Educational Psychology

THEORIES OF
HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY AND
PRE-SCHOOL
YEARS
(BIRTH-6
YEARS OLD)
INFANCY AND COGNITIVE
PRE-SCHOOL PSYCHOSOCIAL
YEARS
PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL
(BIRTH-6 YEARS) MORAL

PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
COGNITIVE (JEAN PIAGET)
The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth-2 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations.
Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth-2 Years)

Infants learn that things continue to exist even
though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
They realize that their actions can cause things to
happen in the world around them.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to
use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and
struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 6 Years)

While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK ERIKSON)
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth-12 Months)
Infants must learn that adults can be trusted.
 Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so
caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of
trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable
place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s
needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and
mistrust.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 Years old)
As toddlers begin to explore their world, they learn

that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results.
A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 Years old)
This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might

observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old
child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she
may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to
low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6 years)
Once children reach the preschool stage they are

capable of initiating activities and asserting control over
their world through social interactions and play.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs
when parents allow a child to explore within limits and
then support the child’s choice. These children will develop
self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6
years)
Those who are unsuccessful

at this stage—with their
initiative misfiring or stifled by
over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
PSYCHOSEXUAL (SIGMUND FREUD)
The Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of
interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and
sucking reflex is especially important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or
aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking,
eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary
focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the
child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
 Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
Freud believed that positive experiences during
this stage served as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result

in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too
lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could
develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality.
 If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children
also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting
to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father
for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
The term Electra complex has been used to described a

similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex
parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
MORAL (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid
being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong
because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the
needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual’s own interests.
As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back,
and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.
PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
An example would be when a child is asked by

his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it
for me?” and the parents offer the child
an incentive by giving him an allowance.
STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: How does language expression
PRE-LINGUISTIC & SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE emerge in children?
STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:
PRE-LINGUISTIC
Pre-linguistic language development is when a child

is learning to control the sounds he can produce and to
string these sounds together in vocal play. In this stage, the
child is not yet able to manipulate these sounds into
proper words.
PRE-LINGUISTIC
Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development

1. Vegetative sounds occur at 0-2 months of age and include
the natural sounds that babies make, such as burping or
crying.
2. Cooing and laughter occur at 2-5 months of age. These are
vocalizations that the baby makes when it's happy or content
and can be made up of vowel or consonant sounds.
PRE-LINGUISTIC
Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development

3. Vocal play begins around the ages of 4-8 months. During vocal
play, the baby begins to string together longer vowel or consonant
sounds.
4. Finally, babbling occurs around the ages of 6-13 months. At this
time, the child begins to produce a series of consonant-vowel
syllables and may develop utterances, such as ma-ma and da-da.
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Linguistic language development is the stage of

language development signaled by the emergence of
words and symbolic communication.
Prior to this stage, most of the sounds a child
produces are no more than the practice of sound
manipulation and sound sequencing in order to gain the
motor skills necessary to create words.
SIX PERIODS OF
LINGUISTIC LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
One word Period (12-19 months)
Before a child masters the ability to form words, they will first
begin to use specific sound combinations consistently with specific
meaning.
An example of this would be a child saying 'baba' every
time he wants a bottle of milk. Even though this is not the exact
same as the word bottle, the child is using 'baba' in the same
manner as you would use the word 'bottle.'
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
One word Period (14-24 months)
2nd Stage
In this stage, the words used by the child are readily
identifiable, and he begins to name and label people and
objects in his environment.
A child's typical vocabulary during this period will
consist of words like 'dog,' 'go,' 'daddy' and 'bye-bye.'
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Two word Period (20-30 months)
As the name implies, this is when he will begin

to combine two words together to make simple
phrases, such as 'mommy go' or 'shoe on.'
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Three word Period (28-42 months)
During this period, a child adds at least one
more word to their phrases and begins to use
pronouns.
They may also begin to use articles and simple
prepositions. Examples would be 'me go daddy,'
'you on chair' or 'he kick a ball.'
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Four word Period (28-42 months)
At this time, the child will begin to use
combinations of four to six words.
They will use more prepositions, and
adjectives begin to appear in speech. Examples
would be 'Suzy has a little dog' or 'I sleep on the
top bunk.'
SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Complex Utterance Period (48-60 months)
At this time, a child regularly produces phrases longer than six words
in length, and they begin to express concepts of past and future time.
Examples are 'Daddy comes home from the trip tomorrow' and 'I saw a dog at
the park yesterday.' They may also begin to use contractions, such as 'can't' or
'don't.’
Researchers do not agree on when this period is completed and adult sentence
structure is achieved. Opinions range from 5 years of age to 12 years of age.
EARLY-SCHOOL
YEARS
(7-12YEARS
OLD)
COGNITIVE
EARLY-SCHOOL PSYCHOSOCIAL
YEARS
PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL
MORAL
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically

about concrete events.
They begin to understand the concept of conservation;
that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but

still very concrete.
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
Industry vs. Inferiority (Ages: 6-12)
During the elementary school stage, children begin to
compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up.
 They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities,
and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
During this stage, children also become less egocentric

and begin to think about how other people might think and
feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that
not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
During the elementary school stage, children begin to
compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up.
 They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities,
and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
If children do not learn to get along

with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop
into adolescence and adulthood.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
The Latent Period (Age Range: 6 to Puberty)
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while
the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social
skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside
of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to
this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with
peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
The latent period is a time of exploration in which
the sexual energy repressed or dormant.
 This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-confidence.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed

that it was possible for children to become fixated or
"stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships
as an adult.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s
sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief
that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships
and societal order.
EARLY SCHOOL YEARS
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and
act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is
placed on good behavior and people being “nice”
to others.
YOUNG
ADULTHOOD
(12-25 YEARS
OLD)
COGNITIVE
YOUNG PSYCHOSOCIAL
ADULTHOOD PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL
MORAL
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to
think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical,
ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical
and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12–18)
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is
developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with
questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do
with my life?”
Along the way, most adolescents try on many different
selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and
ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult”
selves.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12–18)
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong
sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs
and values in the face of problemsand other people’s
perspectives.
 When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious
search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their
parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense
of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of
their identity and confused about the future.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s through early 40s)
After we have developed a sense of self in

adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others.
However, if other stages have not been successfully
resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s through early 40s)
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of

self before we can develop successful intimate
relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-
concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
The Genital Stage (Age Range: Puberty to Death)
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active
once again.
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the
rest of a person's life.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to
balance their most basic urges against the need to
conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development,
Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
CONVENTIONAL STAGE
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and
convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is
seen as valuable and important.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
CONVENTIONAL STAGE
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
 Most active members of society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
ADULTHOOD
(MIDDLE &
LATE)
COGNITIVE
MIDDLE & LATE PSYCHOSOCIAL
ADULTHOOD PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL
MORAL
ADULTHOOD (MIDDLE & LATE)
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning.
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years old)
 Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children.
During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing
to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring
for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive
work which contributes positively to society.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years old)
Those who do not master this task may experience

stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark
on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little
connection with others and little interest in productivity and
self-improvement
Integrity vs. Despair (60s until death)
He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their
lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of
failure.
 People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives
with few regrets.
Integrity vs. Despair (60s until death)
However, people who are not successful at this stage may
feel as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and
“could have” been. They face the end of their lives with
feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active
once again.
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the
rest of a person's life.
Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to
balance their most basic urges against the need to
conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development,
Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense
of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws
are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that
individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions,
rights, and values.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to
each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid
edicts.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Those that do not promote the general welfare should be
changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.
This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable
compromise.
Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract
reasoning using universal ethical principles.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather
than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality,
dignity, or respect.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an
obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow,
and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty.
POSTCONVENTIONAL
In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to
do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it
is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is
previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it
difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at
that level.
HISTORY OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
There have been many changes related to the publishing of
literature for children since the beginning of the 17th century when
the only books published for children were school books to teach
them the alphabet and spelling, as well as morals, manners, and
religion. At that time, the content of school books was influenced by
Puritan beliefs that children were inclined to evil and needed to be
taught morals.
However, during this time, cheaply published books
called chapbooks containing popular stories and
tales also began to be produced and sold. Since
these books did not contain strictly moral stories,
they were often criticized for departing from Puritan
beliefs (Gangi, 2004).
Puritanical thinking eventually gave way to the Enlightenment ideals characterized by
the philosophy of John Locke, which marked a shift in the view of children to that of a
“blank slate” that could be written upon. During this time, moral tales and fables
were still published, but more light-hearted books featuring word play, riddles,
rhymes, and games began to appear in children’s books as well. Children’s books
also borrowed stories originally written for adults, such as Gulliver’s Travels, Ivanhoe,
and Robinson Crusoe.

Educational Psychology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educational Psychology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THEORIES OF

HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

(BIRTH-6 YEARS) MORAL

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

As toddlers begin to explore their world, they learn

This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might

Once children reach the preschool stage they are

Those who are unsuccessful

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result

The term Electra complex has been used to described a

An example would be when a child is asked by

Pre-linguistic language development is when a child

Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development

Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development

Linguistic language development is the stage of

As the name implies, this is when he will begin

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically

Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but

During this stage, children also become less egocentric

If children do not learn to get along

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

ADULTHOOD PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL

After we have developed a sense of self in

Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of

MIDDLE & LATE PSYCHOSOCIAL

ADULTHOOD PSYCHOSEXUAL /EMOTIONAL

Those who do not master this task may experience

You might also like