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Logical Connectives

If two or more statements are joined, or connected, then we can form compound

statements. These compound statements are joined by logical connectives “and”,
“or”, “if then”, and “if and only if”. 

         

Table  2.1. Symbolic form of compound statements with p and q as simple

statements.

Statements are represented symbolically by lowercase letters (e.g.,p,q,r and s) and

new statements can be created from existing statements in many ways.
 

2. AND (^)

If p is the statement “It is raining” and q is the statement “The sun is
shining,” then the conjunction of p and q is the statement “It is raining and
the sun is shining” or, in symbol, “p^q” 

The conjunction of two statements p and q is true when both p and q are
true. This relationship is shown in Table 2.3.

p q p^q

T T T
T F F  
F T F
Table 2.3. Truth table for AND
F F F

3. OR (v)

The disjunction of statements p and q is the statement “p or q,” denoted by p

v q and is defined through its truth table in Table 2.4.

p q pvq

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
The statement “It will rain or the sun will shine” is true if it rains, the sun
shines, or it rains and the sun shines. That is, the inclusive “or” in p v q allows
for both p and q to be true.

4. IF THEN (à)

The statement “If p, then q”,  denoted by p→q(read as ”If p implies q”), is
called an implication or conditional statement; p is called the hypothesis, and
q is called the conclusion.

p q  p→q         If Sally passes the exam, then she will

get the job.
T T T                        (p)                                             
T F F (q)
F T T      A conditional statement is FALSE only
F F T when the hypothesis is true, but the           
conclusion  is false.

Given conditional      : “if p, then q”                      p→q;

The converse              : “if q, then p”                      q→p;

The inverse                 : “if not p, then not q”           (~p)→(~q);

The contrapositive     : “if not q, then not p”          (~q)→(~p):

 
Example. Consider again the conditional “If it is raining, then there are
clouds in the sky.” It seems reasonable to assume that this is true.

·     The converse would be “If there are clouds in the sky, then it is raining.”

This is not always true.

·     The inverse would be “If it is not raining, then there are not clouds in the
sky.” Likewise, this is not always true.

·     The contrapositive would be “If there are not clouds in the sky, then it is

not raining.” This statement is true, and is                   equivalent to  the
original conditional.

Conditiona Inverse
In Converse Contapositive
l
the p q ~p ~q
 q→p  (~p)→~
next  p→q  (~q)→(~p)
q
   T   T F F          T            T     T      T
   T F F      T F            T     T            F
F     T      T F      T F F T
F F      T      T           T            T     T            T       

truth table, it displays the various truth values for these four conditionals.

Table 2.6. 

Truth table of any conditional, contrapositive, converse and inverse

                          
Notice that the columns of truth values under the conditional p→q and its
contrapositive are the same. When this is the case, we say that the two
statements are logically equivalent. In general, two statements are logically
equivalent when they have the same truth tables. Similarly, the converse
of p→q and the inverse of p→q have the same truth table; hence, they, too, are
logically equivalent.

·         A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.

The converse and inverse of a conditional statement are logically equivalent.

5. IF AND ONLY IF (  ↔   )

The connective “ p if and only if q,” called a biconditional and written p↔q, is

the conjunction of p→q, and its converse q→p . That is, p↔q is logically
equivalent to (p→q)^(q→p) . The truth table of  p↔q follows.

p q p→q q→p (p→q)^(q→p) p↔q

T T T T T T
T F F T F F   A biconditional
F T T F F F statement is TRUE
F F T T T T when p and q are
both true or false .

Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.

No X are  Some X are Y.

Y.                                                                  
Some X are not Y. All X are Y
Some X are Y. No X are Y

Example 1. Write the negation of each of the following statements.

a.  Some airports are open.

b.  All movies are worth the price of admission.

c.  No odd numbers are divisible by 2.

Solution:        

 a.  No airports are open.

b.  Some movies are not worth the price of admission. 

c.  Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.

PRACTICE! 

Example 2. Write the negation of the following statements.

a.       All bears are brown.

b.       No smartphones are expensive.

c.       Some vegetables are not green.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

  

If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate
which simple statements are grouped together.

Table 2.9 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for some statements in
symbolic form.                             

If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to

indicate which simple statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a
comma are grouped together. See Table 2.10.

Table 2.10

English sentence The comma indicates that:

p, and q or not r. q and ~r are grouped together because they are both
on the same side of the comma.
p and q, or r. p and q are grouped together because they are both
on the same side of the comma.
If p and not q, then r or s. p and ~q are grouped together because they are both
to the left of the comma. 

r and s are grouped together because they are both

to the right of the comma.
TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTION

A tautology is a statement that is always true.

A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Truth table for  (p ^ q) v ~p

      p             q          p ^ q      ~p   (p ^ q) v ~p

T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T