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INTRODUCTION TO COMMITTED
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
 Good entrepreneurs assume full
responsibility over their business.
 They give full commitment and solid
ENTREPRNEUR - a person who organizes and dedication to make the business
operates a business. successful.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP –the activity of ABILITY TO ACCEPT CHANGE

setting up a business.
ASSESMENT OF PERSONAL
ENTREPRENEURIAL COMEPETENCIES
(PECs) and Skills
 Entrepreneurial competencies refer to
the important characteristics that should
be possessed by an individual in order to
perform entrepreneurial functions
effectively.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS/
TRAITS OF A GOOD ENTREPRENEUR:
 Nothing is permanent but change.
 Change occurs frequently.
 When you own a business, you should
cope with and thrive on changes.
 Capitalize on positive changes to make
your business grow.
CREATIVE
 An entrepreneur should be creative and
innovative to stay in the business and in
order to have an edge over the other
competitors.

HARDWORKING HAS THE INITIATIVE

 One of the important characteristics of a  An entrepreneur takes the initiative. You

good entrepreneur.
 This means working diligently and
being consistent about it.
 Hardworking people keep improving
their performance to produce good
products and/or provide good services.
CONFIDENT
 Entrepreneurs have self-reliance in
one’s ability and judgment.
 They exhibit self-confidence to cope
with the risks of operating their own
business.
DISCIPLINED
 Successful entrepreneurs always stick to
the plan and fight the temptation to do
what is unimportant.
must put yourself in a position where
you are responsible for the failure or
success of your business.
PROFIT-ORIENTED
 An entrepreneur enters the world of
business to generate profit or additional
income. The business shall become your
bread and butter. Therefore, you must
see to it that the business can generate
income.
IMPORTANT SKILLS OF A
SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEUR:
EXCELLENT PLANNER
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 Planning involves strategic thinking and
goal setting to achieve objectives by
carefully maximizing all the available
resources.
 A good entrepreneur develops and
follows the steps in the plans diligently
to realize goals.
 A good entrepreneur knows that
planning is an effective skill only when
combined with action.
POSSESSES PEOPLE SKILLS
 This is a very important skill needed
to be successful in any kind of
business.
 People skills refer to effective and
efficient communication and
establishing good relationship to the
people working in and out of your
business.
 In day-to-day business transactions,
you need to deal with people. A
well-developed interpersonal skill
can make huge differences between
success and failure of the business.
SOUND DECISION MAKER
 Successful entrepreneurs have the
ability to think quickly and to make wise
decisions towards a pre-determined set
of objectives.
 No one can deny that the ability to make
wise decisions is an important skill that
an entrepreneur should possess.
 Sound decisions should be based on
given facts and information and lead
towards the pre-determined objectives.
WHAT IS A BUSINESS PLAN?
 A Business Plan is a written document
that describes in detail how a business-
usually a startup –defines its objectives
and how it is to go about achieving its
goals. A business plan lays out a
written roadmap for the firm from
marketing, financial and operational
standpoints
SIMPLE BUSINESS PLAN OUTLINE
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
 Write this last. It’s just a page or two
that highlights the points you’ve
made elsewhere in your business
plan.
 It’s also the doorway to your plan—
after looking over your executive
summary, your target reader is either
going to throw your business plan
away or keep reading, so you’d
better get I just right.
 Summarize the problem you are
solving for customers, your solution,
the target market, the founding team,
and financial forecast highlight.
Keep things as brief as possible and
entice your audience to learn more
about your company.
2. OPPORTUNITY
 Describe the problem that you solve
for your customers and the solution
that you are selling.
 It is always a good idea to think in
terms of customer needs and
customer benefits as you define your
product offerings, rather than
thinking of your side of the equation
(how much the product or service
costs, and how you deliver it to the
customer).
 Sometimes this part of the plan will
include tables that provide more
details, such as a bill of materials or
detailed price lists, but more often
than not this section just describes
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what you are selling and how your
products and services fill a need for
your customers.
3. MARKETANALYSIS
SUMMARY
 You need to know your target
market—the types of customers you
are looking for—and how it’s
changing.
 Use this business plan component to
discuss your customers’ needs,
where your customers are, how to
reach them and how to deliver your
product to them.
 You’ll also need to know who your
competitors are and how you stack
up against them—why are you sure
there’s room for you in this market?
WHAT IS A TARGET MARKET?
 A target market is defined as a
specific group of potential buyers for
which a business positions its
products and services.
 It’s the group of people who are
most the most likely buyers of your
products or services.
Segment Market 4 COMMON
SEGMENTATION TYPES
INCLUDE:
1. Geographic Segmentation
2. Demographic Segmentation
3. Behavioral
4. Psychographic
TO SEGMENT POTENTIAL
CUSTOMERS INTO A TARGET
MARKET, YOU NED TO ANSWER
THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
 How old is your ideal customer?
 How much money do they make?
 Is your product or service most
suitable for men, women or children?
 Are they homeowners?
 Where does your target market shop?
 Where do they live?
 What type of education do they
have?
 What problems, needs, or wants do
they have that your product or
service will fill?
4. EXECUTION
 Use this business plan section to
outline your marketing plan, your
sales plan, and the other logistics
involved in actually running your
business.
 The sales and marketing section
offers a detailed explanation of your
sales strategy, pricing plan, proposed
advertising and promotion activities,
and product or service's benefits.
This is where outline your business's
unique selling proposition, describe
how you're going to get your goods
and/or services to market, and how
you're going to persuade people to
buy them.
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5. COMPANY AND
MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
 This section is an overview of who
you are.
 It should describe the organization of
your business, and the key members
of the management team, but it
should also ground the reader with
the nuts and bolts: when your
company was founded, who is/are
the owner(s), what state your
company is registered in and where
you do business, and when/if your
company was incorporated.
 Be sure to include summaries of your
managers’ backgrounds and
experience—these should act like
brief resumes—and describe their
functions with the company. Full-
length resumes should be appended
to the plan.
 This section gives an outline of your
business's legal structure and
management resources, including
your internal management team,
external management resources, and
human resources needs. Include
experience or special skills each
person in your management team
brings to the business. If the goal of
your business plan is to get funding,
it's wise to make sure that your
management plan includes an
advisory board as a management
resource.
6. FINANCIAL PLAN
 At the very least this section
should include your projected
profit and loss and cash flow
tables, and a brief description of
the assumptions you’re making
with your projections.
 You may also want to include
your balance sheet, your sales
forecast, business ratios, and a
break-even analysis.
 Finally, if you are raising money
or taking out loans, you should
highlight the money you need to
launch the business.
TYPES OF MARKET
CONSUMER MARKET- represents
individuals and families purchasing goods
and services for personal consumption.
BUSINESS MARKET- market of good and
services to individual and organization for
the purpose other the personal consumption
is the business market.
GLOBAL MARKET- consists of
transactions that are devised and carried out
across national borders to satisfy the
objectives of individuals, companies, and
organizations.
NON- PROFITABLE MARKET-
Companies selling their goods to nonprofit
organizations such as universities, charitable
organizations, and need to be priced
carefully because these people have lower
purchasing power.
KEY CONCEPT OF MARKET
NEED – states of felt deprivation –physical,
social and individual needs.
WANTS –form taken by human needs as
they are shaped by culture and individual
personality.
DEMANDS –human wants that are backed
by buying power. –demand is the quantity of
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a good that consumers are willing and able
to purchase at various prices during a given
period of time.
PRODUCTS – anything that can offered to
a market for attention, acquisition, use or
consumption that might satisfy a want or
need. It includes physical objectives,
services, persons, places, organizations, and
ideas.
VALUES, SATISFACTION &
QUALITY
CUSTOMER VALUE- The difference
between the values between the customer
gains from owning and using a product and
the cost of obtaining the product.
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION- The
extent to which a product’s perceived
performance matches a buyer’s
expectations.
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
(TQM) -Programs designed to constantly
improve the quality of products, services,
and marketing process.
EXCHANGE, TRANSACTIONS &
RELATIONSHIPS
EXCHANGE- act of obtaining a desired
object from someone by offering something
in return.
TRANSACTION- A trade between two
parties that involves at least two things of
value, agreed-upon conditions, a time of
agreement, and a place of agreement.
RELATIONSHIP MARKETING- The
process of creating, maintaining and
enhancing strong, value-laden relationships
with customers and other stakeholders.
MARKET- the set of all actual and
potential buyers of a products or service.
MARKETPLACE- physical, as when one
goes shopping in a store
MARKETSPACE- is digital, as when one
goes shopping on the internet.
METAMARKET-used to describe a cluster
of complementary products and services that
are closely related in the minds of
consumers but are spread across a diverse
set of industries.
PLAYERS IN THE MARKET
(COMPETITORS)
CUSTOMERS- most important
organization or people in the market are
your customers. This includes both current
and potential customers.
MAJOR CUSTOMERS- It is very
common for most sales to be made to a
relatively small set of big customers. These
always need careful attention and may have
account/relationship managers assigned to
them. A problem is that big customers may
also demand big discounts and special
attention.
MINOR CUSTOMERS- Minor customers
buy less, but nevertheless are useful as in
aggregate they may buy quite a lot. The only
time minor customers are undesirable is
when serving them costs more than the
profit gained from them. This can happen
when they are angered or when they try to
gain an unfair attention for their smaller
payment.
SUPPLIERS- may sell directly into the
market, for example selling spare parts, but
largely they need to be kept aligned to your
strategy. In some markets suppliers also
supply your competitors. When supply is
6|Page

short, the supplier may hold a position of PE 4

power in the choice of who to serve.
ACQUATIC SPORTS
COMPLEMENTORS- those who sell non-
competing products and which generally AQUATIC SPORTS- refers to water-
help your sales. For example in a rock related sports like boat racing, water skiing,
musical instrument market, drum and guitar swimming, etc.
manufacturers are complementary to one LIST OF WATER SPORTS
another.
 Recreational Diving
COMPETITORS-are those who have Cave Diving
products and services similar to you and Deep Diving
where customers who are buying something Free- Diving
will compare your offerings and prices Ice Diving
directly, weighing one up against the other.
Spearfishing
SUBSTITUTORS- are like competitors but  Underwater Sports
their products are not the same. The classic Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
substitution is replacing butter with Underwater Hockey
margarine (a battle that is still raging). Other Underwater Photography
substitutions are more evolutionary, for …………………………………………………
example where typewriters were substituted
by word processors. SWIMMING STROKES

REGULATORS- Regulation may be driven WHAT ARE THE SWIMMINGS

by collaboration between competitors.
Regulations may also be created by
independent organizations or even
governments, whose agendas may not align
with company profit motives.
INFLUENCERS-groups and organizations
who have no direct control but who will
seek to promote their own agendas by
influencing players within the marketplace,
including regulators and retailers. These
often have an ethical basis, for example
ecological or animal rights activists.
STROKES?
Breaststroke, backstroke, butterfly
and crawl (freestyle) are the most
popular swim strokes.
The Breaststroke and Butterfly are
more difficult to learn than the
backstroke and crawl.
 Butterfly is a swimming stroke swum
on the chest, with both arms moving
symmetrically, accompanied by the
butterfly kick.
 Backstroke (Back Crawl) uses
alternating and opposite arm
movements. As one arm pulls through
the water from an overhead position to
the hip, the other arm recovers above the
water from the hip to the overhead
position and vice versa.
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 Crawl (Freestyle) a swimming stroke; INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATION AND

arms are moved alternately overhead IMMERSION
accompanied by a flutter kick
(RETRIEVED FROM THE
INTERNET) CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS
WHAT EQUIPMENT DO I NEED FOR BACKGROUND
SWIMMING? 1. Introduction
 Swimsuit 2. Background of the Study
3. Statement of the Problem
 Goggles
4. Significance of the Study
 Bathing cap
5. Scope and Delimitation
 Kickboards
6. Definition of Terms
 Pull buoy
 Fins 1. Introduction- Discusses four (4)
 Hand paddles relevant ideas
 Water dumbbells  Topic/Subject Matter: define and
 Noodle elaborate using methods of
 Aqua jogger paragraph development
 Importance of the Topic: cite the
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF role that the topic plays in your life
SWIMMING? and the benefits you derive from it.
 Reasons for Choosing the Topic:
 Builds cardio respiratory fitness
emphasized what motivated you to
 Builds muscle mass
choose the topic.
 It's a break from the summer heat
 Purpose of the Study: discusses the
 It's a family affair objective of the study.
 Burns calories 2. Background of the Study: Describe as
clearly as possible the problem intended
to be addressed and refer to the relevant
literature in the field. It is an overview
of factors which have led to the
problem, compromise the problem and
historical significance relative to the
problem.
3. Statement of the Problem - There
should be a general statement of the
whole problem followed by the specific
questions or sub problems into which
the general problem is broken up.
4. Significance of the Study -The
rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of
the study. The rationale, timeliness and
relevance of the study to existing
8|Page
conditions must be explained or
discussed.
 Possible solution to existing
problems or improvement to
unsatisfactory conditions.
 Who are to be benefited and how
they are going to be benefited. It
must be shown who are the
individuals, groups or communities
who may be placed in a more
advantageous position on account of
the study.
 To the school administrators,
 To the teachers,
 To the students,
 To the future teachers,
 To the future researchers,
5. Scope and Delimitation – should
include the following.
 Brief statement of the general purposes
of the study.
 The subject matter and topics studied
and discussed.
 The locale of the study, where the data
were gathered or the entity to which the
data belong.
 The population or university from which
the respondents were selected. This
must be large enough to make
generalizations significant.
 The period of the study. This is the time,
either month or years, during which the
data where gathered.
6. Definition of Terms- only terms, words
or phrases which have special or unique
meanings in the study are defined.
Operational and Conceptual used.
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
STEP ONE: DECIDE ON YOUR AREAS OF
RESEARCH:
Before you begin to search for articles or books,
decide beforehand what areas you are going to
research. Make sure that you only get articles
and books in those areas, even if you come
across fascinating books in other areas.
STEP TWO: SEARCH FOR THE
LITERATURE OR STUDIES:
Conduct a comprehensive bibliographic search
of books and articles or previous studies in your
area. Read the abstracts online and download
and/or print those articles that pertain to your
area of research. Find books/studies in the
library that are relevant and check them out. Set
a specific time frame for how long you will
search. It should not take more than two or three
dedicated sessions.
STEP THREE: FIND RELEVANT
EXCERPTS IN YOUR BOOKS, ARTICLES
AND STUDIES:
Skim the contents of each book, article and
studies and look specifically for these five
things:
1. Claims, conclusions, and findings about the
constructs you are investigating
2. Definitions of terms
3. Calls for follow-up studies relevant to your
project
4. Gaps you notice in the literature.
5. Disagreement about the constructs you are
investigating
STEP FIVE: CREATE YOUR
CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA:
Type, in large font, the name of each of your
coded themes. Print this out, and cut the titles
into individual slips of paper. Take the slips of
9|Page
paper to a table or large workspace and figure
out the best way to organize them. Are there
ideas that go together or that are in dialogue
with each other? Are there ideas that contradict
each other? Move around the slips of paper until
you come up with a way of organizing the codes
that makes sense. Write the conceptual schema
down before you forget or someone cleans up
your slips of paper.
STEP SIX: BEGIN TO WRIT YOUR
LITERATUR REVIEW
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
This chapter presents the discussion on the
research methodology of the study, the subjects,
sampling technique, research instruments,
procedure of data gathering that will be used for
accurate data analysis and interpretation.
 Research Methodology- This section
specifies what method of research will
be used –descriptive, correlation,
experimental, or documentary analysis.
 Subjects/ Respondents of the Study-
Subjects are persons investigated in the
study. When learning abilities of pre-
school pupils are being assessed in the
study, the pre-school pupils are the
subjects. The pupils’ teachers and
mothers who will be interviewed and
asked to fill out a questionnaire are the
respondents of the study. Respondents,
therefore, are providers of information
needed in the study, elicited orally or in
writing. It is important to state your
number of subjects or respondents and
who they are.
 Sampling Technique- Explain what
sampling technique will be used –
random, purposive, stratified, etc.—why
you used it, and what procedure will be
followed to carry out the technique.
 Research Instruments- Research
instruments are questionnaires, tests,
interviews, observations, etc.
 Data Gathering Procedure- Identify
your sources of data. If a questionnaire
will be used, explain what kind and how
it will be constructed if it is original,
how it is pre-tested, distribution,
retrieval, collation, etc. Thus, your
procedures may include: Construction of
the questionnaire, Validation,
Distribution, Retrieval, Collation,
Presentation of Data and Interpretation
of Data.
 Statistical Treatment of Data (for
quantitative research only)- Specify
the statistical treatment/s you will use
for interpreting your data and why they
are necessary. Also, include the scale or
verbal interpretation for the statistical
processing of your data; mention the
name of the office or agency, or the
person taking charge of it.
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION.
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Normally, it features the following contents in
chronological order:
1. Statistical Tables and Graphs
2. Textual Presentation
3. Inferences or Interpretation
 Presentation of Data- presentation is a
way of arranging data into logical,
chronological, and significant categories
and classifications
There are three ways of presenting data: textual.
Tabular, and graphical
A. Tabular Presentation Tables-organize
and compress data into standardized
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forms. They facilitate the study and
interpretation. Most researchers use
tables in their textual presentation of
data.
 This is because (1) researchers need
to give little explanation only since
data in tables are arranged and
grouped systematically; (2) readers
can comprehend and interpret
information easily because they can
see relationships of data at once and
(3) tables can present ideas that are
understood even without reading the
textual presentation
 .Constructing a Table Tables
includes a title, a number, heading, a
body and if necessary, notes.
 Title - The title should identify the
table briefly. It need not give
background information or describe
the results. The modern way of
writing titles omits the words
Frequency and Percentage
Distribution of / Distribution of /
According to.
 Table title must be written two
spaces below the table number.
Table title, which is normally
written in inverted pyramid
format, has content (principal)
words in upper case initials and
non-content words (articles,
coordinate conjunctions,
prepositions and infinitive to) in
lowercase letters except those with
more than 5 letters. One should
single-space captions with two or
more lines.
B. Graphical Presentation of Data – a
graph is a chart representing the
quantitative variations of a variable
itself or in comparison with those of
another variable. Graphing presents
variations, changes and relationships of
data in a very attractive, appealing,
effective and convincing way.
 The common types of graphs used
in research are bar graph, line
graph, circle graph, pictogram
and map graph. You should only
choose the graphs which represents
best your data to avoid redundancy
 Bar Graphs
 Line Graph
 Circle Pie Chart
 Pictogram
 Map Graph or Cartogram
C. Textual Presentation of Data-
Presenting the data textually involves
using statements with number to
describe a given data. It aims to
highlight some important data and
supplement the tabular or graphical
presentation.
 Interpretation or inference follows
the textual presentation of each table
in the research.
 1. Condition. This refers to the
findings discovered in the research
 2. Possible Cause of the
Condition. This refers to the reason
for the existence of the condition
discovered.
 3. Possible effect of the Condition.
 4. The Measures to Remedy the
Unsatisfactory Condition or to
strengthen the favorable one.
 5. Comparison of findings with
those of previous studies.
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
This chapter includes the presentation, analysis,
and interpretation of data that have been
gathered from the questionnaires distributed to
the respondents. This chapter also contains the
presentation of data in tabular form along with
their corresponding interpretations.
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EMPOWERMENT TECHNOLOGY
SPYWARE -is a term given to a category of
software which aims to STEAL personal or
organizational information
October 1195- word “Spyware” was used for
the first time publicly.
Spybot – Search & Destroy (S&D) is a
spyware and adware removal computer program
compatible with Microsoft Windows, which has
free and paid versions. Dating back to the first
Adwares in 2000,  Spybot scans the computer
hard disk and/or RAM for malicious software
WHAT DOES SYPWARE DO?
1. Infiltrate –via malicious website or file
attachment.
2. Monitor and capture data –via
keystrokes, screen captures.
3. Send Stolen Data –to the spyware
author, to be used directly or to sold to
other parties.
CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
THAT SPYWARE STEALS
 Login Credentials –passwords and
usernames
 Account PINs
 Credit card numbers
 Monitored keyboard strokes
 Tracked browsing habits
 Harvested email addresses
HOW SPYWARE INFECTS YOUR
DEVICES
1. Accepting a prompt or pop-up
without reading it first.
2. Downloading a software from an
unreliable source
3. Opening email attachments from
unknown senders.
TYPES OF SPYWARE
1. Adware- is a common type of spyware
mainly used by advertisers. This
information is used to direct marketing
pop-ups and spam email.
2. Keyboard Logger- This program is
designed to steal personal information
by logging the actual keystrokes you
types on your computer.
3. Modem Hijacker- it’ll ties into your
phone line to make unauthorized calls
and access member websites through
your online connection.
4. Browser Hijacker – affects your
Internet access by resetting your
homepage and bookmarks.
5. Commercial Spyware- also refers as
spy apps. -Not all spyware is
unauthorized. In some cases, companies
that provide free software and social
networking platforms require you to
agree to monitor with spyware in order
to access their systems.
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY SPYWARE
1. DATA THEFT AND INDETITY
FRAUD
2. COMPUTER DAMAGES
3. DISRUPTIONS TO YOUR
BROWSING EXPERIENCE
HOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF FROM
SPYWARE
1. Be cautious about consenting to Cookies.
With GDPR-compliance taking over the web,
nearly every website asks for your permission to
create cookies. Only accept cookies from trusted
sites, and only if you truly desire the custom
experience being offered.
12 | P a g e
2. Install an anti-tracking browser extension.
Tools now exist that disconnect you from the
constant online tracking that occurs nowadays.
Even reputable tracking may be unwanted, so
these tools help you and your data remain
private across the web.
3. Keep all software updated with the latest
security. Malware can get installed onto your
system through operating systems and app
vulnerabilities. Updates commonly include
security patches to fix these natural weaknesses,
so always update as soon as possible.
4. Remember that “free” software always has a
cost. Sometimes, free may mean a limited trial,
but it can also mean the creator is profiting from
your data. Always read the terms of use for the
software license, and only agree if you
understand and accept.
HOW TO PROTECT YOUR PHONE
FROM SPYWARE
1. Stay away from unofficial app
stores. Third-party app stores carry
many malicious spyware apps. Avoid
downloading from these stores to lower
your risk of infection
2. Only download trusted apps from
official app publishers. Some spyware
masks itself as companion services to
other popular apps like Facebook and
Gmail. Always read the publisher's
name and verify if they are official or a
third-party.
3. Be reserved about giving
permissions to apps. Some apps have
no clear need for camera and
microphone access, or your location
data. Decide whether your apps need
these permissions to give you an ideal
user experience
4. Do not follow links in text
messages. A popular bait method for
mobile attackers is to include links in
texts to their targets. You’ll be safer by
avoiding any links and manually
entering URLs into the address bar —
after you’ve verified them to be safe
HOW TO PROTECT YOUR
COMPUTER FROM SPYWARE
1. Enable or download a pop-up
blocker.
2. Limit runnable applications to a pre-
approved allow list.
3. Avoid e-mail links and attachments
when possible
COMPUTER WORMS
MALWARE- is malicious software that enables
unauthorized access to networks for purposes of
theft, sabotage, or espionage.
Malware is usually introduced into a network
through phishing, malicious attachments, or
malicious downloads, but it may gain access
through social engineering or flash drives as
well
A computer worm is a piece of software that
copies itself from one computer to another.
Unlike a virus, it is a standalone program that
doesn’t require a host. It usually doesn’t target
files on an individual computer. Instead, it takes
on entire networks in an attempt to create large
botnets. A computer worm is a malicious piece
of software that replicates itself from one
computer to another with the goal of overtaking
the entire network of computers. Most worms
are designed to infiltrate systems by exploiting
their security failures, while very few also try to
change the system settings. Even if they don’t,
they are still very dangerous as they take up a lot
of bandwidth and other valuable resources
13 | P a g e

4. File-Sharing Worms- File-sharing and

peer-to-peer file transfers are still
TYPES OF COMPUTER WORMS used by millions of people around the
world. Doing so, they are unknowingly
1. Internet Worms -Computer worms also
exposing their computers to the threat of
target popular websites with insufficient
file-sharing worms. Like email and
security. When they manage to infect
instant messaging worms, these
the site, internet worms can replicate
programs are disguised as media files
themselves onto any computer being
with dual extensions. When the victim
used to access the website in question.
opens the downloaded file to view it or
From there, internet worms are
listen to it, they will download the worm
distributed to other connected
to their computer. Even if it seems that
computers through the internet and
users have downloaded an actual
local area network connections.
playable media file, an executable
2. Email Worms -Email worms are most
malicious file could be hidden in the
often distributed via compromised
folder and discreetly installed when the
email attachments. They usually have
media file is first opened.
double extensions. (For example,
5. IRC Worms- Internet Relay Chat
.mp4.exe or .avi.exe) so that the
(IRC) is a messaging app that is
recipient would think that they are
mostly out dated nowadays but was
media files and not malicious computer
all the rage at the turn of the century.
programs. When the victims click on the
Same as with today’s instant messaging
attachment, copies of the same infected
platforms, computer worms were
file will automatically be sent to
distributed via messages containing
addresses from their contacts list.
links and attachments. The latter was
3. Instant Messaging Worms- Instant
less effective due to an extra layer of
messaging worms are exactly the
protection that prompted users to accept
same as email worms, the only
incoming files before any transfer could
difference being their method of
take place.
distribution. Once again, they are
masked as attachments or clickable links
to websites. They are often accompanied EXAMPLES OF A COMPUTER WORM
by short messages like “LOL” or “You
have to see this!” When the user clicks  The Morris Worm - was launched in
on the link or the attachment – be it in 1988 by Robert Morris, an American
Messenger, Skype, or any other popular student who wanted to discover how
messaging app – the exact same big the internet really was. To do this,
message will then be sent to their he launched a few dozen lines of code,
contacts. Unless the worm has replicated but he didn’t know that the code was
itself onto their computer, users can riddled with bugs that would cause a
solve this problem by changing their variety of problems on affected hosts.
password  The Storm Worm- is an email worm
launched in 2007. Victims would
receive emails with a fake news report
about an unprecedented storm wave that
14 | P a g e
had already killed hundreds of people
across Europe. More than 1.2 billion of
these emails were sent over the course
of ten years in order to create a botnet
that would target popular websites.
 SQL Slammer- Was unique in that it
didn’t utilize any of the traditional
distribution methods. Instead, it
generated a number of random IP
addresses and sent itself out to them
in hopes that they weren’t protected
HOW CAN I REMOVE A COMPUTER
by antivirus software. Soon after it hit
WORM?
in 2003, the result was more than 75,000
infected computers unknowingly
involved in DDoS attacks on several
major websites.
THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
A VIRUS AND A WORM is that viruses must
be triggered by the activation of their host;
whereas worms are stand-alone malicious
programs that can self-replicate and propagate
independently as soon as they have breached the
system.
HOW DO YOU RECOGNIZE A 4. If computer worms are found, the
COMPUTER WORMDS?
Users should be familiar with the signs of a
computer worm so that they can quickly identify
an infestation and remove the computer
worm. Here are the most typical symptoms of a
computer worm:
• =Unusual computer behaviour
(messages, sounds, pictures)
• =Programs that open and run
automatically
• =Slow computing performance
• =System freezes and crashes
• =Operating system errors and system
error messages
• =Emails sent to contacts without the
user's knowledge
• =Missing or changed files
• =Firewall warnings
• =Unusual behaviour of the web browser
• =Strange and unintended desktop files
and icons appear
1. First of all, high-quality anti-virus
software should be installed. When
choosing software, reputable
manufacturers should be used, as
malware often comes with fake antivirus
programs.
2. Disable System Restore to prevent
Windows from creating backups that are
infected with the computer worm.
3. Carry out a full scan of the system with
the antivirus program.
software usually offers to remove them.
5. If the anti-virus program does not
automatically remove the worm, it is
important to note the name of the worm.
6. If this is the case, a suitable tool for
removing the worm in question should
be downloaded and executed using a
search engine. The antivirus software
should also be deactivated. If it is run
while the worm is being removed, it
could conflict with the removal methods
and cause a system failure.
7. After the worm has been removed, the
anti-virus program should be switched
on again. The same goes for system
recovery,
15 | P a g e
HOW CAN YOU PROTECT YOURSELF
FROM A COMPUTER WORM?
1. Safe Behavior -Attachments and links
should only be opened if they come
from a trustworthy source known to the
user. E-mails from unknown senders
should not be opened
2. Regular Updates -Operating systems
and software should be kept up to date
with regular updates. The
manufacturer’s updates often contain
security patches that protect computers
from new worms and fix errors. This is
important because a computer worm
will benefit from the vulnerabilities.
3. Antivirus Software -Antivirus software
is the first preventive measure to avoid
computer worms. It scans every file on
the computer and helps prevent
damage. Antivirus programs that are
able to scan downloads and already
contain tools to remove worms are
particularly effective.
4. Firewall- security tool that is used to
monitor incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on security rules. The main
purpose is to create a barrier between
internal and external network in order to
protect against cyber-attacks.
5. Protect your email inbox- Computer
worms often attack computers via
email. For example, they can get onto
the computer via a phishing
email. Heretofore you can already
protect before the malware au f the
computer. This works for companies, for
example, with Spam and Malware
Protection or Advanced Threat
Protection from Hornet security.
SCAREWARE -Scareware is a malware tactic
that manipulates users into believing they need
to download or buy malicious, sometimes
useless, software.
- Most often initiated using a pop-up a scareware
uses social engineering to take advantage of a
user’s fear, coaxing them into installing fake
anti-virus software.
- Scareware goals can vary from selling useless,
fake tools to the installation of damaging
malware that exposes sensitive data.
SOCIAL ENGINEERING- is the
psychological manipulation of people into
performing actions or divulging confidential
information. This differs from social engineering
within the social sciences, which does not
concern the divulging of confidential
information.
TYPES OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING
ATTACKS
1. Phishing - most common type of social
engineering attack. The attacker recreates the
website or support portal of a renowned
company and sends the link to targets via emails
or social media platforms.
2. Spear Phishing- can be assumed as a subset of
Phishing. Although a similar attack, it requires
an extra effort from the side of the attackers.
3.Vishing-Imposters or social engineers can be
anywhere on the internet. But many prefer the
old fashioned way; they use the phone.
4. Pretexting-Pretexting is another example of
social engineering you might’ve come across.
It’s based on a scripted scenario presented in
front of the targets, used to extract PII or some
other information.
16 | P a g e
5. Baiting. A digital variant of this technique is
known as Baiting and it is one of the social
engineering techniques used by people.
6. Tailgating- a person takes help of an
authorized person to get access to restricted
areas where RFID authentication or some other
electronic barrier is present.
7. Quid pro quo- Another social engineering
method Quid pro quo involves people posing as
technical support.
SCAREWARE EXAMPLES
In early 2010, website visitors for the
Minneapolis Star Tribune began seeing Best
Western ads that were actually part of a
malvertising campaign sending users to
fraudulent sites and infecting them with
malware.
In March 2019, Office Depot and it’s tech
support vendor, Support.com, agreed to pay the
FTC a $35 million settlement after allegedly
deceiving customers into downloading a free
“PC Health Check Program.
HOW TO PREVENT SCAREWARE
1. Use an Updated Browser Ensure that you
are using an updated browser. Developers are
often aware of these threats and will include
mitigating measures to block such pop-ups.
2. Only Consider Trusted Sources Trusted
sources apply to downloaded files and
security solutions. Typically, infections can
only infiltrate your system when you willingly
allow it. Whenever you need to download files,
especially software, ensure that you are
downloading it from a known and trusted
source.
3. Employ Common Sense Common sense is
the most powerful first-line of defense anyone
can have especially when dealing with threats
online. Scareware only works when you react
with your emotions at the forefront. Legitimate
error messages can be verified online. Moreover,
it is rare for security suites to employ intrusive
pop-ups to show detected issues.
HOW TO IDENTIFY SCAREWARE?
Scareware aims to frighten you into taking
immediate action, so typically you’ll see a pop-
up message along the lines of ‘Warning!
Spyware found!’ or ‘Warning! Your computer is
infected!
HOW DOES IT GET IN?
Scareware can present itself as a message or an
advert in a pop-up window, an email, message
or text attachment, or a link on a legitimate web
page. Unfortunately, you can also pick up
‘drive-by’ scareware simply by visiting a
compromised legitimate website
HOW TO PROTECT AGAINST IT?
Make sure you have up-to-date, legitimate
comprehensive Internet security software
installed on your device. Obtain it from a
reliable and trustworthy company, via the
official website or a well-known retailer
Final Thoughts-Scareware is often harmless
when you know how to detect them. You
security suites and anti-malware applications
can filter them out even before they get to you.
Also, properly set-up real-time security will
ensure overall protection from any threats.
17 | P a g e
PHYISCAL SCIENCE
Physical Science- the systematic study of the
inorganic world, as distinct from the study of the
organic world, which is the province of
biological science. Physical science is ordinarily
thought of as consisting of four broad areas:
astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth
sciences
Principles of Physical Science
The procedures and concepts employed by those
who study the inorganic world.
Is concerned with describing and relating to one
another those experiences of the surrounding
world that are shared by different observers and
whose description can be agreed upon. One of
its principal fields, physics, deals with the most
general properties of matter, such as the
behavior of bodies under the influence of forces,
and with the origins of those forces. In the
discussion of this question, the mass and shape
of a body are the only properties
Inductive Reasoning- is the process of drawing
general conclusions based on many clues, or
pieces of evidence. Many crimes are solved
using inductive reasoning. It is also the hallmark
of science and the basis of the scientific method.
LIMITS OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning can’t solve a crime or arrive
at the correct scientific conclusion with 100
percent certainty. It’s always possible that some
piece of evidence remains to be found that
would disprove the conclusion. That’s why
jurors in a trial are told to decide whether the
defendant is guilty “without a reasonable
doubt”—not without a shred of doubt. Similarly,
a scientific theory is never really proven
conclusively to be true. However, it can be
supported by so much evidence that it is
accepted “without a reasonable doubt.”
SCIENTIFIC THEORY
The term theory is used differently in science
than it is used in everyday language. A scientific
theory is a broad explanation that is widely
accepted because it is supported by a great deal
of evidence. Because it is so well supported, a
scientific theory has a very good chance of being
a correct explanation for events in nature.
Because it is a broad explanation, it can explain
many observations and pieces of evidence. In
other words, it can help connect and make sense
of many phenomena in the natural world.
SCIENTIFIC LAW is a statement that
describes an observable occurrence in nature
that appears to always be true.
LAWS IN SCIENCE
Newton’s first law of motion
Law of conservation of mass
Law of conservation of energy
Law of conservation of momentum
ATOMIC THEORY
LIST OF ATOMIC THEORY
 A theory of the structure of behavior of
atoms has taken more than two
millennia to evolve, from the abstract
ideas of ancients Greeks philosophers to
the high-tech experiment of modern
scientists. From 16th century when atoms
were mainly speculative, until at the end
of 19th century where technology
became advance to allow scientists a
glimpse atom’s parts: the
proton, neutron, electron and nucleus.
18 | P a g e
Greek origins
-Leucippus and Democritus were the first to
propose, in the fifth century B.C., that all matter
is made of tiny units called atoms came from the
Greek word “atomos”, meaning indivisible.
Modern Development
In 1808, English chemist John Dalton further
built on the Greek notion of atoms. He
postulated that: matter is made of atoms, which
are small indivisible particles. He also proposed
that while all atoms of one element are identical,
they are totally different from those that make
up other elements, compounds is the
combination of two or more different atoms and
atoms rearrange during chemical reactions.
Subatomic Structure
-Dalton’s work was mainly about the chemistry
of atoms, but English physicist Joseph J.
Thomson proposed the "plum pudding" theory
of the divisible atom in 1904, after
discovering electrons in 1897
- British physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed a
nuclear model of the atom, in which a nucleus
exists, in 1911.  water, air, and fire as proposed by Empedocles
 Electron-negative charged particle
 Proton-positive charged particle
 Neutron-neutral charge particle
 Nucleus-small region consisting of
 Protons and neutron; center of atom
Bohr and Beyond
-Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed in 1913 a
planetary model, in which electrons revolve
about the nucleus just as the planets orbit the
sun.  Enûma Eliš, a text written between the 18th and
CLASSICAL ELEMENT
 Ancient Greece of earth, water, air,
fire, and aether.
 Ancient cultures in Egypt,
Babylonia, Japan, Tibet, and India
had similar lists, sometimes
referring in local languages to "air"
as "wind" and the fifth element as
"void".
 Wood ( mù), Fire ( huǒ), Earth ( tǔ),
Metal ( jīn), and Water ( shuǐ)
These different cultures and even individual
philosophers had widely varying explanations
concerning their attributes and how they related
to observable phenomena as well as cosmology.
Sometimes these theories overlapped with
mythology and were personified in deities.
Some of these interpretations included atomism
(the idea of very small, indivisible portions of
matter) but other interpretations considered the
elements to be divisible into infinitely small
pieces without changing their nature.
ANCIENT TIMES
In classical thought, the four elements earth,
frequently occur; Aristotle added a fifth element,
aether; it has been called akasha in India and
quintessence in Europe
EGYPT- A Greek text called the Kore Kosmou
("Virgin of the World") ascribed to Hermes
Trismegistus (associated with the Egyptian god
Thoth), names the four elements fire, water, air,
and earth
COSMIC ELEMENT IN BABYLONIAN- In
Babylonian mythology, the cosmogony called
16th centuries BC, involves four gods that we
might see as personified cosmic elements: sea,
earth, sky, wind.
19 | P a g e

INDIA- The system of five elements are found Overcoming

in Vedas, especially Ayurveda, the pancha
mahabhuta, or “five great elements”, of  Wood parts earth;
Hinduism are bhūmi (earth), ap or jala (water),  Earth absorbs water;
tejas or agni (fire), marut, vayu or pavan (air or  Water quenches fire;
wind) and vyom or shunya (space or zero) or  Fire melts metal;
akash (aether or void).  Metal chops wood.

HINDUISM- The basest element, earth, created
using all the other elements, can be perceived by
all five senses – (i) hearing, (ii) touch, (iii) sight,
(iv) taste, and (v) smell.
The higher element, water, has no odor but can
be heard, felt, seen and tasted. Next comes fire,
which can be heard, felt and seen. Air can be
heard and felt. "Akasha" (aether) is beyond the
senses of smell, taste, sight, and touch.
There are also two cycles of imbalance, an
overacting cycle (cheng) and an insulting cycle
(wu).
GREECE- The ancient Greek belief in five
basic elements, these being earth (γῆ ge), water
(ὕδωρ hudor), air (ἀήρ aer), fire (πῦρ pur) and
aether (αἰθήρ aither), dates from pre-Socratic
times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages
and into the Renaissance.

BUDDHISM- In the Pali literature, the
mahabhuta ("great elements") or catudhatu
("four elements") are earth, water, fire and air.
The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four
primary material elements are the sensory
qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and
mobility.
The four properties are cohesion (water),
solidity or inertia (earth), expansion or vibration
(air) and heat or energy content (fire)
In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle
related each of the four elements to two of the
four sensible qualities:
 Fire is both hot and dry.
 Air is both hot and wet (for air is like
vapor, ἀτμὶς).
 Water is both cold and wet.
 Earth is both cold and dry
EMPEDOCLEAN ELEMENT

CHINA- the Chinese had a somewhat different

series of elements, namely Fire, Earth, Metal
Fire
(literally gold), Water and Wood.

The doctrine of five phases describes two cycles

of balance, a generating or creation ( 生 , shēng)
cycle and an overcoming or destruction (克/剋, Earth
kè) cycle of interactions between the phases.

Generating

 Wood feeds fire;

 Fire creates earth (ash); Water
 Earth bears metal;
 Metal collects water;
 Water nourishes wood.
20 | P a g e
Air
TIBET-In Bön or ancient Tibetan philosophy,
the five elemental processes of earth, water, fire,
air and space are the essential materials of all
existent phenomena or aggregates.
The names of the elements are analogous to
categorised experiential sensations of the natural
world. The names are symbolic and key to their
inherent qualities and/or modes of action by
analogy.
MEDIEVAL
ALCHEMY- The elemental system used in
Medieval alchemy was developed primarily by
the Persian alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber).
The three metallic principles—sulphur to
flammability or combustion, mercury to
volatility and stability, and salt to solidity.
ISLAMIC- The Islamic philosophers al-Kindi,
Avicenna and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi connected
the four elements with the four natures heat and
cold (the active force) dryness and moisture
(the recipients)
JAPAN- Japanese traditions use a set of
elements called the 五 大 (godai, literally "five
great"). These five are earth, water, fire,
wind/air, and void.
 Earth represented things that were solid.
 Water represented things that were
liquid.
 Fire represented things that destroy.
 Air represented things that moved.
 Void or Sky/Heaven represented things
not of our everyday life.
WESTERNASTROLOGY- Western astrology
uses the four classical elements in connection
with astrological charts and horoscopes. The
twelve signs of the zodiac are divided into the
four elements:
 Fire signs are Aries, Leo and
Sagittarius
 Earth signs are Taurus, Virgo and
Capricorn
 Air signs are Gemini, Libra and
Aquarius
 Water signs are Cancer, Scorpio, and
Pisces
MODERN -The Aristotelian tradition and
medieval Alchemy eventually gave rise to
modern scientific theories and new taxonomies.
Some modern scientists see a parallel between
the classical elements and the four states of
matter:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Weakly ionized plasma
John Dalton – (6 September 1766- 27 July
1844) was an English Chemist, Physicist and
meteorologist. He is best known for proposing
the modern atomic theory and for his research
into color blindness, sometimes referred to as
Daltonism in his honor. He was born into a
Quaker Family in Eaglesfield, near
Cockernouth, in Cumberland England.
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS:
Meteorology- Dalton’s early life was influenced
by a prominent Eaglesfield Quaker, Elihu
Robinson, a competent meteorologist and
instrument maker, who interested hum in
problems of mathematics and meteorology.
21 | P a g e
During his years in Kendal, Dalton contributed
solutions to problems and answered questions on
various subjects in The Ladies’ Diary and the
Gentleman’s Diary.
Measuring Mountains- after leaving the Lake
District, Dalton returned annually to spend his
holidays studying meteorology, something
which involved a lot of hill-walking. Until the
advent of aero planes and weather balloons, the
only way to make measurements of temperature
and humidity at altitude was to climb a
mountain. Dalton estimated the height using a
barometer.
Color Blindness- In 1794, shortly after his
arrival in Manchester, Dalton was elected a
member of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, the “Lit & Phil”, and a
few weeks later he communicated his first paper
on “Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of
colors”, in which he postulated that shortage in
color perception was caused by discoloration of
the liquid medium of the eyeball. As both he and
his brother were color blind, he recognized that
the condition must be hereditary.
Gas Laws- In 1800, Dalton became secretary of
the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, and in the following year he presented
an important series of lectures, entitled
“Experimental Essays” on the constitution of
mixed gases; the pressure of steam and other
vapours at different temperatures in a vacuum
and in air; on evaporation; and on the thermal
expansion of gases. The four essays, presented
between 2 and 30 October 1801, were
published in the Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester in 1802.
Atomic Theory- may have been suggested to
him either by researches on ethylene (olefiant
gas) and methane (carbureted hydrogen) or by
analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote)
and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both
views resting on the authority of Thomas
Thomson.
Atomic Weights- Dalton published his table of
relative atomic weights containing six elements,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and
phosphorus, with the atom of hydrogen
conventionally assumed to weigh 1. Dalton
provided no indication in this paper how he had
arrived at these numbers but in his laboratory
notebook, dated September 6 1803, is a list in
which he set out the relative weights of the
atoms of a number of elements, derived from
analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc.
by chemists of the time.
THE MAIN POINTS OF DALTON’S
ATOMIC THEORY ARE:
1. Elements are made extremely small
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical
in size, mass and other properties;
atoms of different elements differ in
size, matter and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created
or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine
in simple whole-number ratios to
form chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are
combined, separated or rearranged
Dalton proposed an additional controversial
“rule of greatest simplicity” that could not
be independently confirmed.
22 | P a g e
ATOMIC THEORY
A theory of the structure and behavior of atoms  The atoms of an element were identical
has taken more than two millenia to evolve, fro
m the abstract musings of ancient Greek philoso
phers to the high-tech experiments of
modern scientists.
However, prior to the scientific revolution and th
e development of the
scientific method starting in the 16th century, id
eas about the atom were mainly speculative
Itwasn't until the very end of the 19th century
that technology became
advanced enough to allow scientists a glimpse
of the atom's constituent parts: the electron,
nucleus, proton, and neutron.
GREEK ORIGINS
The idea that all matter is made up of tiny, indivi
sible particlesor atomsis believed to have origina
ted with the Greek philosopher Leucippus
of Miletus and his student Democritus of Abdera  In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr who had st
in the 5th century B.C.
The word atom comes from the Greek word
atomos, which means “indivisible”. These
thinkers held that, in addition to being to small
to be seen, unchangeable, and indestructible,
atoms were also completely solid, with no
internal structure, and came in an infinite variety
of shapes and sizes, which accounted for the
different kinds of matter. Color, taste and other
intangible qualities were also thought to be
composed of atoms.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT
Modern atomic theory is generally said to begin 
with John Dalton, an English chemist and
meteorologist who in 1808 published a book on t
he atmosphere and  97, scientists hadrealized that an atom must cont
the behavior of gases that was entitled A New S
ystem of Chemical  Philosophy.  ons' negative charge. In 1919, as abyproduct of h
Dalton's theory of atomsrested on four basic idea
s: chemical elements were composed of atoms; 
inweight; The atoms of different elements had di
fferent weights; And 
atoms combined only in small wholenumber rati
os, such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, and
2:3, to form compounds.
SUBATOMIC STRUCTURE
Dalton's work was mainly about the chemistry
of atoms—
how they combined to form new compounds—
rather than the physical, internal structure of ato
ms, although he never denied.The possibility of 
atoms' having a substructure. Modern theories a
boutthe physical structure of atoms did not begin 
until 1897, with J. J. Thomson's discovery of the
electron.
Bohr and Beyond
udied under both Thomson and
Rutherford, further refined the nuclear model by 
proposing 
that electrons moved only in restricted, successi
ve orbital shells and that the outer, higherenergy 
orbits determined the
chemical properties of the different elements. Fu
rthermore, Bohr was able to explain the spectral 
lines of the different elements by suggesting that 
as electrons jumped from higher tolower orbits, t
hey emitted energy in the form of light. Inthe 19
20s, Bohr's theory became the basis for quantum 
mechanics which explained in greater detail the 
complex structure and behavior of atoms.
Protons and Neutrons
Since Thomson's discovery of the electron in 18
ain a positive charge to counterbalance the electr
is experiments on the splitting of atomic nuclei, 
23 | P a g e
Rutherford discovered the proton which constitu
tes thenucleus of a hydrogen atom. A proton carr
ies a single positive electrical charge, and every 
atomic nucleus contains one or more protons. Al
though Rutherford proposed the existenceof a ne
utral subatomic particle, the neutron in 1920, the  compounds.
actual discovery was made by English physicist 
James Chadwick,
a former student of Rutherford, in 1932.
JOHN DALTON
 was born in September 06, 1766 and
died in July 27, 1844 at age 77
 John Dalton was an English chemist,
physicist, and meteorologist. He is best
known for proposing the modern atomic
theory and for his research into colour
blindness, sometimes referred to as
Daltonism in his honour.
 He known for atomic theory, Law of
Multiple propotions, Dalton’s Law of
partial pressures, Daltonism
ATOMIC THEORY -- traces its origins to
an ancient philosophical tradition known as
atomism.
Atomic theory is the scientific theory that
matter is composed of particles
called atoms.
The origin of Dalton’s atomic theory is not
fully understood.
 Main points of Dalton’s Atomic theory
are:
 Elements are made of extremely small
particles called atoms.
 Atoms of a given elements are identical
in size, mass, and other properties;
atoms of different elements differ in
size, mass and other properties.
 Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or
destroyed.
 Atoms of different combine in simple
whole-number ratios to form chemical
 In chemical reactions, atoms are
combined, separated, or rearranged.
 Dalton proposed an additional
controversial “rule of greatest
simplicity” that could not be
independently confirmed
“When atoms combine in only one ratio,
“it must be presumed to be a binary one,
unless some cause appear to the contrary”
 Atomic Weights (Mass)- is defined as
a weighted average over all naturally
occurring isotopes of the element.
- Dalton published his table of relative
atomic weights containing six elements,
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
sulfur, and phosphorus, with the atom of
hydrogen conventionally assumed to
weight.
- Gas Laws- In 1800 Dalton presented an
important series of lectures, Entitled
“Experimental Essays” on the
constitution of mixed gases;
- The pressure of steam and other
vapours at different temperatures in a
vacuum and in air; on evaporation and
on the thermal expansion of gases.