“..

It is the national goal that the discharge of

pollutants into navigable waters be eliminated
by 1985…”

u.S. Congress, PL 92-500, 1972

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 2

 Wastewater
• It is the term for discarded or previously used
water from municipality or industry.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 3

 Water pollution
• Any condition caused by human activity adversely
affects the quality of a stream, lake, ocean or
source of groundwater.
• The presence of any harmful chemical or other
constituent present in concentration above the
naturally occurring background level.
• Contaminants that adversely affect the use of
natural water for human consumption or that hurt
any aquatic life or other wildlife that may rely on
the water.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 4

 Beneficial uses of water
• Power plant uses
• Industrial uses
• Agricultural uses
• Recreational uses

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 5

 Need for Testing Water Quality

• For drinking water: to assess safety and palatability

of water for consumption
• For raw water resource: to select treatment
treatment systems; to establish pollution control
monitoring systems.
• For wastewaters: to select type and degree of
treatment; to control treatment plant operation.
• For receiving waters: to evaluate their ability to
accept pollution loads; to monitor self-purification.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 6

 Measuring water quality
Types of Examination
• Physical Examination: to determine aesthetic quality
• Chemical Examination: to test for chemical which
affect the water quality and/or which indicative
pollution.
• Bacteriological Examination: to test for the presence
of bacterial indicators of pollution and hence safety for
consumption.
• Biological Examination: to determine the causes of
objectionable odors, clogging of filters, etc.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 7

 Some salient water quality parameters

• Temperature
• Turbidity
• Odors and Tastes
• Color
• pH
• Alkalinity and Acidity
• Chlorides
• Nitrogen compounds (organic N, ammonia N, nitrite N, nitrate
N)
• Hardness
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 8
 Some salient water quality parameters

• Fluorides
• Iron and Manganese
• Sulfates
• Residual Chlorine
• Total Dissolved Solids
• Dissolved Oxygen
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand
• Chemical Oxygen Demand
• Coliforms
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 9
 Temperature
Surface waters fluctuate in temperature with season;
in groundwaters there is only a small variation.
• Significance:
– warm waters taste flat
– Influences rates of chemical and biological activities
– Influences the saturation values of dissolved gases
– Heat pollution
– Fish kill when more than 30 - 35oC.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 10

 Turbidity
Turbidity represents lack of clearness in water
(measure of interference presented by
suspended matter to passage of light).

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 11

 Turbidity
Turbidity is due to:
❖ clay, silt, finely divided organic matter,
microorganisms

Water in:
❖ lakes and ponds: less turbid
❖ rivers: more turbid
❖ wells: low turbidity

Turbidity is not to be confused with true color!

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 12

 Turbidity

Significance:
❖Aesthetic consideration
❖Influences disinfection
❖affects filtrability

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 13

 Odors and tastes
Odors are caused by volatile substances associated with:
❖oragnic matter (decaying)
❖living organisms (algae)
❖gases (hydrogen sulfide, chlorine)
Measurement of odor intensity: Threshold Odor Number

Tastes are caused by:

❖chlorides and sulfates of calcium, magnesium and sodium
❖organisms (algae)
❖industrial waste
Measurement of taste: Threshold taste Number
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 14
 pH
❖pH: Common logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen
ion concentration
❖pH is an intensity factor.
❖pH = 7: Neutral
❖pH < 7: Acidic
❖pH > 7: Alkaline
❖pH of most raw water sources: 6.5 - 8.5

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 15

 pH
Significance:
❖Influences chemical reactions (in coagulation,
softening, disinfection, etc.)
❖Corrosion problems (low pH)
❖Many industrial waters require rigid pH control
❖Optimum pH required for fish and other aquatic life
❖Sudden pH changes affect aquatic life

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 16

 Alkalinity
❖Capability to neutralize acids; Expressed in mg/L as
CaCO3.
❖Most waters are alkaline because alkaline salts are
common in ground
❖Alkalinity in water is due to:
❖carbonates
❖Bicarbonates
❖Hydroxides
❖Hydroxides are generally never present in natural
waters. Alkalinity is mostly due to bicarbonates of Ca,
Mg and Na.
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 17
 Alkalinity
Significance:
❖Important in water treatment (especially coagulation)
❖In industrial waters: deposits, corrosion of steam lines,
cloudiness in ice, off flavors in beverages and food
products
❖Many industrial waters require rigid pH control

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 18

 Acidity
❖Less significant when compared to alkalinity
❖Acid rain, water becoming acidic in some treatment
processes, etc.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 19

 Chlorides
❖Chlorides are present in all water sources.
❖Chlorides get into water from:
❖mineral deposits
❖domestic wastewater discharges
❖industrial wastewaters
❖Irrigation drainage
❖Human excreta (urine) contains chloride, about
6g/capita.d

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 20

 Chlorides
Significance:
❖Undesirable taste
❖Contributes to non-carbonate hardness
❖In industrial waters: deposits, corrosion under boiler
conditions, affects ice, undesirable for beverages and
food products
❖Natural waters have a uniform chloride content. An
increase above the normal chloride level is an index of
pollution by domestic wastewaters.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 21

 Nitrogen compounds
❖Organic nitrogen
❖Animal tissue is richer in nitrogen than plant tissues. So,
higher concentration indicates pollution by wastes of animal
origin.
❖Characteristic of recent pollution
❖Ammonia nitrogen
❖Initial product of decomposition, and hence indication of
recent pollution
❖Always found in sewage polluted waters
❖Toxic to fish

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 22

 Nitrogen compounds
❖Nitrite nitrogen
❖Oxidation product of ammonia nitrogen (Intermediate
product)
❖Nitrites are easily and rapidly converted to nitrates, hence
indication of active biological processes

❖Nitrate nitrogen
❖End product of decomposition of organic matter

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 23

 Nitrates
❖Occurs in water from:
❖fertilizer use
❖decayed vegetable and organic matter
❖domestic effluents
❖sewage sludge disposal to land
❖industrial discharges
❖leachate from solid waste landfills
❖atmospheric washouts

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 24

 Nitrates
❖Significance:
❖infantile methaemoglobinaemia
❖carcinogenicity of nitrosamines
❖eutrophication of lakes

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 25

 Nitrogen Oxygen Demand
(NOD)
• The amount of oxygen required to convert
ammonia or organic nitrogen forms into nitrate
[NO3-]

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 26

 Hardness
❖ Common in groundwater.
❖ Water is hard when it does not readily form lather with soap.
❖ Hardness in water is due to:
❖calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)
❖Carbonate hardness: due to carbonates and bicarbonates of
Ca and Mg
❖Non-carbonate hardness: due to chlorides and sulpfates of Ca
and Mg

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 27

 Hardness
Significance:
❖scale build-up in boilers and hot water systems
❖excessive soap usage
❖fuel wastage
❖poor cleaning of clothes and reduced fabric life
❖health effects: minor: dishpan hands, laxative
effects. Soft water: cardiovascular diseases?

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 28

 Iron and Manganese
❖Common in groundwater.
❖Iron
❖from soil, rock and plant matter
❖from pipes; from coagulants
❖Significance:
❖stains plumbing fixtures and clothes
❖growth of filamentous iron bacteria (crenothrix) in pipe lines
(red water complaints)
❖corrosion of pipe lines
❖taste and odor problems
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 29
 Iron and Manganese
❖Manganese:
❖though often associated with iron, less common
❖troublesome even in small quantities
❖problems similar to iron - black water complaints

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 30

 Sulfates
❖ Occurs in water from:
❖solvent action of water on gypsum and others like epsom salt
❖decomposition of organic matter
❖industrial wastewaters
❖atmospheric SO2 (acid rain)
❖ Significance:
❖laxative effects
❖tastes
❖affects ice
❖scales in boilers
❖hardness
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 31
 Fluorides
❖ Occurs in water from:
❖fluoride-containing minerals in the ground
❖industries (fertilizers, bricks, ceramics, pharmaceutical
products)

❖ Significance:
❖less than 1 mg/L: dental caries
❖more than 1.5 mg/L: mottling of enamel of teeth
❖3 to 6 mg/L: skeletal fluorosis
❖more than 10 mg/L: crippling skeletal fluorosis

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 32

 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
❖ Oxygen-content of water
❖ Biological decomposition of organic matter uses up the dissolved
oxygen.
❖ Hence DO is the most important single criterion indicating the
sanitary condition of water.
❖ Water deficient in DO is likely to be polluted with organic matter
(Groundwater)
❖ Significance:
❖ Measure of the impact of oxidizable wastes in water
❖ Lack of DO affects fish and aquatic life
❖ Measure of progress of self-purification in rivers
❖ Influences solution and precipitation of of metals like Al and Fe
❖ For determining biochemical oxygen demand of wastewaters

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 33

 Oxygen Demand
• A term for the amount of oxygen required to
oxidize a waste.
• An indirect measure of the amount of organic
(or carbon-containing) impurities in water.
• It is important consideration because it can
deplete the oxygen in a stream or lake,
harming aquatic life.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 34

 Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
❖ BOD is a measure of the DO required for the utilization
of organic matter as food by the aerobic microorganisms.
❖ BOD test evaluates the loss of oxygen that accompanies
the decomposition induced and maintained by the aerobic
organisms.
❖ BOD is measured by DO determination before and after
an incubation period of 5 days at 20oC
❖ BOD is an indirect measure of the amount of readily
biodegradable organic matter.
❖ It is a measure of the strength of wastewater.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 35

 Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
Significance:
❖Pollutional strength of domestic and industrial
wastewaters
❖In stream pollution control activities
❖Evaluation of self-purification capacity of
receiving waters
❖Assessing efficiency of wastewater treatment
processes wastewater.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 36

 Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)
❖COD is obtained by oxidizing the waste with
boiling acid dichromate solution.
❖In a COD test, 95% of organic matter is
oxidized, and results are available within 3
hours.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 37

 Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)
Significance:
❖COD test provides no information on the
proportion of waste that can be oxidized by
microorganism.
❖It does not distinguish between stable and
unstable organic matter.
❖It is very useful for wastewaters containing
toxic substances.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 38

 Theoretical Oxygen Demand
(ThOD)
• The estimation of the amount of oxygen a
known organic chemical will consume as it is
converted to carbon dioxide and water.
• It is simply the amount of oxygen required to
convert the material to carbon dioxide and
water

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 39

Reporting Particle Concentration
in Air and Water

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 40

 Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS)
❖ TDS represents mainly inorganic substances
Principal constituents are: bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates of
Ca, Mg, and Na.
❖ There is generally an increase of hardness with TDS.

Significance:
❖ Taste
❖ Laxative effects
❖ Indication of hardness
❖ Waters with high TDS not desirable for indusries
Conductivity test for rapid and rough determination of TDS
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 41
 Total Solids
(TS)
• The amount of organic and inorganic material in a water.

TS = mcf – mci
V
Where:
TS = total solids (mg/L)
mci = initial crucible mass (mg)
mcf = crucible mass after drying at 103oC (mg)
V = sample volume (L)

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 42

 Volatile Solids
(VS)
• The amount of matter that volatilizes (or burns) when heated
to 550oC.

VS = mcf – mcx
V
Where:
VS = volatile solids (mg/L)
mcx = crucible mass after ignition at 550oC (mg)
mcf = crucible mass after drying at 103oC (mg)
V = sample volume (L)

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 43

 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
• The amount of matter suspended in the water

TSS = mff – mfi

V
Where:
TSS = total suspended solids (mg/L)
mfi = initial filter mass (mg)
mff = filter mass after drying at 103oC (mg)
V = sample volume (L)

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 44

 Volatile Suspended Solids
(VSS)
• The difference between the initial filter weight (from the
TSS determination) and the filter weight after ignition
550oC divided by the sample volume.

VSS = mff – mfx

V
Where:
VSS = volatile suspended solids (mg/L)
mff = filter mass after drying at 103oC (mg)
mfx = filter mass after ignition at 550oC (mg)
V = sample volume (L)

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 45

 Fixed Suspended Solids
(FSS)
• The matter remaining from the suspended solid
analysis.
• It is unburnable at 550oC.

FSS = TSS - VSS

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 46

Reporting Particle Concentration
in Air and Water

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 47

 Sample Problem
A laboratory provides the following analysis
obtained from a 50 mL sample of wastewater: total
solids = 200 mg/L, total suspended solids = 160
mg/L, fixed suspended solids = 40 mg/L, fixed
dissolved solids = 10 mg/L, and volatile suspended
solids = 120 mg/L.
1. What is the concentration of total dissolved
solids of this sample?
2. What would be concentration of volatile dissolve
solids.
Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 48
 Solution
1. TDS = TS – TDS
= 200 mg/L – 160 mg/L
TDS = 40 mg/L
2. VDS = TDS – FDS
= 40 mg/L – 10 mg/L
VDS = 30 mg/L

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico 49

 Coliform
• Testing for pathogens is very difficult, and it is
impossible to monitor water for every single
pathogen:
• A wide variety of pathogens.
• Tests for pathogens difficult and time consuming
• The number of pathogens present is small.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 50

 Coliforms
Indicator organisms:
• Organisms normally present in the feces of
human are used as indicator organisms.
• If present in water, they indicate the presence
of fecal material and hence the presence of
intestinal pathogens.

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 51

 Coliforms
Coliforms as indicator organisms:
– The number of coliforms in feces is very great;
125 - 400 billion per capita daily discharge
– Rates of removal/decay/death of coliforms are
parallel to that of pathogens
Tests are simple
Easy numerical evaluation

Other Indicator organisms

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 52

Thank You