FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & SURVEY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

B (ENG). CIVIL ENGINEERING
KAMPALA CAMPUS

CIV 3203: ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I

LECTURER: DR. MIRIA AGUNYO

ON-SITE SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

CASE STUDY: RUHIMBO CELL ISINGIRO TOWN COUNCIL

GROUP 13
S/N NAME OF STUDENT REG NO

1. AKANKWASA RONALD 19/2/328/W/390

2. ANKWASA PHILEMON 19/2/328/W/737

3. KAKURU DAUDI 19/2/328/W/1241

4. ASIIMWE OWEMBABAZI 19/2/328/W/582

5. WAMALA ARAFAT 19/2/328/W/597

6. ASIIMWE HERBERT 19/2/328/W/970

7. BATARINYEBWA JOEL 19/2/328/W/965

8. NATURINDA GILBERT 19/2/328/W/501

9. OMULE GERALD 19/2/328/W/1233

10. OSHABE BERETA 19/2/328/W/1201

11. MUTEBI EDWIN KASHOZI 18/2/328/W/1374

Introduction

Background

Wastewater management is one of the many basic strategies for keeping the environment clean
and safe for human habitation. The World Health Organization (WHO) stipulates that improved
sanitation facilities should hygienically separate waste water especially human excreta from
human contact.
Human excreta (urine and faeces) and other forms of wastewater generated from informal
settlements (commonly known as slums) in urban or peri-urban centres are poorly disposed due
to lack of proper sanitation technologies. They are predominantly disposed by use of unlined pit
latrines which are usually elevated to overcome periodic floods and flying toilets (use of
polythene bags for excreta disposal that are dumped into the surrounding environment) or open
defecation.
Furthermore, the other forms of wastewater released end up in drainage channels and un-utilised
pieces of land resulting in the creation of smelling stagnant water ponds which increases health
risks for those who get into contact with them such as children among others. This is a major
characteristic of informal settlements (slums) in urban and peri-urban centres.
One of the ways to deal with pollution streams in urban slums is through the provision of well-
functioning sanitation systems. Sanitation here refers to the management of human excreta, grey
water, solid waste and storm water. The main polluting constituents are pathogens that endanger
public health and nutrients that may cause eutrophication of surface waters and pollution of
groundwater. Human excreta management is the key to public health in urban slums since most
of the pathogens are of faecal origin. They form a major cause of disease transmission due to the
presence of pathogens in excreta and when mixed with wastewater, the pathogens flow
downstreamand spread in the environment especially during flooding (Feachemet al., 1983;
Prüss et al., 2002; Niwagaba et al., 2009).
Study Area

Ruhimbo Cell in Isingiro Town Council was selected as the study area due to its central location
and the environmental and household challenges its facing with regard to with regard to water
and sanitation hygiene.
Problem Statement

Due to urbanization, the population in Ruhimbo Cell Isingiro town council has increased hence
reduction in land space between one household to another. This has affected the use and
management of traditional sanitary technologies in the town.

Being on a flat terrain coupled with blocked drainage channels due to improper solid waste and
waste-water management, the area floods in rainy seasons to the extent that some houses and
sanitary facilities are affected which normally leads to recurrence of waterborne diseases and bad
odour across the areas.
Furthermore, the water table in this particular location is high hence the risk of ground water
pollution is high due to the poor sanitation of the area with regard to waste-water management
The current situation of the area poses health related risks to the community. Therefore better
sanitation technologies should be improvised so as to overcome the poor sanitation challenges.
Objectives

I. To identify the current excreta sanitation technologies used in Ruhimbo Cell Isingiro
Town Council.
II. To study the use and management of the current excreta sanitation technologies.
III. To propose appropriate excreta sanitation technologies.

Methodology

Study Design

The study was based in Ruhimbo Cell because it is centrally located in Isingiro Town Council
compared to the other cells (Rwengiri, Rwakaberegye and Kyabirukwa).
Figure 1: Isingiro District Map

Random sampling was used to get the households who helped in responding to the designed
close ended questionnaire. Twenty five households were randomly sampled as a representative
sample for Ruhimbo Cell (Population).

A close ended questionnaire adopted from part of the Joint Monitoring Program questions on
water, sanitation and hygiene for UNICEF and WHO was used during the survey.

The data used in the study was both primary and secondary. Primary data was from the field
through the questionnaire and inspection/observations. Secondary data was from existing
literature.

The methodology, data collection, analysis and presentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2
below.
Table 1: Methodology

No Objective Source of Type of Data Target Sample Size

Data Population
1 To identify the current Field Primary Households in 25 house-holds
excreta sanitation Ruhimbo Cell
technologies used in
Ruhimbo Cell Isingiro
Town Council
2 To study the use and Field Primary Households in 25 house holds
management of the Ruhimbo Cell
current excreta
sanitation technologies
3 To propose appropriate Existing Secondary - -
excreta sanitation Literature and
technologies benchmarking
on history of
success of
similar
technologies
Table 2: Data collection methods, tools, analysis and presentation methods

No Objective Data Collection Data Collection Tool Data Analysis and

Method Presentation
1 To identify the current Questionnaire Questionnaire, Tables and Pie Charts
excreta sanitation Notebook, Pen and from Microsoft Excel
technologies used in camera
Ruhimbo Cell Isingiro
Town Council
2 To study the use and Questionnaire, Questionnaire, Pie Charts and Text
management of the Visual Notebook, Pen and Explanations using
current excreta sanitation Inspection & camera Microsoft word
technologies observation
3 To propose appropriate Existing
excreta sanitation Literature basing
technologies on situational - -
analysis of the
study area

Table 3: Responses from the household survey

Ecological Flush
Dry Pit Pour Sanitation (Twin to
Latrine Flush Pit) Septic

Sanitation Technology 14 2 7 2
Yes 11 - 1 1
Shared
No 3 2 6 1
Located in own Yes 3 2 7 -
dwelling No 11 - - 2
Facility
Emptying 14 2 7 2
Covered in a
Disposal of pit 14 2 5 -
Excreta Don’t Know - 2 2
Situational Analysis

To study the current status of Ruhimbo Cell in Isingiro Town Council, a situational analysis
through the information gathered during field observations and using questionnaires was carried
out. That is primary data and information were mainly used for situational analysis. It was found
that;

 56% of the households use dry pit latrines raised and lined above the ground level due to the
fact that the place is prone to flooding, 28% use Eco-san facilities, 8% use pour flush and 8%
have flush to septic tank as illustrated in Figure 2 below.
 With regard to sharing sanitation facilities among households, it was found out that 52% are
shared while 48% are not shared as illustrated in Figure 3 below. Of the shared facilities, the
dry pit latrines are the mostly shared. This is attributed to ease of use as explained by the
households.
 All the households on whom the survey was carried out accepted that their facilities are
emptied. 84% of the households have facilities emptied and the excreta disposed in a pit
which is covered with soil while 16% have no idea on where the excreta is taken by the
people who empty their facilities. Figure 4 below shows the extent.
 It was also ascertained that the Town Council doesn’t have a centralized sewerage system
operated by the relevant authorities.
 The piped water provided by Ministry of Water and Environment is unreliable as the area is
not served by National Water and Sewerage Corporation.
 On-Site Sanitation Technologies in Ruhimbo Cell
Isingiro Town Council

8%
28% Dry Pit Latrine
56% Pour Flush
8% Ecosan
Flush to Septic

Figure 2: On-site sanitation technologies in Ruhimbo Cell

Extent of Sharing Sanitation Facilities Among

Households

48% 52% Shared

Not Shared

Figure 3: Extent of sharing sanitation facilities among households

 Methods of Disposing Excreta

16%
Covered in a
Pit
84% Don’t Know

Figure 4: Current Methods of Disposing excreta

With regard to physical observations, the following was found out;

 The dry pit latrines are shallow with depth increased by extending the lining above the
ground. This is because of the high water table characteristics of Ruhimbo Cell.
 Grey water from most of the households is directed to the storm water drainage channels
which are chocking on the improperly managed solid waste hence ponding.

Figure 5: Elevated pit latrine & eco-san facilities

Figure 6: Wastewater flowing in drainage channels

Potential Risks from the Current Situation

Personal Health Risks: The poorly managed waste water can be a breeding ground for vectors
especially flies and mosquitoes that spread disease causing organisms. The bad odour from the
stagnant waste water is not good for the communities. According to the Daily Monitor
Newspaper of 7th September, 2019, Isingiro district was among the five districts hit by cholera.
This was attributed to poor sanitation, open defecation, poor personal and domestic hygiene.

Environmental Pollution Risks: The water table of Ruhimbo Cell in Isingiro Town Council is
high and the area is prone to flooding. This implies that the contents of the poorly constructed
facilities are easily washed away by floods. A similar situation can happen to the waste water
directed to the storm water channels.

Furthermore, the excreta that is disposed in earthen pits and covered is a potential source of
contamination to the soils and ground water sources.

Appropriate Excreta Sanitation Technologies for the Study Area

Ecological Sanitation

These are also known as ecosan. It is a form of compositing latrine and it describes an approach
to human waste management rather than a single method. In eco-san systems, human excreta is
considered to be a resource, not waste. The principle is to make use of excreta by transforming it
into an end product that can be used as a soil improver and fertiliser for agriculture. Ecosan
systems require more space than conventional latrines, but they provide a more sustainable
approach to waste management than other systems.
It is considered appropriate because;
 On-site recycling of the faecal matter by aerobic action when one chamber is closed.
 Ideal for flood prone areas like for the current case study.
 Suitable for weak soils like for the current case study.

Figure 7: Ecological sanitation facility

Pour Flush Toilets

This type of toilets operates like a normal cistern flush toilet. The only difference is that water is
poured into the bowl by the user to flush the excreta. It contains a water seal that prevents a foul
smell and flies.

The system is connected to a pit which can be easily emptied when full and doesn’t require much
space like a septic tank.

The pour flush toilet is considered appropriate because;

  It doesn’t require a continuous supply of piped water; harvested rain water can be used
 Occupies less space
 Less operation and maintenance compared to a cistern flush toilet
 It doesn’t need to be connected to a sewer system.

Figure 8: Pour flush toilet

Container based sanitation (CBS) solutions

CBS consists of an end-to-end service that collects excreta hygienically from toilets built with
sealable, removable containers and strives to ensure that the excreta is safely treated, disposed of,
and reused.
There is no contact between the user and the faecal sludge. Handling of the tight sealed container
is carried out by the trained personnel of the service provider.

Figure 9: Container based sanitation

Biogas Latrines

In a biogas latrine or bio-latrine, the waste enters an airtight tank situated underground, and
undergoes anaerobic digestion, resulting in the production of biogas and digested sludge. Biogas
is a clean and convenient fuel that contains about 60% methane. Anaerobic digestion is the
process whereby bacteria and other micro-organisms break down (decompose) organic material
in the absence of air, yielding biogas. The digested sludge collects in a separate tank and can be
used as a soil fertilizer.
Figure 10: Biogas Latrines

Factors Related to Appropriate Sanitation in relation to City Wide Inclusive Sanitation

Citywide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS) is a public service approach to planning and implementing
urban sanitation systems to achieve outcomes summarized in SDG 6.2: safe, equitable and
sustainable sanitation for all by 2030, irrespective of where people live within a city or what
technologies are used to serve them (IWA, 2021). For the success of the proposed technologies
with regard to CWIS, the following factors were considered.
Technical Factors
 Easy to use: The proposed sanitation technologies can be used by all categories of people.
 Do not depend on continuous supply of water: The pour flush toilet which uses water does
not entirely rely on continuous supply (piped) water as it involves pouring water by the user.
Harvested rain water, recycled water and other sources can be used.
 Constructed with locally available materials: Availability of materials is key as it reduces on
the construction costs. For the aforementioned appropriate technologies, the materials like
sand, bricks, cement can be obtained locally.
 Play a containment role: Containment of excreta is very paramount to environmental and
personal health. The suggested sanitation technologies contain the excreta without exposing
it.
Environmental
 Applicable in flooding areas and loose soils: Flooding and loose soils impede the
functionality of sanitation technologies in low lying urban and peri-urban centres. The
proposed sanitation technologies do not require deeper depths for the case of pour flush
toilets that use a lined pit for containment hence not disturbed by loose soils.
Social
 Inclusive use: Social acceptance of a sanitation technology is important prior to
establishment. For the proposed technologies, it is believed that if implemented will be
accepted basing on the implementation in other locations with similar social characteristics.
 History of success in other areas therefore benchmarking can be made easily: The
aforementioned sanitation technologies are not new inventions. They have been in existence
and use in other areas. Furthermore some are already being used in the study area though on
a small scale but usage can be expanded through interventions made by the different
stakeholders.
Operation and Maintenance
 Maintainability is low: Mechanical wear of the proposed technologies is in very few parts
like doors. To a larger extent, the maintenance needs involved are not costly once the quality
of the initial work has been done to the required standards.
Economic
 Affordable in terms installation: Construction of the proposed technologies uses much of the
local materials that do not need expatriate labour. Therefore the available local skills can do
the installation at costs affordable to the households.
 Waste recovery hence economic benefits: For sustainability, waste recovery through
recycling and reuse is important to the environment. The faecal matter in eco-san facilities
 and biogas latrines can be used as a soil fertilizer once the pollutants have been removed as
well the waste from the pour flush and container based methods.
 Source of employment while in use like service providers of container based solutions.

Health
 Limit contact with people: The proposed sanitation technologies limit contact of the people
with raw waste-water. The contact involved is during emptying which should be done by the
trained personnel while observing occupational health and safety guidelines.
Enablers for the Proposed Appropriate Technologies
Legal Framework: Much as there are national laws that guide on public health and
environmental protection like the Environmental Act of 2019, bye laws or ordinances that are
understood by the communities about wastewater management should be enacted. These should
define the roles and responsibilities to be played every stakeholder with regard to wastewater
management.
Sensitization of the households: Door to door awareness about the importance of appropriate
sanitation technologies with regard to personal and environmental health should be incorporated
in the strategy to overcome poor wastewater management.
Affordable financing for the households: Soft loans and subsidies from the local governments
can enhance the participation of the local population in acquiring and implementing the
appropriate technologies.
Involvement of the private sector: Collaboration of the local authorities with the private sector
through Public Private Partnerships can enable the households to acquire the appropriate
sanitation technologies through meeting the costs in installments, knowledge transfer with regard
to installation, operation and maintenance.
Monitoring for compliance: The local authorities should strengthen their capacities so as to
monitor for compliance being guided by the enacted ordinances and bye laws as this will
increase participation in fear of the punishments to non-compliance. However, this should be
implemented once all the preceding enablers have been put in place.
Conclusion

Elevated dry pit latrines are the mostly used form of on-site technology in Ruhimbo Cell and are
shared by more than one household. Due to limited space of constructing more pit latrines when
the pit is full, they are emptied and the faecal sludge covered in a soil pit which is a potential risk
to environmental pollution.

Much as the Ecological Sanitation (eco-san) facilities are being used, there is need to do
intensive sensitization by the local authorities about its advantages as a form of on-site sanitation
technology. Biogas latrines, pour flush toilets and container based solutions can be added to the
ecosan technology to improve wastewater handling in the area as well as environmental
sustainability.
References

Core questions on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene for household surveys: 2018 update.
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International Water Association, 2021; A Call to Action: Regulating for Citywide Inclusive
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Niwagaba C, Kulabako RN, Mugala P, Jönsson H. Comparing microbial die-off in separately

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Prüss A, Kay D, Fewtrell L, Bartram J. Estimating the burden for disease for water, sanitation,
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