E L

INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMODAL URBAN

P T
N
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Arkopal K Goswami, PhD
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 04: Urban Transport & Sustainability
Lecture 41: Travel Demand Management (TDM) overview
 E L
P T
 Travel Demand Management concept and definition
 Approaches to deal with traffic congestion

N
 Classification of TDM measures
 Benefits over supply side approach
 Challenges
 L
What is Travel Demand Management (TDM)?

E
• Travel Demand Management (TDM) is a policy

T
for mitigating traffic congestion problems by
reducing and redistributing travel demand
instead of increasing the transportation

P
supply.
Source: cycling promotion fund
• It is also referred by synonymous phrases such

N
as “transport system management” (Pendyala
Ram M. and Kitamura, 1997) and “mobility
management” (Todd Litman, 2003).
 L
What is Travel Demand Management (TDM)?

E
“TDM is any action or set of actions aimed at

T
influencing people's travel behavior in such a way
that alternative mobility options are presented
and/or congestion is reduced”

P
- Meyer, 1999

N
“Transportation Demand Management (TDM) is a strategy which aims to
maximize the efficiency of the urban transport system by discouraging
unnecessary private vehicle use and promoting more effective, healthy and
environmental friendly modes of transport, in general being public transport
and non-motorized transport”
- Broaddus et al., 2009
 L
Approaches to address traffic congestion

E
There are two approaches to manage the traffic:

T
1. Supply side : Predict and provide
2. Demand side: Influence the need to, timing of, and location

P
of travel.

N
In supply side, capacity is changed based on volume of traffic.
In demand side, capacity is considered to be constant and
volume is changed using demand management.
 L
Approaches to address traffic congestion

E
• Explaining congestion

T
mitigation using system
dynamics

P
• “Shift the Burden”
archetype

N
 L
Approaches to address traffic congestion

E
• Beijing constructed ring

T
roads, 119 flyovers, and 202
overpasses.

P
• However, the rush hour
average speed on trunk

N
roads is still 13-19 km/h
(Tiwari, 2002).
 L
Approaches to address traffic congestion

E
• Increasing supply may give an immediate solution to

T
solving congestion
• However, it has unintended consequences in the
long run

P
• Further leading to a state of addiction

N
• Maintaining supply constant and managing demand is
likely to be the fundamental and sustainable approach
• However, it will take time to see its benefits
 L
Benefits of demand side approach or TDM

E
• Better air quality
•

T
Lower health care costs
• Fighting climate change

P
• Conserved resources
• Reduced congestion

N
• Lower infrastructure costs
• Generate additional revenue
• Improved quality of life for communities Source: earthtimes.org

• Improved access to labor force

• Reduced parking demands
 L
Benefits of demand side approach or TDM

E
• The edge of demand side over supply side was
captured by a Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI)

T
study, where a comparison of the effectiveness to
achieve various objectives by the two approaches

P
were presented
Objective Widen Highways TDM program
Congestion Reduction + +

N
Road & parking savings - +
Consumer Savings (vehicle cost) - +
Transport choice - +
Road safety - +
Environment protection - +
Efficient Land use - +
Community Livability - +
 L
Classification of TDM

E
• Typically demand management programs include
both “carrot” and “stick” elements.

P T
N Source: urbansdgplatform.org
 L
Classification of TDM

E
• TDM measures can be broadly classified
in the following:

T
• Those that discourages car use (Push

P
measures)

N
• Those that encourages the use of
alternative modes of transport (Pull
measures)
 L
Classification of TDM

TE
N P Based on instrument used

Based on modes
 L
Classification of TDM: Examples

E
• Some of the TDM measures classified in push and pull
categories are given below:

T
PUSH PULL
Road pricing Integrated transit system

P
Congestion pricing BRTS, bus lanes. LRT

Sales Tax/ Import duties Bicycle lanes, park and ride

N
Speed limits Car sharing, bike sharing

Traffic calming Pedestrian zones

Parking fees Street design for space allocation

Tickets, fines , towing Awareness, car free days

 L
Challenges

E
• Although there are many studies that look at the
impact of a single TDM policy on society, few studies

T
focus on the impact of multiple.

P
• Apart from silo approach, another lacuna has been

N
observed in the TDM measure selection process
regarding how a measure should be selected?
 L
Combining push and pull

E
Text Reference
In order to achieve significant total impacts, it is usually necessary to develop a (Broaddus et al.,
TDM strategy that includes an appropriate set of measures. 2009).

T
Implementing several TDM policies may cover more individual trips and may (M. Habibian &
be more effective than implementing a single policy Kermanshah, 2011)
Multi instrumentality could possibly overcome some of the identified (Vieira, Moura, &

P
weaknesses and eventually enhance the strengths of single implementation Manuel Viegas,
2007)
The integration should be designed to serve agreed objectives of transport (May, Kelly, &
policy, rather than being an objective in its own right Shepherd, 2006)

N
This suggests that "carrot" and "stick" TDM strategies may be much more (Federal Highway
effective when implemented together than when either is implemented alone Administration,
(i.e., they interact positively) 2015)
Combining push measures with measures facilitating alternative travel options (Eriksson et al.,
in order to increase acceptability. 2008)
There appears to be a consensus that a package of measures needs to be (Loukopoulos,
introduced consisting of coercive measures that break a habit and non- 2007)
coercive measures encouraging the use of other modes
 E L
T
 http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk/

P
 https://www.vtpi.org/tdm/
 Book: Travel demand management and Public policy by Eric ferguson

N
 E L
P T
 The concept of TDM and its need in the current times
 The limitations of supply side approach and induced demand

N
 The push and pull classification of TDM measures
 Challenges involved in TDM
 Combining push and pull measures as a solution
 E L
P T
N
 E L
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMODAL URBAN

P T
N
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Arkopal K Goswami, PhD
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

Module 04: Urban Transport & Sustainability

Lecture 42: Push measures cases
 E L
 Congestion pricing
 Parking pricing

P T
N
 Vehicular restrictions
 Traffic calming
 L
Congestion pricing

E
• Congestion charging is a traffic

T
management measure targeted for the
purpose of reducing traffic congestion.

P
• It is a type of road pricing with higher fees
under congested conditions as a way to

N
reduce traffic volumes to optimal levels. Source: Wikipedia

• The idea is to make the trip makers realize

that they are adding to the traffic and it
should be compensated.
 L
Congestion pricing: Economic concept

TE
N P
Source: https://wernerantweiler.ca/
 L
Congestion pricing

E
• Ideally, the charging system should vary over

T
time ,location, user type, vehicle type, etc.

P
• This type of variation in congestion charge
will ensure equity and fairness.

N
• For example, adjusting pricing every fifteen
minutes to shift travelers from peak to off-
peak time.
 L
Congestion pricing: Types

E
There are several specific ways to
implement congestion charging:

T
• Cordon ring: A fee is paid when a

P
vehicle crosses a cordon to enter a
central area, usually only during peak

N
hours.

Source: theconversation.com/

• Area license: Vehicles purchase a day

license to enter a central area.
 L
Congestion pricing: Types

E
There are several specific ways to
implement congestion charging:

T
• Corridor: Vehicles using a specific

P
road, lane, tunnel or bridge are charged a
fee.

N
• Network: Vehicles are charged a per Source: www.gjel.com/
kilometer fee for use of entire road
network, or portion of the network (e.g.
national motorways)
 L
Congestion pricing: Types

E
Cordon ring Area license Corridor Network

T
All vehicles entering a All vehicles operating All vehicles using tolled Vehicles pay for each
certain central city within a central city road, bridge, or tunnel kilometer travelled on
zone defined by a area during certain pay a flat fee. In some a road network. Fees
cordon are charged a times are charged a cases, the fee changes may be differentiated

P
Description flat fee when they daily fee. dynamically based on by type of vehicle,
cross the boundary at peak use times. emissions class, roads
peak use times. used, and/or peak use
times.

N
Aim Reduce traffic Reduce traffic Reduce congestion on Reduce congestion,
congestion in central congestion in central the corridor (also increase efficiency (also
area area finance a specific road finance transport
or bridge) infrastructure)

Technology Toll plazas and/or Plate-recognition Toll plazas and/or tag On-board units and
plate-recognition cameras and beacon system GPS satellites
cameras with on-board units
 L
Congestion pricing: Examples

E
• Congestion pricing has very few
implemented case around the world.

T
• Some of the successful implementation

P
cities include the following:

• London central district

N
• Stockholm
• Singapore Source: www.citymetric.com/

• Some tried but failed cases include

Edinburg, UK and New York, USA
 L
Congestion pricing: Examples

E
• Successful cases have demonstrated significant
reduction in traffic volumes and increase in the

T
acceptability of the congestion pricing amongst
people after implementation.

P
Cities Reduction in traffic volume

N
London -30 %
Stockholm -20 %
Singapore -50 %
Milan -34 %
 L
Parking pricing

E
• Parking pricing is a TDM measure to
make the private motorist feel the price

T
of occupying the precious land in urban
area.

P
• It may also be applied to recover the cost

N
of parking facilities built in urban area.
Source: www.passmember.org

• It has been researched that vehicles

remain in use only 5% of the time and
95% time it is parked.
 L
Parking pricing

E
• Parking price changes are usually implemented
by local governments or individual businesses.

T
• For the most convenient spaces use a

P
progressive price structure to favor short-term
users i.e. increase in price with time.

N
• The price of parking is determined by doing
survey on parking capacity and occupancy time.
Source: www.parkme.com
• Usually optimum parking price are adjusted such
that few parking spots remain free to avoid
cruising of vehicles
 L
Parking pricing: Tools

E
Tools Description

T
Pass Parkers purchase and display a pass. Common for leased parking.
Single-Space Meters Parkers prepay a mechanical or electronic meter located at each
space.

P
Pay Box Parkers prepay into a box with a slot for each space.
Pay-And-Display Meters Parkers prepay a meter, which prints a ticket that is displayed in
their vehicle window.

N
Electronic Pay-Per-Space Parkers prepay an electronic meter.
In-Vehicle Meter Parkers prepay to use a small electronic meter displayed in the
vehicle when it is parked, that counts down minutes.
Attendant Parkers pay an attendant when entering or leaving a parking space.
 L
Parking pricing: Tools

TE
P
Source: www.odt.co.nz

Source: www.ticketprinting.com

N
Source: www.urbanmilwaukee.com
Source: www.alamy.com
 L
Vehicular restrictions

E
• These policies and regulations which restrict car
access in congested area.

T
• It is done by limiting parking, closing some streets

P
to cars, and prohibiting cars from circulating in
certain areas or at peak hours.

N
• Car-free zones are getting increased popularity,
as well as car-free days.

• Another way of restricting and reducing number

of vehicles is vehicular number plate restriction.
This is also called as odd/even measure
 L
Vehicular restrictions

E
• Vehicle restriction policies brings in immense
benefits to pedestrian and cyclists.

P T
• This helps in decrease in crashes in the zone,
improved air quality and improved liability.

N
• Contrary to popular belief, the local business also
gets benefitted because of less motorized
vehicles.
 L
Vehicular restrictions

E
Car free zone in New York city

P T
N Source: https://gothamist.com/
 L
Traffic calming

E
• Traffic calming refers to various design features and strategies
intended to reduce vehicle traffic speeds and volumes

T
• Traffic calming projects can range from minor modifications

P
of an individual street to comprehensive redesign of a road
network.

N
• Mainly traffic calming measures are implemented on urban
streets, especially in residential areas.

• Rumble strips, speed tables, raised crosswalks, chicanes, tight

corner radii, semi diverters, pavement treatments etc. are
few traffic calming measures.
 L
Traffic calming

E
Rumble strips

T
Chicanes

N P
Pavement
treatments

Tight radii
 E L
T
 Textbook: Travel demand management and Public policy by Eric Ferguson

P
 Additional reading material:

N
 http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk/

 https://www.vtpi.org/tdm/
 E L
P T
• Congestion pricing concept, types, economics behind congestion
pricing, example

N
• Parking pricing concept and types based on tools used in parking

• Vehicular restrictions concept, application, benefits

• Traffic calming need, concept, uses, examples.

 E L
P T
N
 E L
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMODAL URBAN

P T
N
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Arkopal K Goswami, PhD
Ranbir and Chitra School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 04: Urban Transport & Sustainability
Lecture 43: Pull measure cases
 E L
P T
 Bus Rapid Transit System, bus lanes and priority
 Pedestrian infrastructure improvement, pedestrian zones,

N
crosswalks and side walks
 Bicycling infrastructure improvement, lanes, bike sharing
 L
Improving transit

E
• Improve transit services is generally done by working

T
on the framework conditions for vehicle operators and
by dedicating more public resources toward capital
improvements.

P
• Improved transit has always been on radar of policy
makers as a TDM measure as it is cheap and easier to

N
Source: www.business-standard.com/

work on rather than a new system like metro.

• Most tier 1 and 2 cities have some form of PT bus

service, which requires modernization and
improvements.
 L
Improving transit

E
Integrated services:
• Many cities have multiple public transport operators, such as

T
different bus companies, or different local governments.

• Often the route networks and schedules are not well

P
coordinated. Integrated services helps customers to navigate
the system.

N
• Fare integration is another component which can improve the
ease of use.

• Typical urban public transport services are a mix of various

vehicles like commuter rails, light rails, street cars, bus, BRTS,
ferry, etc.
 L
Improving transit

E
Buss Rapid Transit System (BRTS)

• Bus rapid transit (BRT) is a broad term for bus

T
systems designed to provide service quality
similar to rail transit.

P
• This includes having fixed bus ways to high

N
Source: www.indianinfrastructure.com/
frequency service, attractive stations, quick
boarding systems and features to minimize delay.

• BRT right-of-ways may be created at-grade within

an existing roadway, or at an elevated grade.
 L
Improving transit

E
Bus Lanes

• Dedicated bus lanes are a physical measure

T
which improves bus reliability by allowing buses
to move separately from congested traffic, and

P
without merging with normal traffic.

N
Source: www.deccanherald.com/
• Wherever a comprehensive BRTS system is not
possible, simple bus lanes can be a feasible
solution.
 L
Improving transit

E
Bus related other measure

T
• Bus priority at intersection is a technical
measure that helps buses travel faster and
improves reliability is signal prioritization.

P
• Using telematics technology, the traffic signal
knows that a bus is approaching and reacts in

N
Source: www.activetrans.org

order to allow the bus to pass.

• Improving infrastructure like bus stops, shelters,

bus transfer stations, and rail stations to attract
more ridership
 L
Improving transit

TE
N P?
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

T
• Developing cities often have a high mode share
of people walking.

P
• Pedestrian infrastructure serves those walking
along or across roads, ranging from sidewalks to
Source: www.wired.com
over- passes and tunnels to signals and

N
crosswalks.

• Sidewalks and paths must accommodate many

uses and types of users.
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

T
• Sidewalks and paths contain various types of
“furniture” such as signposts, parking meters, mail
boxes, garbage cans and sometimes café seating.

P
• A basic step is to conduct an evaluation of the
Source: www.selector.com
walking conditions, or walkability, of an area and

N
give the amenities according.

• Walkability takes into account the quality of

pedestrian facilities, roadway conditions, land use
patterns, community support, security and
comfort for walking.
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

TE
Source: www.spacing.ca

NP Source: www.nationalgeographic.com
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Crosswalks and side walks

T
• All urban roads should have safe areas for people
walking with a segregated walk way.

P
• Crossing roads is a critical safety issue for those walking.
Source: www.natco.org

• Ideally people are always able to cross at a zebra

N
crossing, a traffic signal or signed mid-block crossing.

• For higher speed arterials with few traffic signals may

require a separate facility for pedestrians, such as a
pedestrian overpass or tunnel.
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Crosswalks and side walks

P T
N ?
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Pedestrian zones

T
• In areas of the city where foot traffic is very high, it may
be appropriate to close or significantly restrict vehicle
traffic.

P
• Pedestrian zones are usually in city centres where

N
streets are narrower, and in shopping or market areas.

• Streets in these areas may restrict normal traffic

circulation, but permit resident, delivery and public
transport vehicles operating at very low speeds
 L
Improving pedestrian infrastructure

E
Pedestrian zones

P T Source: www.pintrest.com

N
Source: www.weburbaniste.com
Source: www.toposmagazine.com
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
• Many developing cities have a high mode
share of people bicycling, but retaining it

T
is a challenge.

P
• In most cases motorway shoulders and
sidewalks that have no special designation
or design features for cycling.

N
Source: www.welovecycling.com

• It is therefore important to design,

maintain and manage all of these facilities
to accommodate cycling.
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
Bicycle lanes

T
• Bicycle lanes are a physical measure which improves
safety and comfort for cyclists, as well as legitimizing
their place on the road for drivers.

P
• They are usually most necessary on narrow or busy
arterial roads, where conflicts with cars are more likely.

N
• Some cities provide bicycle lanes adjacent to roads,
either at the same grade but separated by bollards or
other barrier, or designated within the pedestrian area.
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
Bicycle lanes
Source: www.welovecycling.com

P T
N
Source: www.momentummag.com

Source:
www.bicycledutch.wordpress
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
Bicycle parking

T
• Sufficient bicycle racks should be located in
shopping areas and outside of bus and train
stations.

N P
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
Bicycle sharing

T
• Cities can assist such potential bicyclists by providing free
or low-cost bicycles for public use.

P
• Often the bicycles are owned by a company that rents
them out, or provided by a charitable organization.

N
• Bike sharing systems are often provided at transit
stations to improve the accessibility and ensure “last mile
connectivity”.
 L
Improving bicycle infrastructure

E
Bicycle sharing Source: www.yovizags.com

P T
N
Source: m.patrica.com

Source: www.moneycrashers.com
 E L
T
 http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk/

P
 https://www.vtpi.org/tdm/
 Book: Travel demand management and Public policy by Eric ferguson

N
 E L
P T
• Bus rapid transit system and its benefits

• Bus lanes and priority at intersection to attract passengers

N
• Bicycle infrastructures like lane, parking, cross over bridges and its
impacts on safety and use of bicycle

• Importance of pedestrian infrastructure like cross walk and side walks

• Concept of pedestrian zones

 E L
P T
N
 E L
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMODAL URBAN

P T
N
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Arkopal K Goswami, PhD
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 04: Urban Transport & Sustainability
Lecture 44: Parking Studies
 E L
 Types of parking facilities

P T
 Benefits and drawbacks of parking system

N
 Methodology of parking studies
 Parking analysis
 L
Parking

E
Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and leaving it
unoccupied.

T
Types of Parking Facilities

P
• On Street Parking Facilities – Parking are provided alongside the curb on
one or both sides of the street

N
• Off-Street parking Facilities – Parking facilities are provided at a separate
place but not on the streets. These facilities may be private or public
which includes surface lots and garages
 L
Parking Facilities – On-street Parking

TE
Parking are provided alongside the
curb on one side of the street

P
Source: Marco.org

N
Parking are provided alongside the
curb on both sides of the street

Source: The New York times

 L
Parking Facilities – Off-street Parking

TE
P
Source: Hans India
Source: We are Gurgaon

N Source: Cycling embassy of Denmark

 E L
Benefits and Drawbacks of Parking system
Good Parking Management

T
• Increase in automobile occupancy

P
• Decrease in person trips
• Faster travel times

N
• Increase in transit usage
• Decrease in congestion
• Reduction in emissions
• Generates economy
 E L
Benefits and Drawbacks of Parking system
Inadequate Parking Management

T
• Congestion

P
• Parking maneuvering accidents
• Environment pollution- i.e. noise and air pollution

N
• Obstruction to emergency vehicles
 L
Parking Terminology

E
• Space Hour: Unit of parking that defines the use of a single

T
parking space for a period of one hour
• Parking Accumulation: Number of parked vehicles

P
in a parking facility at a specified time. Data can
be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation Source: Garber and Hoel

N
against time

• Parking Load: Area under the accumulation curve between

two specific times (expressed in space-hours)
 L
Parking Terminology

E
• Parking Volume: Total number of vehicles using a parking facility during a specified
length of time in a day

T
• Parking Turnover: The rate at which a parking space is used. Obtained by dividing the

P
parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces

• Parking Deficiency: Extent to which demand exceeds supply; in terms of

N
parking spaces
• Parking Duration: Length of time a particular vehicle is parked in a
specified parking space.
 L
Parking Terminology

E
• Average Parking Duration: It is the ratio between the total vehicle hours and the number
of vehicles parked

T
𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Parking duration=
𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

P
• Parking Index: It is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of the
number of bays occupied in a time duration to total space available

N
𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Parking i𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱 = X 100
𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
 L
Methodology of Parking Studies

E
A Comprehensive parking study involves

1. Inventory of existing parking facilities

T
2. Identification of parking generators
3. Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and

P
parking duration
4. Measuring parking demand

N
In addition, information related to financial, legal and administration
matters may also be collected
 L
Parking Standards

E
Recommended Equivalent Car Space(ECS) based on land use type

• Residential Plot (Plotted Housing) – 2 ECS in plots of size

T
250-300 sqm
• Hotel – 3 ECS per 100 sqm of floor area
• Local Shopping Centre – 2 ECS per 100 sqm of floor area

P
• Retail & Commerce Metropolitan city centre level – 3 ECS
per 100 sqm of floor area
• Community Hall – 3 ECS per 100 sqm of floor area

N
• Integrated Office Complex – 1.8 ECS per 100 sqm of floor
area
• Hospitals – 2 ECS per 100 sqm of floor area
• Industry – 2 ECS per 100 sqm of floor area
Source: URDPFI Guidelines, 2015. Ministry of Urban Development
 L
Regulate on-street parking

E
• Prohibit parking
• Near intersections

T
• Narrow streets

P
• Pedestrian crossings
• Near structures

N
• Entrance of driveways
• Limit free parking
• Parking meters
 L
Types of Parking Surveys

E
The common parking surveys conducted are:
1. In-out survey – Man power required is very less

T
• Occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning
• Number of vehicles entering and leaving at particular time intervals is counted

P
• Final Occupancy can be taken but parking duration and turn out cannot obtained

N
2. License plate method of survey – Man power required is very high
• Provides the most accurate and realistic results
• Every parking lot is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 min and license
plate is noted
• Duration for which particular vehicle is parked can be obtained
 L
Parking Terminology-Illustration • Parking volume(PV) = No. of vehicle = 5 veh

E
• Parking load(PL) = (1+2+1+0+1+2+3)*15/60

T
= 2.75 veh-hr
• Average parking duration = PL/PV=

P
2.75/5 = 33 min
5 veh/2hours
• Parking turnover =
3 bays

N
=0.83 veh/hr/bay

2.75 veh hr
• Parking index = X100
3∗2 veh hr
=45.83%
 L
Parking Analysis

E
N
• Parking Demand D   (n i t i )
i 1

T
D = space vehicle-hours of demand for a specified period of time
N = number of classes of parking duration ranges

P
ti = avg parking duration of the ith class
ni = no. of vehicles parked for the ith duration range N
S  f  (ti )

N
• Parking Supply i 1
S = no. of space-hours of supply for a specific period of time
N = no. of parking spaces available
ti = total length of time (hrs) when the ith space can be legally parked in
during the specified period
f = efficiency factor
 L
Numerical Problem #1

E
The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed that 20%

T
of those wishing to park are turned back every day during the open
hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis

P
of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are
commuters, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the
remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20%

N
of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers,
and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine
demand and the number of additional spaces required to meet the
excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90.
 L
Numerical Problem #1– Solved

E
N
Step 1  Calculate the space-hours of demand using D   (n i t i )

T
i 1

• N=2 (Commuters and Shoppers)

• Number of commuter vehicles parked = (n1)=0.6*200

P
• Average parking duration of commuters = (t1) = 9 hr Currently Served
• Number of shoppers vehicles parked = (n2) = 0.4*200
•

N
Average parking duration of Shoppers = (t2) = 2 hr

• Total Number of Vehicles turned away = 200*0.2 = 50 veh

• Number of commuter vehicles turned away = (n1)=0.2*50
Turned away
• Average parking duration of commuters = (t1) = 9 hr vehicles
• Number of shoppers vehicles turned away= (n2) = 0.8*50
• Average parking duration of Shoppers = (t2) = 2 hr
 L
Numerical Problem #1– Solved

E
Total space hours of demand = {Total space hours served} + {Total space hours for
turned away}

T
= {(0.6*200*9)+(0.4*200*2)}+{(0.2*50*9)+(0.8*50*2)}
= {1080+160}+{90+80}

P
= 1240+170
Total space hours of demand = 1410 space-hr

N
N

Step 2 Determine additional parking spaces required using S  f  (ti )

i 1
• S = no. of space-hours of supply = 170 space-hr
• ti = total length of time between 8am to 6 pm (hrs) = 10 hrs
• f = efficiency factor = 0.9
• N = no. of parking spaces available =?
 L
Numerical Problem #1– Solved

E
N

• Number of parking spaces required S  f  (t ) = 170 space-hr

T
i
i 1

0.9*10*N = 170 space-hr

N= 18.89 ≈ 19 Space

P
At least 19 additional spaces will be required

N
 E L
T
 Traffic and Highway Engineering. 5th Edition—Garber & Hoel. Cengage Learning

P
 Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI)

N
guidelines, Volume I (January 2015). Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India. http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/URDPFI%20Guidelines%20Vol%20I.pdf
 E L
T
• Parking management results in both advantages and disadvantages to

P
urban traffic

• On street parking and off street parking are two different types of

N
parking facilities and has their own benefits and drawbacks

• Parking studies needs to conduct to understand the demand and

supply of parking space in an facility
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P T
N
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INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMODAL URBAN

P T
N
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Arkopal K Goswami, PhD
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 04: Urban Transport & Sustainability
Lecture 44: Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
 E L
P T
 Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
 Different Scales of TOD

N
 Guiding Principles of TOD
 L
Transit Oriented Development (TOD)

E
• Creating concentrated nodes of moderate-to-high
density developments supporting a balanced mix of

T
land uses around transit stations

P
Source: transportpolicy2013

• Encourage compact growth all within a 5-10

N
minute walk from quick and efficient public
transit and promote ‘live, work, play, shop
and learn’ in a pedestrian-friendly
environment – without the need of a car

Source: Centre for TOD

 L
Factors Driving the Trend Towards TOD

E
• Rapidly growing personal motor vehicles usage

T
• Traffic congestion nation-wide

• Decrease in public transportation share

P
• Growing desire for quality urban lifestyle

N
• Growing desire for more walkable lifestyles and safety from traffic

• Irregular growth of city and decrease of green cover in an urban area

• Growing national support for Smart Growth

 L
Components of TOD

E
• Walkable design with pedestrian as the highest priority
• Mass transit station as prominent feature of town center

T
• A regional node containing a mixture of uses in close proximity (office, residential,
retail, civic)

P
• High density, walkable district within 10-minute walk circle surrounding train station
• Collector support transit systems including intermediate public transport,

N
light rail, and buses, etc.
• Reduced and managed parking inside 10-minute walk circle around town
center / train station
• Specialized retail at stations serving commuters and locals including cafes,
grocery, shopping malls, etc.
 L
Benefits of TOD

E
• To have expanded mobility choices to reduce dependence on the private
vehicle

T
• Affordable housing and to improve economic opportunity

P
• Ensure environmental sustainability
• Safe infrastructure for pedestrian and cycling

N
• Increased transit ridership and fare revenue
• Reduction in vehicles miles travelled (VMT) and congestion on roads
• Well connected land use and transport network
 L
Different scales of TOD
Development at one
1. Region or City Scale 2. Corridor Scale

E
station other stations,
result in a network of
transit oriented

T
places, a strong real
estate market and

P
local demand for
retail and services.

N
Result in improved connections between people and
jobs, and help ensure that disadvantaged communities
share the benefits of improved access to opportunity Source: Centre for TOD
 L
3. Station Area 4. Project Area

E
Planning for individual
streets and public
spaces and can have a

T
very big impact on
peoples mode of
choice of transport

N P
Typically focus on neighborhoods within a half mile
radius of stations, and on promoting walkability, a good
mix of uses and improved transit access and ridership. Source: Centre for TOD
 L
TOD Guidance Document – MoUD, India

E
• The primary objective National Urban
Transport Policy principles to achieve a

T
paradigm shift
• Documents are envisioned to assist various

P
government organizations, public authorities
and development professionals

N
• Embarking on the process of integrating
sustainable transport planning principles in
diverse urban contexts
 L
Principles of TOD- 12 TOD Guiding Principles, 9 TOD Supportive principles

TE
N P
Source: TOD Guidance Document
 L
1. Multimodal Integration

E
Seamless integration between transit modes, systems, and routes, while accommodating
efficient connections to all modes of access to and from the station

T
Goals:
• Create clear, direct, and short transfers

P
between transit modes and routes

• Minimize travel time and cost for

N
maximum commuters

• Prioritize pedestrians, cycling, public

transportation, and IPT

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
2. First & Last Mile Connectivity

E
Users must complete the first and last portion on their own: either by walking, bicycling,
feeder buses or other IPT modes including cycle-rickshaws, auto-rickshaws, or taxis

T
Goals:
• Reduce the distance and time it takes

P
people to travel from their origins to
stations and from stations to

N
destinations

• Induce modal shift from personal

Source: TOD Guidance Document
vehicles by providing viable mobility
options
 L
3. Interconnected Street Network

E
Reduces congestion, encourages travel choice, and reduces distances between places as well
as travel times

T
Goals:
• Routes providing direct connections

P
between transit station and other area
destinations

N
• Identify a clear hierarchy of streets to
accommodate a wide range of traffic
patterns
• Disperse high traffic volumes over
Source: TOD Guidance Document multiple parallel human-scale streets
 L
4. Design Complete Streets

E
Designed and operated to enable safe access for all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists,
motorists and transit riders of all ages and abilities

T
Goals:
• Create a balance between the

P
movement of pedestrians, cyclists,
transit, and vehicles

N
• Promote equitable allocation of RoW for
balanced allocation of space and modes.

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
5. NMT Network

E
Continuous sidewalk network is pivotal in serving as safe rights-of-way for pedestrians to
travel between destinations

T
Goals:
• Shift the balance of the roadway so that

P
it caters more to NMT users
• Increase safety and comfort on the

N
sidewalk for NMT users
• Provide enough room on the sidewalk
for NMT users of varying speeds, ages,
and abilities

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
6. Traffic Calming

E
Slow or reduce motor-vehicle traffic in order to improve safety for pedestrians and bicyclists

T
Goals:
• Emphasize pedestrian and cyclist

P
safety, comfort and convenience
to improve accessibility to transit

N
stations
• Decrease speeds along heavily
trafficked streets to protect multi-
modal users near transit stations

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
7. Mixed Land Uses

E
Mixing of land uses- jobs and residential- justifies higher service frequencies and promotes
high ridership levels
Goals:

T
• Promote more efficient land use patterns
at a city scale by providing residents

P
access to different land use
• Large single land uses located along

N
transit alignments should be encouraged
to redevelop into higher density, mixed-
Source: TOD Guidance Document
use forms
• Encourage multiple functions in the same
building
 L
8. Optimized Densities

E
To optimize employment and residential densities along a transit corridor or station area
based on carrying capacities of transit and NMT infrastructure

T
Goals:
• Encourage enforcement of differential

P
increase in density regulations
• Ensure densities are strategically

N
distributed across the urban area
• Utilize density bonusing or premium
FARs as a tool to attract development
Source: TOD Guidance Document
 L
9. Street Oriented Buildings

E
Ground-level activity and uses along main streets, key intersections, station areas and
parking garages to accommodate retail and other ‘active uses’ with transparent facades

T
Goals:
• Provide natural surveillance and “eyes

P
on the street” for pedestrian safety

• Develop regulations to integrate the

N
public realm street edge treatment

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
10. Managed Parking

E
Travel demand management tool to discourage personal vehicle usage, reduce parking
demand, and promote sustainable mobility opportunities

T
Goals:
• Reduce vehicular trips within Station
Area

P
• Maximize development opportunities on
public lands surrounding the transit

N
station
• Area based approach to parking
management and reduction with a
priority placed on NMT/ IPT/ feeder bus

Source: TOD Guidance Document

 L
11. Informal Sector Integration

E
Achieving inclusive development in TODs through integration of the informal sector

T
Goals:
• Ensure that TOD plans enable equitable
distribution of benefits to all sections of

P
the society
• Provide and promote a supportive

N
environment for earning livelihoods to
the street vendors ensuring absence of
congestion
Source: TOD Guidance Document • Address integration of informal
residential areas as part of TOD
redevelopment projects
 L
12. Housing Density

E
Diversity of housing choices that includes a mixture of types, styles, price ranges and tenure
within a 10-minute walking distance from a transit station

T
Goals:
• Access to a range of housing options

P
within their affordability limits within a
10-minute walking/ cycling distance

N
from a transit station
• Ensure a minimum supply of affordable
housing options for low and medium
income population
Source: TOD Guidance Document
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T
 TOD 203: Transit Corridors and TOD, Connecting the Dots. Reconnecting America, Centre

P
for Transit Oriented Development. http://ctod.org/pdfs/tod203.pdf
 TOD Guidance Document (2016). Consultancy Services for Developing Guidance

N
Documents for Transit Oriented development (TOD), Non-motorized Transport(NMT) and
Public Bicycle Sharing (PBS). Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India
http://mohua.gov.in/cms/sustain-sutp-tod.php
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P T
• TOD may be the solution to inhibit the rapid motorization and
congestion

N
• Implementation of TOD results in transportation, social, environmental
and cultural benefits

• The 12 guiding principles of TOD helps in successful implementation of

TOD in an Urban area
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N