Kristine Georgia Y.

Po Coal Mining
BSEM – V Engr. Nathaniel D. Tiu
ACTIVITY 2

1. Enumerate the “TEN (10) Geologic Factors Affecting Coal Formation” and discuss each
of these factors and why does it affect the formation of coal.

• Climate – is a factor that affects coal formation because the amount of rain and sun
can determine the growth and nutrients of the plants that in the future would be peat
and in later, favorable conditions, would turn to coal.
• Vegetation – there are a lot of varieties of the plants growing in the marsh and also
there is a difference on how they are being preserved or how they decompose.
• Humidity – humidity of the environment where previous vegetation grow also
contributes to the moisture content of the coal.
• Water source of the swamp – the water source of swamp or marsh can affect coal
formation as it determines what nutrients or minerals the peat will have and how
are they going to be preserved. Meaning, there will be variation of the coal process
formation if the water source is the sea or the freshwater.
• Aerobic or anaerobic conditions – since peat is formed by the partial decomposition
of the buried vegetation, anaerobic conditions are more favorable for coal formation
since it prevents the total decomposition of the peat.
• Location – the location or the geophysical structure of where the marsh or swamp
is situated can affect the coal formation, such as the altitude or elevation can
determine if that specific location will be submerged by water sources, that aids in
coal formation processes.
• Time and temperature – these are also geologic factors that affects coal formation
as different ranks of coal are determined by how long they are beneath the crust.
Higher temperatures promote coalification as it removes moisture and volatile
materials, producing coals of higher ranks.
• Heat Sources – although being buried deeper will mean higher temperature for the
coal formation process, being near to heat sources such as volcanoes will also
promote coalification.
• Pressure – the overlying layers of the peat will produce pressure to it, leading to
more compaction and increased temperatures, producing coals in a long period of
time.
• Geochemical conditions - the acidity or alkalinity of the water present in the marsh
or swamp affects the peat and coal formation process. When the water is more
acidic, the bacterial activity is decreased, preserving the organic matter in the peat.
2. Enumerate at least “Five (5) Factors that Affects Coal Quality” and discuss each of these
factors and why does it affect the quality of coal.

• Organic matter- this includes the plants; the plant remains and the organisms in it.
Peat formation depends on the type of plants involved. Lignite for example, its
origin is mostly of plants with resin, reason why lignite has high volatile matter.
• Biogeochemical processes – it refers to decomposition and degradation of the plant
matter brought by oxygen and organisms – macro- and microorganisms. These
decomposition and degradation processes determines the resulting coal. The
decomposition of the plant matter also varies in every part of a plant or tree, also
leading to the variation of resulting coal quality.
• Location – including the geological location, such as topography and altitude, the
climate and the water bodies around. Marshes or swamps located near bodies of
water will experience being submerged or flooded more, bringing mineral matter
in it. However, in coastlines and riverbanks, the peat mass will be washed off,
affecting the coal formation. In terms of climate, the amount of rainfall in the
location of marshes or swamps will determine which plants and the quality of the
plant growth, and also contributes to the amount of water that will submerge the
peat mass.
• Mineral matter – it refers to the mineral matter from the soil, water, eroded or
transported sediments and volcanic ash that may absorbed in the peat mass. The
mineral matter of the resulting coal will be determined by the origin of the
sediments. Sediments from rivers may be iron-rich and sediments from the sea may
be rich in sulfur.
• Pressure and temperature – the combined increase in pressure and temperature
further promotes coalification, with varying pressure and temperature results in
varying quality of the coal. Higher temperature and pressure mean removal of
undesired, volatile materials; meaning water, oxygen and other constituents will be
replaced with higher proportions of fixed carbon.

3. What are the abnormal conditions found in Coal? Explain each of these conditions.

• Surface mining is taking place –when a place is disturbed and being stripped or dug
out, it affects the coal seams as it is being exposed to the air. Oxidation and
weathering may occur.
• Igneous intrusions are abundant – it changes the quality of the coal because the coal
will be heated, which may also lead to oxidation.
• Groundwater is stored within the seam – this will lead to a more difficult, more
costly handling of the coal because it will become brittle and prone to pressure. It
also affects the coal evaluation for market purposes.
 • Rock movements, folding and faulting has occurred – also leads to a more difficult
and handling of the coal because of its brittleness.
• Coal has been stockpiled untended and unprotected for some time – when left
unattended, stockpiled coal can create combustion that degrades the quality of coal.

4. Enumerate at least “Three (3) most common mineral found in Coal and explain the
advantages and disadvantages of this minerals present in coal.

• Clay is the most abundant and widely spread in coal. Clay, due to its abundance
and very fine size is often difficult to remove. The presence of clay in coal is
undesirable as affects the grindability of the coal conversion process because of its
uneven granular structure and does not contribute to its heating value.
• Quartz can also be found in coal seams. Since quartz consists of silicon and oxygen
atoms, quartz has been identified as a carcinogenic as the silicon dust produces
adverse effect on the human's respiratory system. Silicon is also an element of the
ash content measured for coal quality. The more ash content, the lower the quality
of the coal. Quartz can be the cause of rapid wear of mills and ducts due to their
abrasive nature.
• Pyrite and marcasite -found in all coals. Pyrite contains iron sulphide minerals,
which sulfur, is an undesirable element in coal. More sulfur, the lower the quality
of the coal. Iron sulphide minerals will emit a greenhouse gas Sulfur Dioxide when
heated.

5. Discuss the “Three Macerals Group in Coal” and enumerate the sub maceral for each group
along with its definitions.

• Vitrinite Maceral Group - Vitrinite is formed from woody plant tissue and cell
walls, and contains telinite and collinite macerals. A high proportion (50 to 90
percent) of vitrinites are present in most coals. Appears grey in color, reflectance
of between darker liptinites and lighter inertinites.
o Telinite - the brighter parts of vitrinite that make up cell walls. Well-
preserved cell walls often filled with other material like resin or clay.
▪ Telinite 1
▪ Telinite 2
o Collinite (homogenous gel-like material) - clear vitrinite that occupies the
spaces between cell walls.
▪ Telocollinite - Well-preserved cell wall and cell filling forming
thick smooth homogeneous structureless layers.
▪ Gelocollinite - Homogeneous gel filling cavities.
▪ Desmocollinite - Fragmentary groundmass forming
 ▪ thin layers of collinite in clarite and trimacerite microlithotypes.
▪ Corpocollinite - Homogeneous detrital circular or oval bodies.
o Vitrodetrinite (detrital fragments) - Fragmentary detrital angular pieces.

• Inertinite Maceral Group - Is a group thought to have evolved from plant material
converted by extreme oxidation during the peat stage of coalification. Includes
fusinite, semi-fusinite, micrinite, macrinite, and sclerotinite. Inertinites are carbon-
rich. Much of the coals contain inertinites at 5 to 40 percent. When the coal in which
they occur is carbonized, the members usually experience no reaction or alteration.
o Fusinite - Fusinites have a charcoal-like appearance and an apparent cell
structure. The cells may be either empty or packed with mineral matter and
during compaction the cell walls may have been compressed (bogen
texture).
▪ Pyrofusinite - Well-preserved cell walls (extreme oxidation).
▪ Degradofusinite - Fragmentary detrital pieces of pyrofusinite.
o Semifusinite - Well to semi-preserved cell walls (partial oxidation).
o Secretinite (Sclerotinite) - Rounded to oval bodies of fungal or cellular
origin with well-preserved botanical structures (pores and shrinkage cracks)
in the centre.
o Micrinite - Small granules less than 2 μm in size.
o Macrinite - Amorphous groundmass structureless rounded fragments larger
than 30 μm in size (analogous to the collinite of the vitrinite group).
o Inertodetrinite - Detrital fragments of the above forms without any woody
cell structure; 2–30 μm in size.

• Liptinite Maceral Group - The group of liptinites makes up 5-15% of many coals.
Liptinites, such as cuticles, spores, and wound resins, are extracted from waxy or
resinous plant parts. In an individual sample, their reflectance values are typically
the lowest. Under ultraviolet light, the liptinites can fluoresce (i.e., luminesce due
to radiation absorption), but their optical properties approach those of the vitrinites
with increasing rank, and the two classes become identical.
o Sporinite - Spores are typically preserved as flattened spheroids. Micro-
macro- and megaspore exines (outer protective coats); usually compressed,
well-preserved, distinct botanical forms.
▪ Tenuisporinite
▪ Crassisporinite
▪ Microsporinite
▪ Macrosporinite
o Cutinite - Part of cross sections of leaves, often with crenulated surfaces.
Elongated, usually saw-toothed, well-preserved; distinct botanical forms.
o Resinite - Ovoid and sometimes translucent masses of resin. Globular or
irregular bodies; discrete forms, filling cellular cavities or amorphous
shapes in vitrinitic lenses.
 o Alginite - Algal colonies with rounded, elongate, semi-compressed; distinct
well-preserved in botanical forms.
o Liptodetrinite - Small detrital fragments of the above forms.

6. Differentiate the following terms and provide at least 5 examples for each of the term.

(a) syngenetic minerals vs epigenetic minerals

A syngenetic mineral is a mineral deposited formed concurrently with the rocks that
surround it.
Examples: clays, quartz, feldspar, apatite and muscovite

An epigenetic mineral is a mineral deposited and formed much later than the rocks which
enclose it.
Examples: calcite, dolomite, ankerite, siderite, pyrite

(b) included mineral matter excluded mineral matter

Included mineral matter is that which forms a discrete mineral grain within the coally
matrix, for example mineral grains of quartz and clay embedded in bands of vitrinite or
inertinite in the manner of currants within a bun.

Excluded mineral matter is that which is external to the coal or coal seam, namely particles
of sandstone or shale which may have been derived from roof or floor rocks above or below
the coal seam or from rock partings within the coal seam.

7. Explain what is CCSEM and QEMSCAN analyses?

CCESM (computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy) is used to determine the size,

structure, abundance and association of mineral grains in prepared coal, biomass, and
petroleum-coke samples.

QEMSCAN (Quantitative Evaluation of Materials by Scanning Electron Microscopy) is

the name of an advanced automated solution for mineralogy and petrography that provides
detailed analysis of fossils, rocks and man-made materials. It is a system that differs from
image analysis systems in that it is configured to measure mineralogical variability based
on chemistry at the micrometer-scale. It is a powerful process mineralogical tool currently
employed in the minerals industry.