Professional Documents
Culture Documents
APTITUDE
PART 1
Syllabus
1. Research
2. Methods of Research
3. Steps of Research
4. Thesis and Article writing
5. Application of ICT in research.
6. Research ethics
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A theory is defined as
(a) Set of systematically related statements
(b) Law like generalizations
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
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Epistemology refers to
(a) A term specifically used in the social sciences.
(b) A term used to study the types of diseases.
(c) Acceptable level of knowledge in a field of study.
(d) A type of interviewing technique.
• Epistemology, the philosophical study of the nature, origin,
and limits of human knowledge. The term is derived from the
Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason”), and
accordingly the field is sometimes referred to as the theory of
knowledge.
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In every field, research pursuits promote systematic and gradual
advancement of knowledge but discoveries are rare because
a) Result is a continuous critical investigation.
(b) It is not common to be able to think beyond a grooved channel.
(c) Sustained experimental work needed for discovery is not easily
forthcoming.
(d) Most people lack the depth of knowledge needed for it.
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Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that
examines the fundamental nature of reality,
including the relationship between mind and
matter, between substance and attribute, and
between potentiality and actuality
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Which of the following statements is not correct?
(a) A researcher is expected to be a well-read person.
(b) One research gives birth to another research.
(c) All researchers contribute to existing knowledge.
(d) A good researcher is a nice person.
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Ø A systematic review collects all possible studies related to a given topic
and design, and reviews and analyzes their results. During the systematic
review process, the quality of studies is evaluated.
Ø A meta-analysis is a valid, objective, and scientific method of analyzing
and combining different results. Usually, in order to obtain more reliable
results, a meta-analysis is mainly conducted on randomized controlled
trials (RCTs), which have a high level of evidence.
Ø Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of
variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique extracts maximum
common variance from all variables and puts them into a common score
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The quality of research is judged by the
(a) Relevance of research
(b) Methodology adopted in conducting the research
(c) Depth of research
(d) Experience of researcher
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Which of the following options are the main tasks of research in modern
society?
(I) To keep pace with the advancement in the knowledge.
(II) To discover new things.
(III) To write a critique on the earlier writings.
(IV) To systematically examine and critically analyse the investigations or
sources with objectivity.
(a) IV, II, and I
(b) I, II, and III
(c) I and III
(d) II, III, and IV
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What do you consider as the main aim of interdisciplinary
research?
(a) To bring out holistic approach to research.
(b) To reduce the emphasis of single subject in research domain.
(c) To oversimplify the problem of research.
(d) To create a new trend in research methodology.
Ø "Interdisciplinary research is a mode of research by teams or
individuals that integrates information, data, techniques,
tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or
more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to
advance fundamental understanding or to solve problems
whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or
area of research practice."
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The depth of any research can be judged by
(a) Title of the research.
(b) Objectives of the research.
(c) Total expenditure on the research.
(d) Duration of the research.
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Ø Positivism is a philosophical theory that states that "genuine"
knowledge (knowledge of anything that is not true by
definition) is exclusively derived from experience of natural
phenomena and their properties and relations.
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Ontology refers to what sort of things exist in the
social world and assumptions about the form and
nature of that social reality. ... Epistemology is
concerned with the nature of knowledge and ways of
knowing and learning about social reality.
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METHODS OF RESEARCH
Methods of Research
1. Experimental
2. Descriptive
3. Historical
4. Qualitative
5. Quantitative methods.
Ø Cook has beautifully outlined research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent
searching for facts and their meanings or implications, with reference to a problem.
To him, research is an acronym of the following that defines its essence.
R = Rational ( Logical ) way of thinking
E = Expert and exhaustive (considering all elements or aspects) treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts
C = Critical observation, careful planning, constructive attitude and condensed
generalization
H = Honesty and hard working
classification of research
on the basis of
Objectives
Descriptive Research
Ø The term ‘Descriptive’ is self-explanatory and the research that describes
a situation, an event and an institution is descriptive research.
Ø It describes the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of study.
Ø Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and
how.....
Ø Descriptive research is a quantitative research method.
Ø In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the
phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.
Ø Here, the information is collected without changing the environment
(i.e., nothing is manipulated).
Ø It is ‘any study that is not truly experimental’.
Ø It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries with adequate
interpretation.
Ø National Sample Surveys (NSS) and Census can be taken as the best
examples of descriptive research.
Ø Census unveils what exists, but not necessarily known with accuracy, such
as population, literacy, etc., and also the differences among states.
Ø Studying relationships between two or more variables also falls under the
scope of descriptive studies. For example, ‘study the problem of
relationship between residential status of learners and their performance
in university examination’.
Depending upon the number of times the data is collected, descriptive
research can be of two types:
1. Cross-sectional study: Onetime interaction or one time data collection.
2. Longitudinal study: A study that collects data more than once from the
same individuals.
Types Of Descriptive Research
1. Survey research
2. Correlational studies
3. Causal comparative studies
Ø Ex post facto, historical, exploratory and analytical research are other
variants of descriptive research
Survey research
Ø Surveys are conducted to create authentic descriptions of existing
situation, phenomena that help carrying out situational analysis,
diagnosing problems and make more informed decisions and
intelligent plans for improving the situation.
Ø The objective may not only be to ascertain the status, but also to
evaluate the status against pre-decided norms or established
standards.
Ø Researcher needs to collect data according to the purpose of survey.
Correlational studies
Ø As the name indicates, the purpose of correlational studies is to explore
whether there is any relationship or interdependence between two
variables or characteristics, and to ascertain the degree of such
relationships.
Ø The value of correlational research is to discover relationships among
phenomena with a view to predict and in some situations, controlling
their occurrence.
Correlational studies are generally intended to answer the following three
questions.
1. Is there a relationship between two variables (or two sets of data)? If
‘yes’, then two other questions follow:
2. What is the direction of the relationship and is it positive or negative?
3. What is the magnitude of the relationship as indicated by the coefficient
of correlation?
ex post facto research
1. It is conducted in context of a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the
time of its occurrence.
2. It basically deals with non-manipulated variables of a phenomenon.
3. It is used in social sciences and business organizations.
historical research
1. It usually focuses on the historical aspect of an issue of interest or
problem.
2. Ex: evolution of modern education system in India, etc.
Analytical research
1. In this method, the researcher uses facts or information already
available.
2. It attempts to make critical evaluation of the material.
exploratory research
1. It is generally done in the beginning of a research. It is undertaken to explore an area where
little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study
and is akin to feasibility study or pilot study. A ‘small-scale study’ is undertaken to decide
whether it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation.
2. It attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a
situation or phenomenon.
3. The purpose of exploratory research is to gain background information, to define terms, to
clarify the problems, to develop hypothesis, to establish research priorities and objectives,
and to develop questions to be answered.
4. It makes use of secondary data (mainly literature review), experience surveys, case studies,
interviews (mainly focus groups’ interviews), projective techniques, and Delphi techniques.
explanatory research
Ø Explanatory research attempts to answer how and why between two
aspects of a situation or a phenomenon.
Ø For example, why examination related stress leads to rote learning?
Ø Why and how stress leads to a heart disease?
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Ø It begins with a question concerning the relationship between two or
more variables.
Ø Simultaneously, the researcher develops one or more hypotheses to
state the nature of expected relationship.
Ø The experiment is the event planned and carried out by the researcher
tries to get evidence.
Ø The application of experimental method yielded better results in
physical sciences. Therefore, this method was soon applied to other
sciences like biological sciences and medicine.
In its simplest form, an experiment has three characteristics as follows:
1. An independent variable is manipulated.
2. All other variables except the independent variables are held constant.
3. The effect of manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent
variable is observed.
Ø For example, to examine the effect of different teaching methods upon
achievement in reading, an investigator would manipulate method, the
independent variable, by using different teaching methods in order to
ascertain their effect upon achievement, the dependent variable.
three characteristics of experimental research
• Control: Control is the first essential ingredient of experimental
method. The main purpose of ‘ control’ in an experiment is to arrange a
situation in which the effect of variables can be measured, specifically
to evaluate the effects of an independent variable.
• Manipulation
It refers to a deliberate operation performed by the researcher. In contrast
to the descriptive research, in which the researcher simply observes
conditions as they occur naturally, the researcher in the experimental
research actually sets the stage for the occurrence of the factors whose
performance is to be studied under conditions where all other factors are
controlled or eliminated.
• Observation: In experimentation, we are interested in the effect of the
Observation of the independent variable on a dependent variable
classification of research
on the basis of
Outcome
Classification Of Research
On The Basis Of
Logic
In research, the conclusions are based on two approaches and
they are known as deduction and induction.
Classification Of Research
On The Basis Of
Inquiry Mode
Ø Basically, the process adopted to find answers to research
questions involves two approaches, they are structured and
unstructured.
Classification Of Research
On The Basis Of
Process
Quantitative research
• It is similar to deductive research. It is also termed as linear research as it
typically follows a linear path.
1. Stating with testable hypothesis
2. Collection of data
3. Analysing the data
4. Accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
• Quantitative research is mostly associated with the positivist or post-
positivist paradigm. It involves collecting and converting data into
numerical form. We can do statistical calculations and draw conclusions.
Qualitative research
1. This is basically an approach and not just a method to conduct research.
2. Qualitative research is basically inductive or spiral in nature and has a very
different structure.
3.The researcher starts with a tentative idea or question and these questions
become more specific with progress in research. Then, a pattern may
emerge in research.
4. Thus, in qualitative research, one starts with observation and ends with a
theoretical position or stance. Thus, it is inductive in nature, i.e., the
research moves from specific to theory
Classification Of Research
On The Basis Of
Concept
Ø Conceptual research is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing concepts. It is related
to some abstract idea or theory.
Action Research
1. Planning: First thing to do is to analyze the problem Scientifically in the
specific perspective in which the problem has emerged.
Ø Planning covers the initial reflection.
Ø A teacher faces a number of issues in the teaching- learning process
which needs to be addressed. It may be a general concern, a perceived
need or a problem with a class you are teaching.
Ø Planning entails identification of the problem and changes a teacher can
make to overcome the problem
2. Action: After the planning stage in which all the procedures of
investigation have been determined, comes the action stage. This stage is
time bound. The researcher has to administer tools to collect data and
information. Systematic analysis has to be done. Results have to be
recorded.
3. Observation: During ‘action research’, observation of tools has to be done
cautiously. Observation has to be objectively done without any
presuppositions. The detailed observations, monitoring and recording
enables you to report your findings to others. Those involved in action
research should also keep a detailed diary or journal.
4. Reflection: Once the results have been obtained and analyzed and
conclusions drawn, you are ready to initiate. It is also aimed at adopting a
new method.
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Case study
A case study involves an up-close, in-depth, and detailed
examination of a particular case or cases, within a real-world
context
Naturalistic observation is a research method in which
people or other subjects are observed in their natural setting.
Psychologists and other social scientists use naturalistic
observation to study specific social or cultural settings
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ØA cross-sectional study is conducted at a given point in time.
Ø A longitudinal study requires a researcher to revisit participants
of the study at proper intervals
ØCross-sectional study is conducted with different samples.
ØLongitudinal study is conducted with the same sample over the
years.
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Research study that take place over a long period
of time is termed as
(a) Cross-sectional research
(b) Longitudinal research
(c) Research methodology
(d) None of the above
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Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a
problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a
better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide
conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a
general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues,
that can be the focus for future research.
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that
increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers,
however he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends
to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to
do an exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection
will enable him to get more customers of if there is a better idea.
Descriptive research is a type of research that
describes a population, situation, or
phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses
on answering the how, what, when, and
where questions, rather than the why.
Let us take the case of a sports clothing brand. The
sports brand wants to set up a business in selling gym
gears. They want to know about in detail about the kind
of clothes people want to wear while exercising in the
gym. To get in-depth information about the preference
of people, they adopted two descriptive methods one is
naturalistic observation, and the other is a survey.
• Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves
critical thinking skills and the evaluation of facts and
information relative to the research being conducted. A
variety of people including students, doctors and
psychologists use analytical research during studies to find
the most relevant information.
Ø Predictive Research concerned with forecasting future events or behavior:
the assessment of variables at one point in time so as to predict a
phenomenon assessed at a later point in time.
Ø For example, a researcher might collect high school data, such as grades,
extracurricular activities, teacher evaluations, advanced courses taken,
and standardized test scores, in order to predict such college success
measures as grade-point average at graduation, awards received, and
likelihood of pursuing further education
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• Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category
of research design in which the investigation starts after the
fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.
• Field experiments are studies using experimental design that
occur in a natural setting. Researchers examine how the
manipulation of at least one independent variable leads to a
change in a dependent variable in the context of the natural
environment
• Historical research is a qualitative technique. Historical
research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to
interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their
effect in the present events
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• The process of the scientific method involves making
conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as
logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or
empirical observations based on those predictions.
... Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments
or studies.
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A field experiment is one that takes place in
(a) Real world
(b) Laboratory
(c) Both in real world and laboratory
(d) None of the Above
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• A causal relationship is when one variable causes a change in
another variable. These types of relationships are investigated
by experimental research in order to determine if changes in
one variable actually result in changes in another variable.
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Ø Empirical research is a type of research methodology that
makes use of verifiable evidence in order to arrive
at research outcomes. In other words, this type
of research relies solely on evidence obtained through
observation or scientific data collection methods
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Triangulation means using more than one method to collect data on the
same topic. This is a way of assuring the validity of research through
the use of a variety of methods to collect data on the same topic, which
involves different types of samples as well as methods of data collection.
However, the purpose of triangulation is not necessarily to cross-validate
data but rather to capture different dimensions of the same phenomenon
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Ø Halo effect is the tendency for positive impressions of a
person, company, brand or product in one area to positively
influence one's opinion or feelings in other areas. Halo effect
is “the name given to the phenomenon whereby evaluators
tend to be influenced by their previous judgments of
performance or personality.
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Ø Rationalism is the practice of only believing what is based on
reason. An example of rationalism is not believing in the
supernatural. The theory that the exercise of reason, rather
than experience, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides
the primary basis for knowledge.
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Ø The degree to which our results can be generalized beyond our study is
called external validity (are the results from my study true beyond the
sample I used and the setting I studied?).
Ø There are two types of external validity:
Ø population generalizability and ecological generalizability.
Ø Population generalizability is the degree to which results can be
generalized beyond a sample to a target population.
Ø Ecological generalizability is the degree to which a study can be
generalized to other settings.
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Research is not considered ethical if it
(a) Tries to prove a particular point.
(b) Does not ensure privacy and anonymity of the
respondent.
(c) Does not investigate the data scientifically.
(d) Is not of a very high standard.
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Ø A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which
you collect data from many different individuals at a single
point in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe
variables without influencing them
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Ø Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of
variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique extracts maximum
common variance from all variables and puts them into a common score.
Ø Simple correlation is a measure used to determine the strength and the
direction of the relationship between two variables, X and Y. A simple
correlation coefficient can range from –1 to 1
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Variables
Intervening variables: These are also termed as mediator variables. They
establish link between IV and DV. These are variables through which one
variable affects another variable. These are helpful to understand the
process.
• An active variable is a variable that can be manipulated. ...
An attribute/subject variable is a variable that cannot be
manipulated. An example of an attribute variable is gender,
race, psychological condition, and or any characteristic that is
inherent or pre-programmed and cannot be altered
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• A control variable (or scientific constant) in scientific
experimentation is an experimental element which is constant
and unchanged throughout the course of the investigation
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Triangulation means using more than one method to collect data on the
same topic. This is a way of assuring the validity of research through
the use of a variety of methods to collect data on the same topic, which
involves different types of samples as well as methods of data collection.
However, the purpose of triangulation is not necessarily to cross-validate
data but rather to capture different dimensions of the same phenomenon
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Types of sampling techniques:
1. Probability or random samples:
Probability or random sampling is mostly correct, still some error, technically
known as ‘Margin of Error’ cannot be avoided. It can be calculated
statistically and accounted for in the results.
(a) Simple random sample:
Every element or member of the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected.
(b) Stratified random sample:
In case, the population is heterogeneous, the population can be divided into
different strata. The population within a stratum is homogeneous with
respect to the characteristics under study. Population is divided into
mutually exclusive groups, such as age groups and random samples are
drawn from each group.
(c) Cluster sample:
Ø The simple and stratified sampling is adopted in situations when
population size is small and units are identifiable. But if the
population is larger, the researcher can go for cluster sampling. The
population is divided into mutually exclusive groups and the
researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.
Ø For example, in a national level survey, at the first few levels, a few
states may be selected. Within the states, a few districts may be
selected and then, within each district, blocks may be selected and
then villages. It is termed as ‘multistage cluster sampling’.
The sample size for any research study depends upon
four Ps:
1. Purpose: The required precision of study.
2. Population: The size and nature of population under study
3. Procedure: The time, budget and resources available.
4. Publishing: The importance of the studies.
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Ø Primary data is information collected through original or first-
hand research. For example, surveys and focus group
discussions. On the other hand, secondary data is information
which has been collected in the past by someone else. For
example, researching the internet, newspaper articles and
company reports
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Ø The placebo effect is the positive effect on a person's health
experienced after taking a placebo. It is triggered by the person's
belief in the benefit from the treatment and their expectation of
feeling better, rather than the characteristics of the placebo.
Ø A placebo is anything that seems to be a "real" medical treatment --
but isn't. It could be a pill, a shot, or some other type of "fake"
treatment. What all placebos have in common is that they do not
contain an active substance meant to affect health.
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Which of the following statements is not true in the context of
participatory research?
(1) It recognizes knowledge as power.
(2) It emphasises on people as experts.
(3) It is a collective process of enquiry.
(4) Its individual work
• Participatory research integrates scientific investigation with
education and political action. Researchers work with
members of a community to understand and resolve
community problems, to empower community members, and
to democratize research
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A researcher is interested in studying the prospects of a
particular political party in an urban area. What tool should he
prefer for the study?
(1) Rating scale
(2) Interview
(3) Questionnaire
(4) Schedule
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Ethical norms in research do not involve guidelines for:
(1) Thesis format
(2) Copyright
(3) Patenting policy
(4) Data sharing policies
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Which of the following is an initial mandatory
requirement for pursuing research?
(1) Developing a research design
(2) Formulating a research question
(3) Deciding about the data analysis procedure
(4) Formulating a research hypothesis
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The principal of a school conducts an interview session of
teachers and students with a view to explore the possibility of
their enhanced participation in school programmes. This
endeavour may be related to which type of research?
(1) Evaluation Research
(2) Fundamental Research
(3) Action Research
(4) Applied Research
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In doing action research what is the usual sequence
of steps?
(1) Reflect, observe, plan, act
(2) Plan, act, observe, reflect
(3) Plan, reflect, observe, act
(4) Act, observe, plan, reflect
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Which sequence of research steps is logical in the list given below?
(1) Problem formulation, Analysis, Development of Research design, Hypothesis making,
Collection of data, Arriving at generalizations and conclusions.
(2) Development of Research design, Hypothesis making, Problem formulation, Data
analysis, Arriving at conclusions and data collection.
(3) Problem formulation, Hypothesis making, Development of a Research design,
Collection of data, Data analysis and formulation of generalizations and conclusions.
(4) Problem formulation, Deciding about the sample and data collection tools,
Formulation of hypothesis, Collection and interpretation of research evidence.
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The issue of ‘research ethics’ may be considered pertinent
at which stage of research?
(1) At the stage of problem formulation and its definition
(2) At the stage of defining the population of research
(3) At the stage of data collection and interpretation
(4) At the stage of reporting the findings.
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Which of the following research types focuses on
ameliorating the prevailing situations?
(1) Fundamental Research
(2) Applied Research
(3) Action Research
(4) Experimental Research
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In which of the following arrangements a wider spectrum
of ideas and issues may be made possible?
(1) Research Article
(2) Workshop mode
(3) Conference
(4) Symposium
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Ø Evaluative research, also known as
program evaluation or evaluation research, is a type
of research you can use to evaluate a product or concept and
collect data that helps improve your solution.
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