Chap.

3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Motivation: Diodes are useful in electronic switching and waveshaping circuits. However, they are

not capable of amplifying currents or voltages. “Transistor”, a three-terminal device, can amplify

current and voltage in conjunction with other circuit elements.

Two major types of transistors are BJT: switch, digital circuit, amplifying device

FET: ?

3.1 Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor

Two pn junctions in the BJT device, four possible bias combinations may be applied:
VBC
1. forward-active mode: E/B forward, B/C reverse  amplifying
Inverse
2. Inverse-active mode: E/B reverse, B/C forward  digital circuit Saturation
active
3. Saturation mode: E/B and B/C are forward  transistor in saturation
VBE
4. Cut-off mode: E/B and B/C are reverse-biased  transistor “OFF” Cut off Forward
active

3.2 Operation of the npn BJT in the Forward-Active Mode

1
Since E/B junction is forward biased, electrons from the emitter are injected across the E/B

junction into the base, creating an excess minority carrier in base. Since the B/C junction is reverse

biased, the electron concentration at the edge of the B/C junction is approximately zero. (electrons

are attracted across the B/C junction due to the reverse E-field)

Ideally, all the electrons injected from the emitter will be swept into the collector without

recombining with holes in baseelectron concentration is a linear function of distance across the

base. However, carrier recombination “does” occur in the base, the e - conc. will deviate from the

linear curve. To minimize recombination effects, the width of the neutral base must be smaller than

the minority carrier diffusion length.

The Different Current Components of BJT

2
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Collector Current

The # of electrons reaching the collector per time  #. of e- injected into the base, which is a

function the B/E voltage and is indep. of B/C voltage. IC  dn/dt  eVBE/KT

 Collector current is controlled by the B/E voltage; I C  I S eV BE / kT

Base Current

B/E is forward/biased, holes from the base flow across B/E junction into the emitter.

The base current iB1  the # of holes flowing into the emitter  eVBE/kT

A few electrons recombine with majority carrier hole in the base,. This “recombination current iB2

 #. of e- injected from the emitter  eVBE/kT

 total base current iB = iB1 + iB2  eVBE/kT, (Recall I C  I S eVBE / kT )

5
 iC
   F (100~200): Common-Emitter Current Gain,
iB

F is affected by two factors: base width (W) and the relative dopings of the base region and the
emitter region (nE / nB)
1. Usually nE ~ 1019, nB ~ 1017, nC ~ 1015,  the e- conc. in emitter >> the h+ conc. in base

 no. of e- injected into base >> no. of h+ injected into the emitter. iE >> iB1

2. if the base width is small  iB2 F 

Emitter Current

Since the current enters a transistor should leave it,  iE = iB + iC,

Recall: iC =F iB,  iE = iB + iC = (F +1) iB = F iC,

F F
F: common base current gain= ( 1, ~1 ifF >> 1) or  F 
F  1 F 1

Equivalent Circuit Models in forward active region

6
A general model (Ebers-Moll model)

3.3 The pnp Transistor

3.4 Circuit Symbols and Conventions

Arrows:
1. specify the emitter node.
2. indicate the normal current flow direction
of the emitter.
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I-V Characteristic of a npn BJT in common-emitter configuration

CE

Early Effect: at a given value of vBE, increasing vCE increases the reverse-bias voltage on the C/B

junction and thus increases the width of the depletion region in the base. This in turn results in a

decrease in the effective base width. Recalling Is  (1/WB),

As vCE  Is   ic 

The nonzero slope of the iC – vCE lines indicates that the output resistance ro is finite.
1
 i  VA
ro   C  
 vCE v BE  const 

IC

10
Complete Static Characteristics and Second-Order Effects
Common-Base Characteristics

11
Common-Emitter Characteristics

Fig. 4.68

12
 3.5 Analysis of the BJT circuits at DC

Example: 4.1 Consider the following circuit with F =100 and a vBE =0.7V. Find IE, IB, and IC.

V E  ( 10)
(1) VBE = 0.7 V  VE = -0.7 V (VB= 0 V)  I E   0.93 mA
RE
(2) assume this BJT in forward-active mode, IE = IC + IB, IC = FIB
F 50
IC  I E  0.93   0.91 mA,
F 1 50  1
(3) 
IE
IB   0.0182mA  18.2 A
F 1
(4)  IC = 0.91 mA  VC = 10-ICRC = 5.44 V
 VCE = VC - VE = 6.14 V > VCE(Sat) = 0.3 V
(Right Assumption)

Example 4.2 Example 4.4

F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V
F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V

Assume in forward-active mode, VBE = 0.7 V,

 to proof VCE > VCE(Sat) (1) VB = 0 V  B/E junction
(1) VBE = 0.7 V  VE = VB –0.7=5.3V cannot conduct!  IE = 0 A
V E  ( 0) (2) For B/C junction,
 IE   1.606 mA
3.3K reverse-biased  IC = 0 A
F 100 (3)  IB = 0 A BJT is cut-off!
 IC  I E  0.93   1.6 mA,
F 1 100  1
(2)  VC  10  I C  4.7 K  2.45V
 VCE  VC  V E  2.848V  
Not in forward-active mode! In fact, this BJT is in saturation!

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Example 4.3 Example 4.7

F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V

Assume in forward-active mode, VBE = 0.7 V, R BB  R B1 // R B 2  33.3k, V BB 

V 
 V  R B 2
 5V
 to proof VCE > VCE(Sat) R B1  R B 2
(6) VE = 0 V  VB = VBE =0.7V Assume in forward-active mode, VBE = 0.7 V,
5  VE  to proof VCE > VCE(Sat)
 IB   43 A
100K (3) VBB = IB  RBB + VBE +IE  RE
 I C   F I B  4.3 mA, (4)  5 = IB 33.3 + 0.7 +101 IB 3
(7)  VC  10  I C  2 K  1.4V  I B  12.78 A, I E   F  1I B  1.29mA, I C  1.28 mA
 VCE  VC  V E  1.4 V  0.3 V (5)  VCE  15  I C  RC  I E  R E  4.67 V  0.3 V
Right assumption!
Example 4.8 Right assumption!

+15 V

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Example 4.8

(1) Biasing circuit is the same as in Example 4.7  IB1 = 12.78 A ~ 0.012 mA.
V 15  V B1 V 15  V B1
 B1  I B1   B1  0.013  ,  V B1  4.57V
RB2 R B1 50 100
(2) VB1 =4.57V >>0.7V, assume BJT1 is in forward-active mode  to prove VCE > VCE(sat)
 IE1 = (F +1)IB1 = 1.29 mA, VE1 = IE1 RE1 = 3.87 V
 IC1 = F IB1 = 1.28 mA,  VC1 = ??? determined by Q2 and RC1
(3) For Q2, VC1 = VB2, VE2 = VB2+0.7 (assume Q2 is ON & in forward-active mode)
15  V E 2 15  (VC1  0.7)
 I E2  
RE 2 2
15  VC1 15  (VC1  0.7)
(4) For node C1, B2, KCL: IRC1 + IB2 = IC1    1.28mA
5 2
 VC1 = 8.74 V, IRC1 = 1.252 mA, IB2 = 0.0275 mA, IE2 = 2.78 mA, IC2 = 2.75 mA
 VE2 = 9.44 V, VC2 = 7.43 V, VB2 = 8.74 V,
 VEC2 = 2.01 > 0.3 = VEC(sat)
 VCE1 = 8.74-3.87 = 4.87 > 0.3 = VCE(sat)
Q1 & Q2 in forward-active mode, right assumption!

3.8 Biasing circuit for BJT

 Using a single power supply

The voltage divider network is the most commonly used for biasing a transistor amplifier is only a

single power supply is available.

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 VBB  VBE
Using Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can obtain I E 
RE  RB /  F  1

If VBB >> VBE and RE >> RB/(F+1), then IE is insensitive to temperature, VBE, and F.

1. However, there is a limit on how large VBB can be:

VBB  IE  Ic  VCB = VCC – ICRC – VB ~ VCC – ICRC – VBB 

 VCE = VCC – ICRC – VE ~ VCC – ICRC – VBB +VBE 

Recall, we want VCB and VCE to be large to provide a large signal swing before the BJT cutoff

or saturation. Therefore, there is a compromise between high VBB and VCB/ VCE. As a rule of

thumb, one designs for VBB  13 VCC , VCB (or VCE)  13 VCC , and ICRC  13 VCC

2. To let IE be insensitive to F, a smaller RB is needed. A smaller RB is achieved by using low

values of R1 and R2, which means that a higher current drain from the power supply and results

in a lowering of the input resistance of the amplifier (undesired), which is the trade-off involved

in this part of the design problem. Smaller R1 and R2 also mean that the base voltage is

determined solely by the voltage divider and is indep. of F. Typically, one selects R1 and R2

such that their current is about 0.1IE ~ IE.

1. RE in the emitter provides a negative feedback action to stabilize the bias current. Consider that

for some reason IE VE = IERE , since VB ~ constant VBE  IE 

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 Using Two power Supplies

A simpler bias arrangement is possible if two power supplies are available. In this case,
VEE  VBE
IE 
RE  RB /  F  1

 Alternative Bias Arrangement

IE VCC  VBE
VCC = IERC +IBRB+VBE = IERC + RB+VBE  I E 
F  1 RC  RB /  F  1
To obtain an IE insensitive to F, we select RB/(F+1)<<RC. However, the value of RB determines

the allowable signal swing at the collector since VCB = IBRB =IERB/(F+1)

 Biasing using a Current Source

The emitter current is independent of the values of F and RB. Thus RB can be made large to

increase the input resistance at the base without adversely affecting bias stability.

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Consider a current source circuit as shown: assume Q1, Q2 are matched.
VCC  ( VEE )  VBE
 I REF   I  current mirror
R

3.6 Transistor as an Amplifier

To operate as an amplifier a transistor must be biased in the active region. That is establishing a

constant dc current in the emitter (or the collector). This bias current should be predictable and

insensitive to variations in temperature, value of , and so on.

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 Load Line and Modes of Operation

A graphical analysis is illustrative to view the operation of a simple transistor amplifier circuit.

Consider the circuit of the following figure, a graphical analysis could be performed as follows:
2. Determination of the dc bias current of the transistor: that is to determine the dc base current IB
(or VBE).
3. Sketch the load line vCE = VCC – iCRC
the intercept point of the load line and the iC-vCE curve is the Q point.

If a small signal vi is applied to the base, the total instantaneous base-emitter voltage vBE becomes
vBE = VBE + vbe

Corresponding, the collector current becomes iC  I S ev BE / kT  I S e (VBE  vbe ) / kT  I C e vbe / kT

vbe v
If vbe << kT, iC  I C (1  )  I C  I C be  I C  ic ----small-signal approximation
kT kT
Thus the collector current is composed of the dc bias value IC and a signal component ic. The

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 iC IC
transconductance gm is defined by g m  
vBE iC  I C
kT

Fig 4.37

The Base Current and the input Resistance at the Base

vbe i I v
Recall iC  I C  ic  I C  I C  iB  C  I B  C be  I B  ib
kT F  F kT
The small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the base is defined by
vbe  F kT
r   
ib gm IB

The Emitter current and the input resistance at the Emitter

iC I C vbe
The total emitter current iE can be determined by iE   IE   I E  ie
F  F kT
Therefore, the small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter
v  kT
is defined by re  be  F   r   F  1re
ie gm IE

Voltage Gain

A small signal vbe applied,  small current signals ib, ic, iethe total collector voltage vC will

be vC  VCC  iC RC  VCC  ( I C  ic ) RC  VC  ic RC  VC  vc
vC
Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier is Voltage gain    g m RC
vbe

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3.7 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models

The analysis in the previous section indicates that every current and voltage in the amplifier circuit

is composed of two components: a dc component and a signal component. We can use

superposition principle to do the dc and ac analysis separately, and then sum up.

The right figure shows the expression for the

current increments ib, ic,and ie obtained when

a small signal vbe is applied.

 Hybrid- model

A equivalent circuit hybrid- model for the BJT is shown.

This model represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled

= IC/VT
=  /gm
current source, gmvbe, and includes the input resistance,

looking into the base r. This model can be used to carry

out small-signal analysis of all transistor circuits.

This model yields the correct expression ib, ic and ie.

 T model

This model represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source and includes the input

resistance, looking into the emitter, re. This model yields the correct expression ic and ie.

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  Modified hybrid- model to account for the Early Effect.

The Early effect causes the collector current to depend on vBE and vCE. Therefore, we have to

include the finite output resistance ro in the hybrid- model. Then, the output voltage will become

vo = -gmvbe(RC//ro)~ -gmvbeRC if ro >> RC. In general, the ro in the M, which is much larger than

RC ~ k.

B C

B
C

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 Application of the small-signal equivalent circuits

The availability of the small-signal BJT circuit models makes the analysis of transistor amplifier

circuits a systematic process.

The process consists of the following:

1. Determine the dc Q point and in particular the dc collector current IC.

2. Calculate the values of the small-signal model parameters:

gm = IC/kT, r= /gm, and re = gm/(+1)
3. Eliminate the dc sources by replacing each dc voltage source with a short circuit and

each dc current source with an open circuit.

4. Replace the BJT with one of its small-signal equivalent circuit models.

5. Analyze the resulting circuit to determine the required quantities.

VCC = +10V
Example: 4.9 Determine the voltage gain the BJT amplifier.

Solution: Assume  = 100. VBE(on) = 0.7 V.

1. The dc Q point is determined by setting the small-signal

source=0 and assume in the forward-active mode:

VBB  VBE 3  0.7
IB    0.023 mA, IC = IB = 2.3 mA
RBB 100

VC = VCC – ICRC = +3.1 V  VCB >0 and VCE>VCE(sat). (right assumption)

2. To determine the small-signal parameters:

IC  r
gm   92 mA/V, r   1.09 k, re    10.8
kT gm  1
3. Draw the small-signal equivalent circuit by the hybrid- model.
r
4. vo   g m vbe RC , vbe  vi
RBB  r
vo vo vbe  g m r RC  RC
 Av      3.04 V/V
vi vbe vi r  RBB r  RBB

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There is a constraint on the maximum amplitude that vi is allowed to have i.e., to ensure the BJT
still operates in forward-active mode. Consider that if the peak amplitude of vbe,
R r
Vˆbe = 10 mV.  the peak amplitude of the input signal Vˆi  Vˆbe BB   0.91 V
r

the peak amplitude of the collector voltage vc: VˆC  AvVˆi  0.91  3.04  2.77 V

the collector voltage reaches a minimum of 3.1-2.77=0.33 V<the base voltage~0.71 V

Thus, the BJT is not in the forward-active mode with vi having a peak value of 0.91 V.

We can easily determine the maximum value of the peak of the input signal such that the BJT

remains in forward-active mode by finding the value of Vˆi that corresponds to the minimum

value of the collector voltage being equal to the base voltage, which is ~0.7V.

Vˆ
Thus the maximum Vˆc =3.1-0.7=2.4 V  the maximum Vˆi  C  0.79 V
Av

Effects of Bias-Point on Allowable Signal Swing

The location of the dc bias point in the iC-vCE curve plane significantly affects the maximum

allowable signal swing at the collector.

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Consider the QA point: this corresponds to a low value of RC and results in the vCE very close to

VCC. Thus, the positive swing of vCE will be severely limited. On the other hand, the bias point QB

corresponds to a large value of RC and results in the vCE too low. Thus, the negative swing of vCE

will be severely limited by the proximity to the saturation region. We have to bias the BJT

carefully to have the maximum input swing as an amplifier.

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3.9 Basic BJT Configurations

 The Common-Emitter Amplifier

I: a constant-current source is assumed to have a high output resistance.

CE: a bypass capacitor connecting the emitter and ground is assumed to be sufficiently large

so that its resistance, 1/jCE, is small at all signal frequencies of interest. In effect, CE

short-circuits the emitter to ground as far as signals are concerned.

The input signal vs is fed into the base, the output signal vo is taken at the collector, and the

emitter is common-grounded. We wish to analyze the CE amplifier to determine its input

resistance Ri, voltage gain Av, current gain Ai s, and the output resistance Ro.

input resistance: Ri  vi/ ii = v/ ib =r

r v  RC // ro 
voltage gain vo = -gmv(RC//ro); v =vs  Av  o  
r  RS vs RS  r
 RC // ro 
if RS >> r,  Av   ---- highly dep. on 
RS
 RC // ro 
if RS << r,  Av     g m RC // ro  ;
r
for discrete circuits, RC << ro,  Av   g m RC
for IC amplifiers, maximum possible gain is interested, so RC is set 
I V V
 Av   g m ro   C A   A ---- indep. of IC
kT I C kT
ro v i ro
Current gain: io   g m v , iS  ib    Ai  o     - if RC << ro
ro  RC r is ro  RC

vx
output resistance Ro   Rc // ro since v = 0 due to vs is set to 0.
Ix vS  0

33
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35
Common-Emitter amplifier with RE in the emitter

Fig. 4.44 (a)

Ri

36
Including s resistance between emitter and ground can lead to significant changes in the amplifier
characteristics.
1. Input resistance Ri  by a factor of (1+gmRe)
2. Av , but is less sensitive to .
3. large voltage swing at input signal, because only small fraction of input signals at the base
appears between base and emitter. (by a factor of 1+gmRe)

vb v  ve ie (re  Re )
Input resistance: Ri       1(re  Re )
ib ib ib
Ri (with Re ) (   1)(re  Re ) R
Compared to Ri (w/o Re)    1  e  1  g m Re
Ri ( w/o Re )   1re re

vo iR  ie RC  RC
Voltage Gain: Av   o C  
vs ib Rs  vb ib Rs  ie (re  Re ) Rs    1re  Re 
 RC
Compared to Av(w/o Re)= , gain is lower but less sensitive to .
Rs

v re 1
Input Voltage Swing:   , thus for the same v, the input signal can be
vb re  Re 1  g m Re
greater than that for the CE amplifier by the factor (1+gmRe) without incurring nonlinear distortion.

37
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40
Common-Base Amplifier

RO

Ri

ve
Input resistance: Ri   re (very small ~25 at a bias current of 1 mA)
ii
vo io RC  ie RC RC
Voltage Gain: Av     ,
vs ii ( Rs  re )  ie ( Rs  re ) Rs  re 
 indep. of , but depends critically on Rs.
 if Rs>>re, Av  RC/Rs; (more common)
 if RC<<re, Av  gmRC; (very rare since re is very small)
i  ie
Current Gain: Ai  o    1: common-base short-circuit current gain
ii i e
Output resistance: Ro  RC
Comment: Since the input resistance is very small, the CB circuit alone is not attractive as a
voltage amplifier. It is more suitable as a unity-gain current amplifier or current buffer. The
most significant advantage of the CB circuit is its excellent high-frequency response.

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Common-Collector Amplifier or Emitter Follower
Applications in the design of amplifiers, both small-signal and large-signal and in digital circuits.
The input signal is applied to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.

vb ie (re  ro // RL )
Input resistance: Ri      1re  ro // RL 
ib ib
For the case re  RL  ro  Ri    1RL
The CC amplifier exhibits a relatively large input resistance.
Voltage gain:
v i (r // RL )
Av  o  e o 
ie (ro // RL )

  1(ro // RL ) 11
vs ib RS  vb ib RS  ie re  ro // RL  RS    1re  ro // RL 
Output resistance:
vx  ie re  1   ie RS   R  R
Ro    ro // re  S   re  S relatively LOW
ix vs  0
vx
i    1  1
ro e
io r
Current gain: Ai     1 o    1 if RL << ro.
ib ro  RL

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Summary:
1. high input resistance
2. low output resistance: useful as the last stage or output stage in a multistage amplifier.
3. voltage gain1
4. large current gain+1
Comment: It is suited for applications in which a high-resistance source is to be connected to a
low-resistance load, namely as a voltage buffer amplifier.

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3.10 BJT as a Switch – Cutoff and Saturation

Cutoff Region: If vI < 0.5 V, the BJT is in the cutoff mode, iB = iE = iC = 0, vC = VCC

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Active Region
To turn the BJT on, vBE should be about 0.7 V and vI >0.7 V.
v  0. 7
iB  I , iC = iB, vC = VCC - iCRC and then check whether vCB  0.
RB

Saturation Region
Saturation occurs when we attempt to force a current in
the collector higher than the collector circuit can support while maintaining active-mode
operation.
In saturation, the base voltage is higher than the collector
voltage by about 0.4 to 0.6 V, that is vCE  0.1 ~ 0.3 V
( set VCEsat  0.2 V).
V  VCEsat
I Csat  CC ,
RC
I Csat
we at least force a base current I B ( EOS )  to ensure the BJT in saturation. Normally, IB

is higher than IB(EOS) by a factor of 2 to 10. So in saturation, the ratio of IC/IB is called forced
I
 (forced).  forced  Csat   F
IB

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Model for the Saturated BJT

npn

Example 4.13 Example 4.15

Thus the BJT is operated at a forced  of

forced = IC/IB = 0.96/0.64 = 1.5 < F

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Basic BJT Logic Inverter

If the input voltage vI is “high”, say vI = VCC,

The BJT is conducting and saturated with
appropriate choice of RB and RC. vO

 vO = VCEsat =0.2 V “Low”

If the input voltage vI is “Low”, say vI = CEsat =0.2 V,

The BJT is cutoff, iC = 0, and vO = VCC “high”

Comment: The choice of cutoff and saturation as the two modes of operation of the BJT logic
circuit is motivated by
1. low power dissipation: the currents in cutoff region are all zero and the voltage across the
transistor is very small (VCEsat) in saturation
2. The output voltage-levels (VCC and VCEsat) are well defined. If operating in the
forward-active mode, vO = VCC – iCRC = VCC - iBRC, highly dependent on .

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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
If RB = 10 k, RC = 1 k, =50, and VCC = 5 V

1. At vI = VOL =VCEsat =0.2 V, vO = VOH =VCC =5 V

2. vI = VIL, BJT is “on” thus, VIL  0.7 V
3. For VIL < vI < VIH, BJT in forward-active mode,
v RC
The small-signal gain is Av  o     5 V/V
vs RB  r
4. At vI = VIH, the BJT enters the saturation region.
VIH is the value of vI that results in
V  VCEsat  / RC
I B  I B ( EOS )  CC

IB(EOS) = 0.096 mA, VIH = IB(EOS)RB +VBE =1.66 V
5. For vI = VOH = 5V, BJT in saturation with
vO =VCEsat = 0.2 V
6. The noise margin:
NMH=VOH – VIH = 3.34 V
NML = VIL – VOL = 0.5 V

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High-Frequency hybrid- model

Cutoff Frequency
Consider the CE short-circuit current gain, hfe, in which the collector is shorted to the emitter.
(That is, no load is connected).

At node C, the short-circuit collector current Icis given by Ic = (gm-sC)V

Ib
While, the relation ship between V and Ib is given by V  I b ( r  // C // C  ) 
1 r  sC  sC 

Ic g m  sC 
Therefore, the CE short-circuit current gain, hfe, can be obtained: h fe   ;
I b 1 r  s(C  C  )

if gm >> Cwe can neglect the sCterm and then

g m r 0
h fe   , where 0 is the low-frequency value of .
1  s(C  C  ) r 1  s(C  C  ) r
1
The 3dB frequency    ;
C   C r
gm gm
The unity-gain bandwidth T  or f T  : a function of IC and VCE.
C   C  2 C   C 
IC
Recall, g m   I C , but only part of C is directly proportional to IC.
kT
So at low IC current, fT  gm  IC.
At high IC current, fT drops due to the decrease of 0 at high currents.
At mid IC current, fT is almost constant since C is dominated by the diffusion part.
Typically, fT is in the range of 100 MHz to hundreds of GHz. And the value of fT can be used
to determine C + C

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Example: Frequency Response of The CE Amplifier

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High Frequency Response

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Low Frequency Response

Figure 5.73 Analysis of the low-frequency response of the CE amplifier: (a) amplifier circuit with dc
sources removed; (b) the effect of CC1 is determined with CE and CC2 assumed to be acting as perfect short
circuits;

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Figure 5.73 (Continued) (c) the effect of CE is determined with CC1 and CC2 assumed to be
acting as perfect short circuits; (d) the effect of CC2 is determined with CC1 and CE assumed
to be acting as perfect short circuits;

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SPICE BJT MODEL

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H.W.: 5.20, 5.21, 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, 5.36, 5.44, 5.47, 5.53, 5.57, 5.58, 5.65, 5.66, 5.67, 5.69, 5.74,
5.78, 5.79, 5.87, 5.96, 5.98, 5.100, 5.112, 5.115, 5.124, 5.126, 5.130, 5.135, 5.141, 5.143, 5.159,
5.166

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