m Its conductivity or resistivity Extrinsic Semiconductor
lies between conductor and m Conductivity is increased by Diode as a Rectifier Zener diode as a Voltage Regulator
insulator doping.
Half wave-rectifier m Zener diode is highly order reverse doped p-n
m Negative temperature p-type semiconductor
m It rectifies either positive or negative cycle only, of input signal junction diode
coefficient of resistance m Doped with trivalent atom
m Frequency of output and input are same m It is operated as regulator when diode is in reversed
m Band gap is less than 3 eV m Holes are majority carriers
Transormer bias
Intrinsic Semiconductor m nh >> ne A X m The output voltage is fixed and is equal to Zener
m It is pure semiconductor n-type semiconductor voltage
m Carriers are thermally m Doped with pentavalent atom
Primary Secondary RL
generated m Electrons are majority carriers
m At 0 K, behaves like RS
m ne >> nh
insulator 2 B Y
m Law of mass action nenh = n1 (a) Unregulated
m n e = n h = ni voltage (VL) IL Regulated voltage
Voltage across RL Voltage at A

Load (V2)
INPUT ac
RL
2 p-n JUNCTION
m A p-type semiconductor is brought in Biasing of p-n junction

Figure: Zener diode as DC voltage regulator
contact with a n-type semiconductor Forward biasing t
m A depletion layer is formed at junction. m Width of depletion layer Full wave rectifier
m Thickness of depletion layer decreases decreases OUTPUT VOLTAGE m It rectifies both the cycles of input
m Effective barrier potential m Frequency of output is two times the frequency of input
with increase in doping and forward
decreases
biasing
t
Waveform
m Low resistance at junction
(b)
at A
m Current flown is of the Figure : (a) Half-wave rectifier circuit, (b) Input t
3 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE order of mA ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from (i)
m It is a device having single p-n junction Reverse biasing the rectifier circuit.
Output waveform Waveform

p n m Width of depletion layer
at B
m Symbol: Anode Cathode Centre-Tap
increases
Transormer t
m Effective barrier potential Diode 1(D1) (ii)
V-I characteristics
increases Centre A X (b)
I(mA)
(across RL)
m High resistance at Tap B Due to Due to Due to Due to
Breakdown
voltage junction RL Output D1 D2 D1 D2
Diode 2(D2)
m Current flown is of the
Cut in V(V) t
voltage order of mA (a) Y
(c)
m Breakdown occurs at Figure: (a) A Full-wave rectifier circuit; (b) Input wave forms given to the diode D1 at A and to the diode D2 at
I(mA) high reverse bias voltage B; (c) Output waveform across the load RL connected in the full-wave rectifier circuit.
148 Semiconductor Electronics : Material, Devices and Simple Circuits NCERT Maps
5 OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICE
6 JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
m It is two junction and three terminal device
Light Emitting Diode Photodiode Solar Cell m Fundamental action of transistor is transfer resistor
m It is generally operated m It is generally operated in m It is used in unbiased m Length profile LC > LE > LB m Doping profile E > C > B
in forward bias reverse bias condition
Types of transistor
m It is used to transmit m It is used to detect the m It generates emf from
m n-p-n transistor m p-n-p transistor
optical signals optical signal solar radiations
V-I characteristics is Emitter Base Collector
m
m V-I characteristics lies in m V-I characteristics lies in Emitter Base Collector
same as of normal p-n th
3rd quadrant 4 quadrant
junction diode
m Reverse current increases E C E p n p C
m Eg should be in range of m Semiconductor with Eg n p n
with increase in intensity of
energy of visible light closed to 1.5 eV are ideal
Band width of emitted incoming signal
m
material for solar cell. B B
light is 100 Å to 500 Å (i) (ii)
Collector Collector
hn I (mA)
Base Base
Emitter Emitter
Reverse bias Configuration of transistor
Modes of Operation
mA V(volt) (BJT)
I1 E-B junction B-C junction Mode of Application
I2 m Common base configuration
p-side n-side I3 operation
m Common emitter
I4 mA Forward Reverse Active Amplifier configuration
I4 > I3 > I2 > I1 Forward Forward Saturation Switch (on) m Common collector
(b)
(a) Reverse Reverse Cut off Switch (off) configuration
Fig. : (a) An illuminated photodiode under reverse bias, (b) I-V characteristics of a
photodiode for different illumination intensity I4 > I3 > I2 > I1 7 COMMON EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION
Transistor characteristics m Output characteristics of CE amplifier
IL I DVBE
Collector current (IC) in mA

m Input resistance (ri)CE =
VOC (open circuit voltage) DIB
DVCE 10 Base current (IB)
p V Output resistance (ro)CE =
n m 60 mA
DIC 8
50 mA
ISC DIC 6 40 mA
Short circuit current
Depletion m Transconductance (gm) = 4 30 mA
region (b) DVBE
20 mA
(a) 2 10 mA
m Current gain of different configuration 0
Figure : (a) A typical illuminated p-n junction solar cell; 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
DIC DI DIE
(b) I-V characteristics of a solar cell. aac = , bac = C , gac = Collector to emitter voltage (VCE) in volts
DIE DIB DIB
NCERT Maps Semiconductor Electronics : Material, Devices and Simple Circuits 149
8 APPLICATION OF TRANSISTOR 9 LOGIC GATES

m Transistor as an amplifier m Variation of voltage gain with frequency is given
Logic Characteristic
VO as gate Symbol Truth table
l Voltage gain (Av) = equation
VI
Rout Voltage
=–b = – gm Rout A Y
Rin gain
NOT A Y Y = A 0 1
l Power gain (AP) = Av × bac
1 0
m Transistor as a switch
A B Y
Vout active Frequency 0 0 0
A
OR Y Y =A +B 0 1 1
m Transistor as an oscillator B
cut- 1 0 1
off l Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillation is 1 1 1
saturation Ab = 1
Vin
A B Y
A 0 0 0
11 REALISATION OF BASIC GATES USING NAND OR NOR GATES AND Y Y= A·B 0 1 0
B
Using NAND only Using NOR only 1 0 0
1 1 1
m NOT A Y m NOT A Y
A B Y
Y = A·A Y = A·A = A 0 0 1
=A 0 1 1
A
A NAND Y Y =A B
m OR Y B 1 0 1
B 1 1 0
A
m OR Y
Y=A+B
B A B Y
=A+B
0 0 1
A Y
Y=A·B NOR Y = A+B 0 1 0
B
A 1 0 0
=A+B 1 1 0
=A+B m AND Y
B
A 10 BOOLEAN LOGIC
m AND Y
B Y=A+B m A+A=A m A+0=A m A+B=A·B
m A·A=A m A·0=0 m A·B=A+B
Y=A·B = A·B
m A+1=1 m A·A=0
=A·B = A·B m A·1=A m A+A=1

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Physical World

1 SCIENCE 5 PRINCIPAL THRUSTS 7 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE

1 UNITS 3 MEASUREMENT 4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS 5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME

8 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 10 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND SI UNITS OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

unchanged if its even and uncreased by 1 if it is odd. Distance L

Dimensions Dimensional Homogeneity Applications Limitations of Dimensional

1 FRAME OF REFERENCE 4 VELOCITY

m Motion of objects along a straight line is called rectilinear

X m Slope of position time graph

6 Kinematic Equations 8 FOR MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

X Instantaneous velocity, v = m Centripetal acceleration-Due to change in direction of velocity and

2 NEWTON’S 2ND LAW m It is difficult to walk on sand or ice. m It is a contact force.

m Identify the unknown forces and m Static friction: Fs = Fapplied

Conservation of Liner Momentum accelerated motion m Angle of Bending

Total momentum of an isolated system of m Write constraint relations if exists.

For equilibrium of concurrent forces use

(Fs = Fapp) applied force

pinitial = pfinal m Acceleration of body sliding down a rough

1 SCALAR PRODUCT 3 ENERGY Some common units of energy

4 LAW OF CONSERVATION MECHANICAL ENERGY 7 COLLISION

D(K + U) = Fnc Dx COLLISION

Displacement x Angular displacement q KE = 1 MVcm + 1 Iw

11 ROLLING MOTION 13 KINEMATICS OF ROLLING BODIES DOWN ROUGH INCLINE PLANE

Polar Satellite Geostationary Satellite

1 PRESSURE 4 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE 6 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Pg Buoyant force depends on geff

7 VISCOSITY 10 SURFACE TENSION 12 DROPS AND BUBBLES

s = density of fluid l Thin film, liquid bubble have

1 TEMPERATURE 2 HEAT 3 CALORIMETRY 5 CHANGE OF STATE

If the amount of substance is specified in terms m Solid-liquid state change ® Latent

HEAT TRANSFER MODES

7 CONDUCTION 8 CONVECTION 9 RADIATION

1 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM 4 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY 6 THERMODYNAMIC STATE VARIABLES

9 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS 12 ISOCHORIC PROCESS 14 HEAT ENGINE

energy. two temperatures T1 and T2. Carnot cycle consists of

1 LAWS ASSOCIATED WITH KTG 3 KINETIC INTERPRETATION 4 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES

1 SPECIAL TYPES OF MOTIONS 2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

7 SIMPLE PENDULUM 8 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

m Net force F = –ky – bv (b ® damping factor)

9 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

y = A cos(wdt + f) and A depends on wd and w.

WAVE 2 DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A 3 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

4 REFLECTION OF WAVES 5 NORMAL MODES OF ORGAN PIPES 6 BEATS

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE 3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 4 CHARGES INTERACTION

5 FORCE BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES 6 ELECTRIC FIELD OF GHARGES

m Total flux is zero if closed surface encloses no charge.

10 POTENTIAL ENERGY IN EXTERNAL FIELD 13 DIELECTRICS 16 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

m Dielectrics are non conducting substances

m The relation of V and I is not unique in GaAs. 5 18

8 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS 10 KIRCHHOFF'S RULES 12 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE B

1 MAGNETIC FIELD 3 VELOCITY SELECTOR 6 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW

2 LORENTZ FORCE 5 CYCLOTRON 7 MAGNETIC FIELD ON AXIS OF CIRCULAR COIL

1 BAR MAGNET 2 THE ELECTROSTATIC ANALOGUE 4 EARTH’S MAGNETISM

6 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 7 HYSTERESIS LOOP

m Retentivity: The value of B at H = 0

1 FARADAY’S EXPERIMENTS 2 MAGNETIC FLUX 5 MOTIONAL EMF

SELF INDUCTANCE e0 = NBAw e = e0 sinwt

1 ALTERNATING CURRENT 5 PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT 7 SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

4 PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT 6 PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT 8 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

10 RESONANCE IN LCR SERIES CIRCUIT 11 LC OSCILLATIONS 12 TRANSFORMER

m When XL = XC Þ Z = R d 2q 1 m To change an alternating voltage from one to another of greater or smaller

1 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 4 NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

oscillating currents the accelerated charge.

3 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 4 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES