COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Definition: Communication comes from the Latin word “communicare’’ which means to make
common or share. Therefore, communication is a process by which meaning is exchanged
between individuals or an individual and a group through a common system of symbols, signs
and behaviour. Communication is also defined as a process of sharing or exchanging ideas,
information, knowledge, attitude or feelings through certain signs, symbols and behaviour.

Business Communication: Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities

including but not limited to; strategic communication planning, media relations, public
relations, brand management, reputation management, speech writing, customer/client
relations and internal/employee communication. The most important qualifications for
communications professionals can possess are: excellent writing ability, good people skills and
the capability to think critically and strategically.

Importance of Studying Communication

1. It helps in understanding and insight of oneself and others. Self-awareness is the way we
see ourselves. Most of our self-knowledge comes from communication with ourselves
(intrapersonal communication) and communication with other people (interpersonal
communication).
2. Effective communication can improve our self-worth. Studying communication and using
it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of ourselves. It enables us to positively
project ourselves in image management.
3. It can increase our knowledge about human relationship. Studying communication
includes learning about how people relate with one another and about what
communication is appropriate for a given situation.
4. It teaches us important life skills. It can help us acquire life skills such as decision making,
public speaking etc which are important in academic and career development.

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5. It can help us succeed professionally. Employers regard highly written, oral and other
communication competencies. Entrepreneurs also regard communication skills as top
priority skills for success.
6. Poor communication may lead to misunderstanding, frustration, being ignored by others,
unsuccessful careers etc.

Importance of communication in an organization

1. Promotes motivation: By informing and clarifying the employees about the task to be
done, the manner they are performing the task and how to improve their performance.
2. Source of information: it is a source of information to the organizational members for
decision making process as it helps in identifying and assessing alternative courses of
action.
3. Altering individual’s attitudes: Well informed individuals will have better attitude than less
informed individuals. Communication helps in moulding employees’ attitudes.
4. Helps in socializing: In today’s life, the only presence of another individual fosters
communication. It is also said that one cannot service without communication.
5. Controlling process: It helps controlling organizational members’ behaviour in various
ways. There are various levels of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that
employees must follow in an organization. They must comply with organizational policies,
perform their jobs roles efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to
their superiors. Thus communication helps in controlling function of management.
N/B: A manager must discover various barriers to communication analyze the reasons for
their occurrence and take preventive steps to avoid those barriers.

Elements/Components of Communication

1. People. These are the participants in the communication process. People are involved in
communication in two roles: - they are the sources and receivers of messages. Sources
initiate/compose the intended message while receivers are the intended target of
message.
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 2. Message. This is the verbal or nonverbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one
person (source) wishes to communicate to a group of people (receivers). Message is the
content of interaction.
3. Channel. This is the means by which a message moves from a source to a receiver. It is
also called the medium of transmission. The medium may be in the form of sound
waves (in oral- auditory messages) or as light waves (in visual communication such as
written communication).
4. Feedback. This is the receiver’s verbal, nonverbal or written response to the message
from the source. Feedback is part of any communication such that even non response is
feedback
5. Code. This is the systematic arrangement of symbols used by the source or receiver or
receiver to create meaning in the mind of another person(s) or receiver(s).The code may
be in the form of: language chosen, grammatical structure, words and phrases used,
non-verbal codes you may choose.
6. Encoding. Encoding is the act of putting ideas and thoughts into a code, while decoding
is interpreting/making sense to those ideas or thoughts.
7. Noise. Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity
of a message. Noise can be in the form of: physical (distracting sounds or sights),
psychological (mental and emotional interference) or semantic noise (use of expressions
that are unknown to the receiver or too complex.

The communication process

The process of communication refers to the stages through which a message passes for it to be
completely delivered and for it to revoke the desired response. The process of communication
is also referred to as a communication cycle. The steps in a communication process are:-

i. Sender- Encoding the message

ii. Channel of communication- Medium
iii. Receiver- Decoding

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 iv. Interpret the message
v. Comprehension/understanding the message
vi. Feedback/Conclusion

Sender: This is the originator of the message. He is the person who releases the information for
the intended recipient from one end of the communication system. She/he is the one who
conceives the message. The sender should consider the recipient carefully and ensure that the
message suits the recipient’s specific needs. Before releasing the message, it has to be
encoded. This involves putting the information into an appropriate form suitable to the sender,
the recipient and the purpose. It means choosing whether words will be sufficient, whether a
printed record and/or graphics are necessary.

Channels of communication (Medium): it is the path through which communication will pass or
travel. They are the connections between people, making communication possible. Channels of
communication are not just distances, but arises even when two people are
communicating/speaking within one room. Enterprises should consider the following factors in
their selection of the channel of communication:-

i. Geographical distance: The size and location of your audience

ii. Degree of urgency: The urgency of the message i.e. the time scale required to send
information and to allow for a response.
iii. Natural/complexity of the message: The nature of the information itself particularly the
complexity of the message.
iv. Characteristics of the receiver
v. Cos/affordability
vi. Whether the information is to be transmitted internally or externally
vii. The need for a written record
viii. Whether the message is sensitive or confidential
ix. The need for interaction and feedback

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Receiver: This is the intended recipient of the message. At this end, the message will be
decoded. This involves putting the message in a format that will be understood by the receiver.
The same rules used in encoding the message are the same ones that will be used to decode
the message. When a message arrives, it is important to ensure that they are routed promptly
and are given the attention they deserve. It is also important for the sender to have ensured
that the recipient will understand the language and vocabulary used.

Interpret the message: This is where the recipient interprets the message. It is important to
ensure that the correct message is received. Distortion of the message may occur if the sender
has not carefully encoded the communication, in which case, the recipient will interpret the
message differently from how it was intended. To ensure appropriate interpretation of
message, communicators should express themselves clearly so that message receivers can
grasp the deeper meaning. Clarity of message is achieved through use of natural forms of
expression, use of familiar words and use of good language and ensuring logical arrangement of
ideas.

Comprehension/ understanding of the message: This refers to the receiver’s understanding of

the sender’s expected response to the message. A receiver of a message is required to interpret
the expected action from him/her by the message sender. This is the understanding of the
message. The understanding of message can be difficult if the message sender:-

a) Has failed to make himself or herself clear

b) Used technical knowledge that is unfamiliar to the message receiver(jargon of
trade)
c) Used terms above the receiver’s level of understanding.

In order to get the desired response from a message receiver, communicators must take into
account:-

a) The receiver’s background and personality

b) Express himself/herself in a language the receiver can understand
c) Keep the language simple enough for the receiver to get the meaning(avoid jargon)

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 d) Know what the receiver is like e.g. attitude towards a product, agenda, income level
etc.

Feedback/Conclusion: This refers to the response of the message receiver. When the
communication is orally transmitted, the response may be immediate. The message sender can
“read” the response from the receiver’s facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice and other
physical behaviours.

Principles of Communication
1. Communication is inescapable: communication is always occurring in human life at
various levels
2. Communication is irreversible: You cannot take back something once it is
communicated. What has been communicated cannot be entirely be erased.
3. Every communication interaction has a content dimension and relationship
dimension: Content dimension is the information or message that a source desires
to communicate, which has to be packaged in a strategic manner to elicit a desired
reaction. The relationship dimension of communication constitutes the elements in
the communication that seek to signal and acknowledge the state of the social
relation between the communication parties.
4. Communication is contextual: Communication does not occur in a vacuum. It
involves various aspects of context of communication. The context of
communication is the environment in which communication takes place.
5. Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several aspects. It
involves choice about multiple aspects of message. All these aspects must be
combined strategically in order to pass across a unified message. Communication is
also complicated because of differing perceptions of the same object that is
communicated.

Barriers to effective communication

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Human communication is fraught with problems and difficulties. Barriers to effective
communication can retard or distort the message and intention of the message being conveyed
which may result in failure of the communication process or an effect that is undesirable. The
barriers include:

1. Physical barriers: are often due to the nature of the environment e.g. if staffs are
located in different buildings or on different sites, poor outdated equipment, and staff
shortage. These cause communication difficulties for an organization.
2. Systems design faults: It refers to problems with the structure or systems in place in
an organization e.g. organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it
confusing to know whom to communicate with. Inefficient or inappropriate and a lack
of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about
what is expected of them.
3. Attitudinal barriers: Come about as a result of problems with staff in an organization.
These may be brought about for example, by such factors as poor management, lack
of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result to people
delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees
which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work.
4. Ambiguity of words/phrases: Words sounding the same but having different meaning
altogether. The communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same
meaning. It is better to avoid such words by using alternative ones.
5. Individual linguistic ability: The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words in
communication can prevent the recipients from understanding the message. Poorly
explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion.
6. Physiological barriers: These may result from individual’s personal discomfort e.g. due
to ill health, poor eye sight etc.
7. Cultural differences: This may result from the cultural differences of communities
around the world, within an individual country (tribal, regional, differences, dialects
etc.), between religious groups and in organizations or at an organizational level.
Words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures.

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 8. Bypassing: This happens when the communicators (sender and receiver) do not
attach the same symbolic meanings to their words. It is when the sender is take it in
a different meaning
9. Technological multi-tasking and absorbency: With a rapid increase in technology
driven communication in the past several decades, individuals are increasingly faced
with condensed communication in the form of email, text and social updates. This
has in turn led to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate
and perceive their own self efficacy to communicate and connect with others.
Individuals are multitasking both physically and cognitively as constant reminders of
something else happening somewhere else bombard them.
Fear of being criticized is a major factor that prevents good communication.

Overcoming communication Barriers

1. Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is

recruiting right individuals on the job. There should be proper induction programs so
that the policies of the company are clear to all employees. There should be proper
trainings conducted for the required employees.
2. Use of simple language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of
ambiguous words and jargon should be avoided.
3. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier
which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise
and then eliminate that source.
4. Active listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between
‘listening ‘and ‘hearing’. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of
the message that is heard.
5. Emotional state: During communication, one should make effective use of body
language. One should not show his/her emotions while communicating as the receiver
might misinterpret the message being delivered.

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 6. Simple organizational structure: The organizational structure should not be complex.
The number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be an ideal span
of control within the organization. The simpler the organizational structure, the more
effective will be the communication.
7. Avoid information overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their
network. They should not overload themselves with work. They should spend quality
time with their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedback
actively.
8. Give constructive feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback but it should be delivered
constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication between
the superior and subordinate.
9. Proper media selection: The managers should properly select the medium of
communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally e.g. by use of face to face
or meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for
delivering complex messages.
10. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization, the
managers should ensure that individuals are meeting their targets timely without
skipping the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure
on employees to meet their targets.

Principles of Effective Communication

Enterprises or business organizations should establish communication systems in their
organizations. Concern should be drawn to the effectiveness of communication. A good
communication should have the following qualities:-
1. Clarity: Communication is clear when the message is expressed in a language and
transmitted in a way that can be understood by the receiver. The sender must use
simple and commonly used words so that the target receiver can easily understand the
message.

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2. Adequacy/complete: This means a communication system should ensure the message
passed is complete both in terms of the ideas covered and the quantity or details
required. Inadequate communication may delay action or lead to the undesired
response from the receiver. A communication system should not create a gap between
managers and subordinate staff because this will create a poor relationship between the
two levels of staff and may lead to inefficiency.
3. Right timing: A good communication is one that ensures messages are sent at
appropriate time and that the receiver gets the message when required. A good
communication system should provide for appropriate speed in relaying the message to
the receivers. Adequate time for messages should be allowed on account of the urgency
of the message and the time taken in its dispatch.
4. Participation: As far as possible, a good communication system is one that involves
both the sender and the receiver in planning and transmission of the message. A two
ways communication system improves listening and understanding of the message.
Where the sender and receiver are able to exchange views, there is mutual trust and
confidence developed.
5. Integrity/genuine in supporting business objectives: All messages in a communication
system should be formed and transmitted to achieve the business goals. A good
communication should reflect the objectives and policies of the organization. It should
be persuasive and convincing enough to ensure the desired response from the receiver.
This means that, the actions of the message sender (communication) should be
consistent with the message sent.
6. Best use of grapevine: Grapevine means informal communication. This means that
managers should engage informal systems of communication in order to supplement
and strengthen the formal channels. A constructive use of informal channels will help
improve the speed and effectiveness of formal communication. Managers should
therefore encourage and support informal contacts i.e. groups, clubs, sports and other
informal associations and use them to pass important messages.

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 7. Systems of feedback: A good communication system should contain a feedback
mechanism. This means the sender should try to know the reactions of the receiver. This
enables the communicator to ascertain whether or not the message is understood and
acted on appropriately. A good communication system should have follow up methods
to ensure understanding. A two way communication system is therefore advisable.
8. Economical: A good communication system should encourage and support cost control
which may go a long way in improving the profitability of a business.
9. Appropriate channels/medium: A good communication system should be integrated
and tailor made to the problems and requirements of the organization. The medium
used to pass the message should be appropriate or suitable for the messenger and
receiver.
10. Flexibility: A good communication system should be adoptable enough to fit in a
changing environment of business. Any system that allows for multiple uses may be
advisable in a changing environment.

Causes of Poor Communication

Communication is said to be ineffective or said to breakdown when it fails to evoke the desired
response or to achieve what it was set out to achieve. Among the causes of poor
communication include:-

1. Faults on the part of the sender: The speaker or sender of the message may make
communication ineffective by failing to:-
 Prepare adequately before starting to communicate e.g. by failing to collect the
ideas in good time and provide the facilities for communication
 Failure to think clearly and logically leading to ambiguity in idea presentation
 Failure to give adequate information leading to incomplete information hence
poor response
 Failure to discard irrelevant details making the message unnecessarily long,
boring and discouraging the receiver

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  Failure to include all critical or important details making it difficult for receiver to
make appropriate action
 Failure to simplify the language the language used to the level of the receiver
thereby making it difficult for the receiver to understand and interpret it
appropriately
 Failure to check details i.e. names, addresses and figures thereby creating a risk
of misdirecting message
 Failures to proof read or check the message before dispatch to ensure correct
use of language and grammar thereby creating a chance for the message to be
misunderstood and creating a poor reputation for the organization.
2. Faults that come from poor message presentation: This may also refer to failure to use
appropriate mode of presentation or delivery. Among the factors are:-
 Failure of the receiver or even the sender to identify the people with whom one
needs to communicate e.g. in business organization/s, the chain of command
and the lines of communication may be unclear.
 Failure to choose the most appropriate time to communicate e.g. messages
dispatched too early or even too late may be ineffective.
 Failure to clarify matters. In business communication, there may be need for
explanation and failure to provide the desired explanation or clarification may
lead to the receiver’s inability to take the desired action.
 Failure to use the right method thereby making it difficult to include the details
or features that a message should bear e.g. use of print media or written form to
receivers who cannot read or write.
 Failure to speak clearly and pronounce words correctly in oral communication
thereby creating the risk of getting the message misunderstood.
 Failure to control distracting gestures and mannerism especially in oral
communication

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3. Failure on the part of management: Much of business communication comes from
decisions made by managers at different levels. Communication may fail if
management:-
 Fails to set realistic deadlines for actions and making it difficult for
communicators to know when to send different messages
 Failure to obtain feedback and to check comprehension of the message by the
people who receive it. This makes it difficult to know the response of the
receiver and make corrections where necessary
 Failure to follow up communication especially instructions to confirm the
receiver actually gets the message or confirm that the message is actually
delivered. This may lead to delayed delivery of messages and hence delayed
response and action
 Failure of management to delegate adequately and in the proper manner
creating a situation where managers may be overwhelmed by communication
and fail to attend too much of it
 Failure by management to give adequate guidance and supervision, making it
difficult for others to communicate e.g. failure to set clear standards of
performance
 Failure by management to exchange views or ideas with support staff making it
difficult to take into account the views of everyone involved and creating
resentment from support staff
 Failure by management to prepare and transmit information when required
making it difficult for subordinates to take action
4. Poor use of media: The medium used in communication may be a cause of its
ineffectiveness. Communication may fail to:-
 Fail to select or use the most suitable medium for the information transmitted
and for the receiver.
 Failure to identify the person or department when answering telephone
messages leading to the risk of diverging information to wrong people

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  Failure to dictate messages fluently especially in meetings or in use of dictating
machines
 Failure to select or use appropriate machines and facilities that can give suitable
presentations such as typing, printing or dictation machines
5. Faults on the part of the receiver/ message reader/ listener: Messages may be
rendered ineffective by the receiver’s failure to:-
 Failure to keenly or listen to the communication and therefore failing to
comprehend as opposed to just merely listening or reading
 Failure of the receiver to ask for clarification when communication is not
understood leading to the risk of giving undesired response.
 Failure to give significance to the letter or message as is required
 Failure to check the address of the sender when responding to a message thereby
misdirecting the message
 Failure to use appropriate stationery such as writing paper, print, envelope,
sealing facility and making it difficult for the message to be read or even safely
delivered.
6. Difficulties caused by circumstances: Communication may fail to achieve its objectives
or become difficult under the following circumstances:-
 Where there is breakdown of equipment before or during the processing of
communication
 Faulty equipment that makes communication difficult e.g. subserviced telephone
systems, poor public address systems
 Inadequate or unsuitable machinery to handle the communication work load e.g.
too small or to wrong type of telephone switch board for a large volume of
communication traffic
 Inadequate facilities for the type of communication e.g. lack of appropriate
typewriters or printers for technical work e.g. drawings and making it difficult to
present the messages in the most suitable manner

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  Inadequate staff to cope with the communication work load making it difficult to
prepare communication when necessary
 Loss of documents or files e.g. through fire, theft or even damage by water
 Strikes by workers concerned with communication both internally and externally
making it difficult to communicate.

Types of communication

1. Formal Communication: It is communication that takes place through the formal

channels of the organization structure along the lines of authority established by
management. Such communications are generally in writing and may take the form of
policy, manuals, procedures, memoranda, official meeting reporting etc. Advantages are:
- help in fixation of responsibility and maintaining of authority relationship in an
organization. Disadvantages: Generally time consuming, leads to distortions at times.
2. Informal communication: It is communication arising out of those channels of
communication that fall outside the formal channels. Build around the social relationship
of members of the organization. It does not flow through lines of authority as is the case
of formal communications. It arises due to the personal needs of the members of an
organization. Such communications are usually oral. It is also called grapevine.
Advantages are: (i) valuable in expressing certain information that cannot be channeled
via the official channels, (ii) Offers an opportunity to express worries and complaints (iii)
Facilitates managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision
making. Disadvantages: (i) Contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data (ii) May
transmit completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help the
organization.
3. Internal communication: It is the sharing of information within an organization for
business purposes. Businesses use internal communication to set up strategies, meetings
and handle corporate affairs. It could be through the intranet.

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 4. External communication: It is the transmission of information between a business and
another person or entity in the company’s external environment e.g with customers,
suppliers, investors, shareholders and society at large.
5. Interpersonal communication: It is an exchange of information between two or more
people. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message senders and the
message receivers understand the message. It takes place between people who are
interdependent and have some knowledge of each other.
6. Intra-Personal communication: It is a communicator’s internal use of language or
thought. It can be useful to envision intrapersonal communication occurring in the mind
of the individual in a model which contains a sender, receiver and feedback loop.
Intrapersonal means ‘within the person’- one person.

Forms of communication
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Mechanical methods
4. Electronic communication (Visual communication)
5. Audio visual communication

Face to face communication (Oral communication): In oral communication, the two or more
parties communicating with each other have to use words to communicate. The importance of
good listening skills becomes vital in this mode of communication. It implies communication
through the mouth. Oral or spoken business communication is typically one of the following:-

i. One –to- one conversation(in person or on the phone)

ii. Participation in business meetings or team activities
iii. Presentation (in person, on the phone, or recordings or podcasts)

Some of the ways in which oral communication can be carried out include:

a) Face to face
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 b) Interview
c) Meetings
d) Public address
e) Oral presentation
f) Telephone calls and
g) conferences

It is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind where a

direct interaction is required. In business organizations, face to face communication is used to
give instructions, make requests and pass information and observation. It may be in the form of
interviews, a joint consultation between representative of employers and employees. It may
also take the form of announcements of new policies (press conference), broadcast messages
where managers may issue statements to staff.

Advantages of face to face communication

1. It is economical: In comparison to other forms of communication, oral face to face

communication is much cheaper in terms of both money and time to pass the message
and to get the desired response.
2. Personal touch between sender and receiver: This means both the message sender and
the receiver have contact and they can discuss in detail issues at hand. The use of facial
expressions and other forms of body language enhances understanding of messages.
3. Better understanding of the message: In face to face communication, each party can
easily assess the impact of his ideas and suggestions on the receiver. Either party may
modify their position to suit the views of the other or even decide to take steps to get
the other party accept their views.
4. It enhances flexibility: since there is no record in oral face to face communication, either
party is always free to modify or withdraw their comment. It is the best method for
resolving a crisis that involves conflict between individuals or during an emergency
situation.

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 5. It allows feedback on the spot so if the receiver is not 100 percent sure what the
message meant, then that feedback will be answered right away.

Disadvantages of Face to Face Communication

1. No physical evidence of communication: Face to Face communication does not

provide room for record and therefore it may not serve the purpose where
information is required to be recorded.
2. It is difficult when the parties are far apart: Face to Face communication may be
difficult if both communicating parties are geographically far apart. Even though the
parties may use telephone and other electronic devices, the use of body language
which enhances understanding of the message cannot be detected.
3. It is unsustainable for long or detailed messages: Face to Face communication is not
suitable to convey a subject matter that is lengthy because it may not produce the
desired response. Detailed messages that are orally communicated may fail to be
understood or they may hold the receivers too long in meetings and discussions.
4. It cannot be reproduced (subject to change): The absence of record can make face
to face communication, subject to change because the message cannot be
reproduced verbatim (word by word). Attempts to rephrase the terms may lead to
loss of meaning of the message. It is difficult to repeat oral message or even to refer
to it later.
5. It can easily be misunderstood: Oral communication may be misunderstood or
misinterpreted especially if the parties involved are not on good terms with each
other. As the information gets passed to the receiver, different words and gestures
can be used to alter the intended meaning.
6. Responses on the spot might not be carefully thought of.

Written Communication

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It involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. In business
organizations, written communication takes the following forms: orders, instructions, reports
and letters/correspondence, memorandum, minutes, press release, forms and questionnaires,
circulars and newsletters and Notices. Orders are important forms of downward
communication i.e from superiors to their subordinates’ staff. For orders to be effective, they
should be straight forward and complete in every respect. Instructions are guidelines issued by
managers to subordinate staff on how certain tasks should be carried out. For example, the
procedures or steps to be followed when undertaking a task (are normally in the form of
manuals). Instructions need to be clear so that subordinates can carry out their tasks to the
desired standards. Reports in organizations can be routine, special or ad hoc/ those
necessitated by extra ordinary events. Letters in a business organization may be preferred for
communication with the outside world (customers, suppliers, financiers, the government etc.).
Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for
business development. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in
correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Writing is
more valid and reliable than speech but it causes delay and takes time as feedback is not
immediate.

Advantages of written communication

1. Written record: There is a record of the message which may be stored for reference
when need arises. It is a permanent means of communication hence useful where
record maintenance is required
2. Evidence of communication: In the event the parties disagree, the written messages can
be used as evidence of what transpired. Business may find itself in conflict and disputes;
it is therefore advisable to write down all sensitive business transactions and
agreements.
3. Gives room for detailed messages: Written communication provides a chance to include
fine details for better clarity and understanding of a message. Messages can also be
illustrated by use of diagrams and other forms of drawings to enhance understanding.

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 Written communication is more precise and explicit and therefore can be used to
communicate complex ideas.
4. Facilitates compliance with some business laws: The law requires that some business
transactions and information be in writing e.g. contract agreements, titles to assets and
financial statements and reports.
5. It helps in laying down principles, policies and rules for running of an organization
6. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities: it is possible to fix and delegate
responsibilities as there is no refusal to acknowledge.
7. Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image
Disadvantages of Written Communication
1. Limited to literate people: Written communication assumes both the message
sender and receiver have reading and writing skills. This may not always be the case.
2. It can be easily misunderstood: People in business have different backgrounds and
they may have different levels of command in the language used. Technical teams
may be used in written communication making it difficult for the message to be
understood.
3. No immediate feedback: Much of written communication is impersonal in nature
and the sender and receiver may not easily meet. A message may not tell if the
receiver understands or not if he likes the message or even requires clarification.
Written communication therefore delays decision making and action.
4. It can be expensive: Written communication may involve a lot of stationery and
clerical work. This may lead to additional expenditure on salaries and related
stationery facilities.
5. Messages may get to wrong hands/receivers: Written communication can easily get
to the wrong hands especially where clerical staff may make mistakes in handling
letters that require special treatment.
6. Inappropriate for internet/ fast communication: Where managers are required to
communicate urgent information, written communication is unsuitable.

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Rules for effective writing

Effective writing is writing which has a logical flow of ideas and is cohesive. This means, it holds
together well because there are links between sentences and paragraphs. Writing which is
cohesive works as a unified whole and is easy to follow because it uses language effectively to
maintain a focus and keep the reader ‘on track’. There are 7C’s of effective communication
which are applicable to both written as well as oral communication. These are:-

1. Clarity: This refers to being specific rather than vague while communicating. It
implies emphasizing on specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying to
achieve too much at once. You must communicate clearly so as not to be
misunderstood. It is not enough to communicate but also be understood. Use familiar
words, short sentences, avoid technical terms and use correct language. It has the
following features:-
 It makes understanding easier
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
2. Completeness: The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts
required by the audience. Complete communication includes enough details so that
the recipient will not need to ask for more information. To be complete, a
communication should answer who? What? Where? When? Why? and how? Have all
the facts be given out? A complete communication has the following features:-
 Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an
organization
 They are cost effective as no crucial information is missing and no additional
cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is complete
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever
required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver

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  Complete communication helps in better decision making by the
audience/receivers/readers of message as they get all desired and crucial
information
 It persuades the audience.
3. Conciseness: Conciseness means wordiness i.e, communicating what you want to
convey in least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication.
Concise communication avoids unnecessary words that could hamper the same
communication. Conciseness makes the message more understandable and
comprehensible. Eliminate wordy expressions, avoid unnecessary repetition and
include only relevant material, e.g. instead of using due course, use soon, this time be
now etc. Concise communication has the following features:-
 It is both time saving as well as cost saving
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words
to the audience
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to audience
 Concise message is non repetitive.
4. Courtesy: Courtesy in a message implies the message should show the sender’s
expression as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should
be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous messages has the
following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of
the receiver of the message
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of the message
 It is not at all biased.
5. Correctness: Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical
errors in communication. Correct communication has the following features:

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  The message is exact, correct and well timed
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the
message
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message
6. Consideration: Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective

communication must take the audience into consideration i.e., the audience’s view

points, background, mindset, educational level etc. One must envisage the audience,

their requirements, emotions as well as problems. Features of considerate

communication are:-

 Empathize on “you” approach

 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will

stimulate a positive reaction from the audience

 Show optimism towards audience. Empathize on “what is possible” rather than

“what is impossible”.

7. Concreteness: Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather

than fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message

has the following features:-

 It is supported with specific facts and figures

 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation

 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

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Mechanical methods

These include mechanical devices used to send messages. In business, mechanical devices may
take the form of signals which connote certain meanings e.g. call bells, lights etc. They may also
consist of a speaking tube made of rubber or metal connecting various rooms in an office. It
may also take the form of dictating machines used to transmit oral messages. They are useful
when managers need to leave important messages for their subordinate staff that may not be
present. It also includes devices telephone lines.

Electronic Communication

Electronics is a field that covers pretty much anything that has to do with electric currents and
electrical charges. Includes; vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. Examples
of electronic communication include emails, letters, text messages, chat forums telephone
conversations and telegrams.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Organizations have their origins in communication networks. The functions of communication

networks include:-

i. Providing the means for coordinating the activities of individuals, relationships, groups
and other subunits within the organization.
ii. Providing mechanisms for directing the activities of the organization as a whole.
iii. Facilitating the exchange of information within the organization and
iv. Ensuring the flow of information between the organization and the external
environment.

Communication systems and networks can be classified as under:-

i. Formal Networks and

ii. Informal Networks.

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Formal Networks

Formal networks are systems of communication that flow within the organizations and
correspond closely with the lines of authority. Formal networks can be categorized into three
types namely:-

a) Downward Communication,
b) Upward Communication and
c) Horizontal Communication
Downward communication
It is the formalized information flow from the management to employees. Messages flow
downwards from persons in positions of relatively greater authority to others in the
organization who report to them directly or through others.
The functions of downward communication are:-
 Specifying a task to be performed
 Providing instructions about the reason for a particular task that needs to be performed
 Providing information about organizational policies or practices
 Providing information about an employee’s performance and or
 Providing information about the organization and its mission.
Advantages of Downward communication
i. Managers will be able to transmit information of their subordinates in an effective
manner. Managers should keep themselves well informed of the objectives, activities
and achievements of their organization.
ii. It ensures that there is neither a communication gap nor over- communication or
under- communication. Managers must work according to a communication plan
therefore they decide beforehand how much information is to be communicated and
at what the time.
iii. Information is passed on to the correct person in the hierarchy. If a CEO bypasses a
departmental head to communicate directly with lower staff, he will be subverting the

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 organizational structure and creating problems for the smooth flow of downward
communication.

Disadvantages of Downward communication

1. Under communication and over communication: Downward communication is often

marred by either under-communication or over-communication. A supervisor may talk
either too little or too much about a job. Under communication may also involve
incomplete instruction. Over communication may lead to the leakage of confidential
information or the message may get lost in a jungle of irrelevant details.
2. Delay: The lines of communication in downward communication being very long,
transmitting information to the lowest worker is a time consuming process. By the time
information reaches the lowest worker, it may have lost much of its significant or it
may have caused damaging delay.
3. Loss of information: Unless the communication is written, it is not likely to be
transmitted downwards in it’s entirely. A part of it is almost certain to be lost.
4. Distortion: In long lines of communication, information is not only lost but distorted.
Exaggerating, making under statements, giving unconscious twists to facts are part of
human nature. By the time it reaches its destination, it may not contain the truth.
5. Built in resistance: Downward communication smacks of too much authoritarianism.
The subordinates do not get any opportunity of participating in the decision making
process. They are expected to receive the policy decisions and directives without
questioning their appropriateness, utility or validity.

Upward Communication

It is channeled from subordinates to superiors. Upward communication has several functions:-

 Providing input for decision making

 Advising about subordinates’ information needs
 Providing information regarding subordinates
 Providing a potentially constructive outlet

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  Allowing superiors to assess the effects of previous downward communication and
 Helping subordinates cope with problems and facilitating their involvement.

Advantages of upward communication

1. Feedback: It provides feedback from the employees. As a result, the communication

loop (cycle) completes and management can realize the reactions of the employees.
2. Constructive idea: Upward communication allows the employees the employees to
provide their views regarding the implementation of company policies.
3. Helps in decision making: Through upward communication, top management can
know the views of lower level of employees which help them to make more realistic
decisions.
4. Establishment of good relation: Upward communication brings executives and
employees close to each other and accordingly mutual relationship developed.
5. Mutual trust: For the success of any communication, trust is an essential element. As
relationship developed through upward communication, mutual trust is also created.
6. Enhance coordination: It provides an opportunity to express own views and
participation in the decision making.
7. Motivation: Upward communication enables executives to extend appropriate
motivational measures.
8. Introduction of new policy: Upward communication also helps executives to introduce
new policies.

Disadvantages /Limitations of Upward Communication

1. Reactance: In some cases, employees are reluctant to provide information through

upward communication/channel for fear of victimization.
2. Non-cooperative attitude: Non cooperative attitude to the executives damage the
willingness of the employees to initiate upward communication.
3. Chance of distortion: Upward communication can be distorted deliberately as
compared to the unconscious distortion in the case of downward communication.

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 4. Trend to bypass: There is a tendency of by passing the immediate boss and this can be
created by employees.
5. Delay: Sometimes, lower level employees hesitate to inform a problem upward as
doing so means acceptance of failure. Delays may take place whether to inform the top
management or further to resolve the problem.

Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication refers to the connection between individuals at the same level of
authority within an organizational group, department or division.

Functions of horizontal information include:-

 Coordinating planning
 Providing for collective problem solving
 Facilitating common understanding
 Resolving differences
 Developing supportive and productive work relationships

Advantages of Horizontal Communication

1. Better understanding: Horizontal communication ensures better understanding.

Therefore, employees of different divisions are able to perform their jobs more
efficiently.
2. Coordination: Direct communication by breaking the vertical channel strengthens the
bondage between employees of different departments which helps to boost up
coordination.
3. Increase in productivity: Horizontal communication minimizes the problems of
understanding among various departments as a result, productivity is increased.
4. Better implementation of decision: Decisions are made by top management but they
are executed by the lower level employees. When lower level employees are allowed
to communicate with each other through horizontal communication, it helps to realize
the policy and ensures better implementation of decision.

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 5. Motivation: Horizontal communication not only increases the level of coordination but
also facilitates the task of motivation.
6. Creation of Cordial relationship: Due to free flow of information, cordial relation among
employees increases.
7. Employee morale: Better understanding and cordial environment also boosts the
morale of the employees.
8. Teamwork: in any organization, teamwork is considered to be essential in some tasks.
Horizontal communication is a prerequisite for successful teamwork.
9. Job satisfaction: Horizontal communication increases job satisfaction of the employees.
By ensuring cordial atmosphere and lifting the morale of employees, horizontal
communication plays a vital role in increasing the job satisfaction.
Disadvantages/Demerits of Horizontal communication
1. Lack of control: Too much horizontal communication creates problem for the
management and controlling may become difficult as the horizontal communication
increases.
2. Conflict: Bypassing the vertical channel, horizontal communication allows the
employees to communicate freely but sometimes it leads to personal conflict.
3. Time consuming: Communication in addition to vertical instruction may delay the
implementation of decision
4. Lack of discipline: As strict rules are not followed, organizational discipline can be
hampered in horizontal communication.

Informal Networks

These informal networks serve to link individuals to one another in much the same way as do
formal networks. Informal link come into being primarily because of the personal and social
needs of the members. Informal communications has the following features:-

i. Are generally face to face

ii. Are less constrained by organizational and political restraints
iii. Move messages rapidly

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 iv. Tend to be as a result of the situation than the people or their roles
v. Tend to develop more often within organizational work groups, departments or
divisions than between them
vi. Generally transmit information that is accurate though often somewhat incomplete,
leading to misinterpretation.

Grapevine is a common type of informal network. Grapevine is an informal channel of business

communication. It is called so because it stretches throughout the organization in all directions
irrespective of the authority levels. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the
informal channels tend to develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists
more at lower levels of the organization.

Grapevine develops due to:-

 When an organization is facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty

 When employees do not have self-confidence hence form unions
 When the managers show preferential treatment and favour some employees giving a
segregated feeling to employees
 When employees sense need a need to exchange their views as they cannot use the
formal channel of communication.
Advantages of Grapevine communication.
1. It carries information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some confidential
information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend
who in turn passes it to the other. Thus it spreads hastily.
2. The manager gets to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies
(Feedback). The feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of
communication.
3. It creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with
each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value

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 5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not
work

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. It carries partial information at times as it is mostly based on rumours. Thus, it does not
clearly depicts the complete state of affairs
2. It is not trusty worthy always as it does not follow official path of communication and is
spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather
than working.
4. It leads to making hostility against the executives
5. It may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative information
about the high level people of the organization.

EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Improving listening may result in better relationships and better understanding of those with
whom we communicate, provide information, stimulate new ideas and motivate others to
improve their listening skills. Not listening can result in many misunderstandings; fail to grasp
the salient facts of a communication or fail to hear the name of the person they are speaking
to. Not listening when dealing with external environment can be very fatal to development or
existence of that business.

Active listening

Listening is an active, not a passive, activity. It requires understanding of the communication

and the ability to make effective judgments on what is heard. Many breakdowns in
communication take place because people don’t listen attentively to what is actually said but to
what they would like to hear or expect to hear.

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Active listening is characterized by positive body language and an attentive pose. It may be
necessary to summarize what has been said at key moments to ensure that both parties have
understood the communication. There are three levels of listening namely:-

a) Attentive listening: for important or highly relevant information

b) Empathetic listening: to attune oneself with the speaker and to seek common ground in
appreciation of his or her attitudes, feelings and emotions
c) Casual listening: for pleasure, where we may respond in a more light hearted way and
use puns and double meanings as means to enjoy the actual language used.
Barriers to Effective Listening
i. Focusing on a personal agenda: When we spend our listening time formulating our next
response, we cannot be fully attentive to what the speaker is saying.
ii. Experiencing information overload: Too much stimulation or information can make it
very difficult to listen with full attention. Try to focus on the relevant information and the
central points that are being conveyed.
iii. Criticizing the speaker: Do not be distracted by critical evaluations of the speaker. Focus
on what they are saying i.e. the message rather than the messenger.
iv. Getting distracted by emotional noise: We react emotionally to certain words, concepts
and ideas, and to a myriad of other cues from speakers (appearance, non verbal cues).
Make a conscious effort to quiet your own emotional reactions so as to listen properly.
v. Getting distracted by external “noise”: Audible noise may be extremely distracting. Some
things can be minimized by turning down the noise level e.g. ringing tone of phones
while other noises are unavoidable e.g. construction or other people. There may be
figurative “noise” from the external environment such as distracting or inappropriate
décor in a room, conditions of a room e.g. being too hot or cold.
vi. Experiencing physical difficulty: Feeling physically unwell or experiencing pain can make
it very difficult to listen effectively. For this, you may wish to communicate that it is not a
good time and reschedule the discussion.
Strategies for effective Listening

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 i. Stop: Focus on the other person, their thoughts and feelings. Consciously focus on
quieting your own internal commentary and step away from your own concerns to think
about those of the speaker. Give your full attention to the speaker.
ii. Look: Pay attention to non verbal messages without letting yourself distracted. Notice
body language and non verbal cues/signs to allow for a richer understanding of the
speaker’s point. Avoid being distracted from the verbal message.
iii. Listen: Listen for the essence of the speaker’s thoughts (details, major ideas and their
meanings). Seek an overall understanding of what the speaker is trying to communicate
rather than reacting to the individual words or terms that they use to express
themselves.
iv. Be empathetic: Imagine how you would feel in their circumstances. Be empathetic to
the feelings of the speaker while maintaining a calm centre within yourself. Do not be
drawn into all of their problems or issues as long as you acknowledge what they are
experiencing.
v. Ask questions: Use questions to clarify your understanding as well as to demonstrate
interest in what is being said.

Effective listening can be achieved if we:-

a) Listen for facts and remember key words,

b) Listen for feelings, interpret the speaker’s point of view, observe his or her non verbal
communication and listen to what is not said,
c) Do not tune out to unpleasant messages that we are not keen to hear
d) Clarify what is being said by asking questions where relevant
e) Give a reflective summary if appropriate which briefly paraphrases what the other
person has been saying.

INTERVIEWS

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An interview is a formal way of recruiting personnel into an organization. Interviews are carried
out by the Human Resources function of an organization. Interviews are carried out in a formal
manner as it has to be in line with the vision of the organization with regard to its staff image.

Types of Interviews

i. Selection interviews
ii. Appraisal interviews
iii. Disciplinary interviews and
iv. Grievance interviews

Selection interviews: Recruitment and promotion interviews are the most common type of the
interview. The objectives of any selection interview are to:-

 Find out whether a candidate is suitable for the job and the organization
 Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for the candidate

The interviewer has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the candidate the
opportunity to explore his or her concerns

Appraisal interviews: Appraisal interviews are to provide a focus for employee

development and performance. It is usually an ongoing process. It is to review past and
current performances in the job from both the appraiser and appraisee’s points of view and
to plan for future development of the individual.

Disciplinary interviews: disciplinary interviews are held to consider whether disciplinary

action should be taken against an employee, usually in accordance with the organization’s
disciplinary procedures. It is crucial to be clear about the objectives of the formal
interaction. The aim is to establish the truth about what has occurred and as such, it cannot
be regarded as one sided but rather a two way process. The principle of natural justice
demand that the employee concerned must have the opportunity to put his or her case
properly and issues of personal prejudice and partiality have to be dealt with carefully.
Careful preparation is needed and it should be a culmination of a process which has

34
 included a thorough and impartial investigation of all issues. The interviewee is supposed to
be accompanied by a representative or a friend to advice, support and possibly speak on his
or her behalf as well as acting as a witness to the proceedings.

Grievance interviews: These interviews forms part of a broader procedure i.e. the
organization’s grievance procedure which structures the way in which an employee may
raise complaints about his or her treatment at work. The steps which are to be taken to
deal with the complaints should be stated. The aim in handling a grievance interview is to
arrive at a solution through a discussion which provides a satisfactory conclusion to all
parties.

Principles and Practice of Interviewing

A number of common themes to all interviews are that they are two way and
acknowledgement of the objectives of both parties to the process. The principles and
practice of interviewing are:

a) Preparation
b) Conduct of the interview
a) Preparation:

Each interview has its own general aims. In preparing for a specific interview, it is important
to identify the particular objectives which apply. Gathering and organizing relevant
information means ensuring you are fully conversant with the subject matter or area of the
interview. Picking out the salient points is likely to provide the structure for the interview. It
is necessary to consider the background information available about the interviewee to
form a picture of the specific person, such that the interview itself can be tailored to him or
her in particular.

Arranging the venue and setting is important as it means getting the administration of the
process right. There should be a comfortable, private room available with no distractions in or
around it. The physical layout needs some thought by making the setting being informal with no
barriers between the interviewer and the interviewee.

35
Most interviewers even experienced ones generally run through what they are going to say.
This is necessary or essential for the case where there will be a panel of interviewers. This helps
participants to be aware of the proposed procedure.

N/B: People attending an interview should pay attention to the following:-

1. Physical appearance/Presentation: One should take care of grooming and selection of

clothing. Interviewees should ensure they dress appropriately. Different jobs may
require different modes of dressing and the interviewee is expected to understand
the desired mode of dressing for the prospective job. The clothing should be neat,
clean, comfortable and appropriate for the job. Ensure clean nails, hair, teeth and
general body cleanliness. One should also ensure good personal habits which suggest
good work habits.
2. Good manners: This means ones personal habits and manners should be exhibited at
the interview. Common courtesy should be observed by:-
a) Arriving on time/early: It is rude to be late for an appointment especially for an
interview as it indicates that one will be late for work if hired.
b) Remain calm in the face of unexpected experience: If the interviewer is not ready to
see you, it is in order to take a seat if it is provided or occupy yourself while waiting
to be served. It is also advisable to respond to provocative experience with humour
in order to avoid building unpleasant emotions on the matter.
c) Follow the interviewers lead: An interviewee should remember that he or she is a
guest and should behave as such. Shake hands if the interviewer offers to do so and
wait for an invitation before sitting and let the interviewer tell you where to be
seated.
d) Gracious in conversation: The interviewee should listen carefully and avoid
interrupting the interviewer. The interviewer should respond to questions with
simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and avoid over detailed responses. An interviewee should not
contradict the interviewer or even indicate that an error has been made as this may
indicate rudeness.

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 e) Show appreciation for the interviewers time and interest: The interviewee should
express gratitude at the close of the interview e.g. may thank the interviewers and
where possible indicate something of value gained at the interview.
3. Speech and conversation: During the interview, an interviewee should be careful on
what he or she says because it reflects his attitudes and discloses the kind of person
he/she is. It is important that the interviewee understands intention of interviewers
questions in order to respond intelligently.

b) Conduct of the Interview

It is important for the interview to be structured in order to keep the process focused on the
key points and to avoid irrelevant discussion and time wasting. Remember too that the
interviewer is responsible for conducting the process and ensuring its successful outcome. The
interview itself can be seen as a four part event (WASP- Welcome, Ask, Supply and Parting)).

W- Welcome: Greetings and introductions, each party to the other with the objective of
establishing rapport and relaxing the participants. This includes:
 Putting the interviewee at ease
 Explaining the purpose of the interview
 Outlining the way in which it will be structured
 Explaining if appropriate about taking notes

A-Ask: The process of questioning whereby information is sought from the other party in
relation to the objectives of the interview. Questioning techniques include:-

 Using questions prepared in advance based on the general aims and specific objectives
of the interview and the particular circumstances of the interviewee
 Using open questions(which encourage developed responses and further discussion)
 Working from relatively general and easy ones to more specific and difficult ones and
 Listening to and probing the interviewee’s responses

37
 S-Supply: Providing full and honest responses to questions which will show the
respondent in the best possible light according to their objectives. Particular points
include:-

 Backing up assertions with examples whenever possible

 Being reasonably concise particularly in the case of the interviewer( the interviewer
should only do 20-30% of the talking)

P-Parting: Ending the interaction on a positive and cordial note with a clear idea of what has
happened and what will happen next. Particular points include:-

 Summarizing conclusions where appropriate

 Identifying when, what and how any action arising from the interview will be
communicated.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Interpersonal relationship refers to a strong association among individuals working together in

the same organization or business. Employees working together ought to share a special bond
for them to deliver their best. It is essential for individuals to be honest with each other for a
healthy interpersonal relationship and eventually positive ambience/environment at the work
place.

Importance of Interpersonal Relationship

i. An individual spends around eight to nine hours in his organization and it is practically
not possible for him to work alone: We are social animals and therefore need friends
around and an individual working in isolation is more prone to stress and anxiety. They
hardly enjoy their work and find their jobs monotonous. It is essential to have trusty
worthy fellow workers around with whom one can share secrets without fear of them
getting leaked.
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 ii. A single brain alone can’t take all decisions alone: We need people to discuss various
issues, evaluate pros and cons and reach to solutions benefiting not only the employees
but also the organization on the whole. Employees can brainstorm together and reach
to better ideas and strategies. Strategies must be discussed on an open platform where
every individual has the liberty to express his/her views. Interaction on a regular basis is
important for healthy relationship.
iii. Interpersonal relationship has a direct effect on the organization culture:
Misunderstandings and confusions lead to negativity at workplace. Therefore
interpersonal relationships help avoid misunderstandings
iv. We need people around who can appreciate our hard work and motivate us from time
to time: It is essential to have some trusty worthy co-workers at the workplace who do
not only appreciate us when we do some good work but also tell us our mistakes. One
needs to have people at the workplace who are more like mentors than mere
colleagues.
v. It always pays to have individuals around who really care for us: We need colleagues to
fall back on at the times of crisis. If you do not talk to anyone at the workplace, no one
will come to your help when you actually need them.
vi. An individual needs to get along with fellow workers to complete assignments within
the stipulated time frame. An individual working alone is overburdened and never
finishes tasks within deadlines. Support of fellow workers is important. Roles and
responsibilities must be delegated as per specialization, educational qualification and
interests of employees. An individual needs help of his fellow workers to complete
assignments on time and for better results.

Factors affecting Interpersonal Relations

Each person develops positive or negative feelings that contribute to enhanced or diminished
perceptions of self, the other and the current situation. These perceptions contribute to
evaluation of the other person in this situation and lead to the formulation of intentions to

39
interact in specific ways to accomplish personal objectives. Factors that affect interpersonal
relations can be divided into two broad categories:

1. Personality factors and

2. Interaction setting

Personality factors: When trying to understand one’s own feelings and behavior, it helps to be
aware that how you think and feel about yourself and others may be very unlike how they think
and feel about themselves and you. These different evaluation and reactions depend on each
individual’s (personality factors):-

i. Self concepts,
ii. Value system,
iii. Frame of reference,
iv. Defensiveness,
v. Interpersonal relationship needs and
vi. Feelings

Self concept: It is the reflection of all the past experiences one has with others and includes
characteristics which differentiates from others. Once self concept is established and certain
patterns of behavior are adopted, it tends to resist change.

Personal frame of reference: Self concept and perception of other people and things develop
into a personal frame of reference for perceiving and interpreting experiences. Two people with
different frames of reference may do very different things in the same situation to try and
satisfy the same need. Different needs, past experience and cultural backgrounds are a
frequent source of different frames of reference. To understand others, one needs to
understand their frames of reference without judging them in terms of one’s own values.

Defensiveness: defense is a cognitive distortion that projects the self concept against being
diminished. It occurs when one protects him or her by denying, excusing or rationalizing one’s
action to protect self concept against the threat of being damaged by failure, guilt shame or
fear. Defense mechanisms affect the way individuals relate to each other and the way they

40
understand and adopt to their relationships. Defensiveness may distort ideas, obscure solutions
and hinder interpersonal relations.

Interpersonal Relation Needs: People have three nominal interpersonal needs: Inclusion,
control and affection. Inclusion is the need to establish and maintain relationships with other
people. Control is the need to maintain a satisfactory balance of power and influence in
relationship. Affection is the need to form close and personal relationships with others.

Feelings: How one expresses ones feelings is a frequent source of difficulty in interpersonal
relationships. Rather than express them constructively, people often deny or ignore their own
and other’s feelings in an attempt to avoid rejection or struggle for control. It is the negative
reaction that can cause the most problems especially if they are directed at a person one is
interacting with far a long time like ones boss or a coworker. Maintaining a productive
relationship requires that one first has to look at himself/herself to understand what it is about
that is carrying the negative feelings.

Interaction setting: What appears to be personality changes may just be two people’s varying
responses to difference and incompatible job requirements. This normally happens when
people work in different parts of the organization, under different organizational cultures, for
different bosses and in different jobs that make different demands. Under interaction setting,
are:-

i. Job requirements
ii. Organizational culture and
iii. Trust level

Job requirements: Job requirements determine how psychologically close or distant two people
need to be, to perform their work. The depth of interpersonal relationships required by a job
depends on how complex the task is, whether the people involved posses’ different kinds of
expertise, their frequency of interaction in the job and the degree of certainty with which job
outcomes can be predicted. Work situations that are simple and familiar to both workers don’t
require strong feelings, demand little interaction and have a high certainty of outcomes call for

41
minimal task relationships. Complex situations that require; different knowledge from each
person, high trust, much interaction and have an uncertain outcome call for more intense
interpersonal relationships.

Organizational culture: The organizational culture influences the general nature of employee
relationships. People take cues from the culture they work in and usually respond to what they
perceive as general expectations. Some cultures discourage intimacy and only allow distant,
impersonal relationships. Other cultures encourage family like closeness. The more sociable
and personal the culture, the more people are likely to share non work information and
feelings.

Trust level: Relationships do not grow and develop until individuals trust each other. Trust is
learned from past interactions with another. Trust is developed as parties self disclose personal
information and learn that they will not be hurt by making themselves vulnerable to each other.
Increased trust leads to the sharing of more personal information between the parties which in
turn enhances improved problem solving and productivity.

Nature and purpose of audio and visual aids

Audio – Visual aids communication

Audio visual means posing both a sound and a visual component such as slide tape
presentation, films, television programs etc. It is a combination of sight and sound that’s it uses
audible and visual techniques both for transmitting message, information or idea to create a
meaningful picture which is communicative.

Advantages of audio visual aids communications:-

i. Creating awareness
ii. Encouraging interest
iii. Retaining involvement

42
 iv. Achieving instant results/responses
v. Describing in one image an entire proposal or concept
vi. Being memorable
vii. Complimenting the spoken word and
viii. Reinforcing corporate identity

Disadvantages of audio visual aids communication:-

i. It is time wasting especially when not reflecting the purpose of the presentation
ii. Costly
iii. Can make one appear more concerned with the trivia rather than the detail of the
presentation
iv. Can distract rather than enhance the performance
v. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the disaster if anything goes wrong.
vi. Lack of confidence in using them as one needs to be familiar with the equipment used
and have a fallback position if the unexpected should happen.

N/B: Criteria to be met when using audio visual communication:-

 Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the presentation and
represent a dimension of the subject under discussion/being presented.
 Care must be taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music. The seating
arrangements/room layouts should be designed so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on
 You should not use effects which can upset the audience( e.g. loud bangs, flickering
lights, fireworks) or even endanger them
 Can opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and confusion
 Always make reference to a visual
 Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio visuals. Use technical support or
arrange for convenience of both you and the audience
 Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them

43
  To keep attention, use audio visuals at low attention periods such as after lunch, before a
break or towards the end of the session and
 Rehearse.

Visual communication

This is communication through a visual aid and is described as the conveyance of ideas and
information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Visual communication in part or whole
relies on vision, images. It includes signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration and
advertising.

Advantages of visual communication:-

i. It is very fast as far as conveying a message is concerned. It can be understood just at a

glance,
ii. A picture is retained in ones memory longer than words,
iii. It is impactful. A graphic of any kind can elicit a stronger reaction from the reader,
iv. It is much more efficient not just in time required and the point will get across better,
v. Very clear and no ambiguities as for case of oral communication

Disadvantages of visual communication:-

i. Higher costs. High quality images, pictures and graphics require additional resources,
ii. Requires more time and effort as it involves selecting, compiling and presenting a large
amount of information,
iii. Only a small amount of information can be conveyed via a graphic,
iv. Visuals can be distracting especially if it is poorly designed and
v. Many concepts lose their complexity. Viewers can miss out on crucial details and
hamper the decision making process. Over simplification can also make the issue seem
pretty and inconsequential.

BUSINESS LETTERS

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Business letters are used by organizations as the main instrument of external communication.
The main purposes of a business letter are:-

i. To convey a message – giving information, seeking information, acknowledging receipt

of information, making an appointment or even a note drawing the attention of the
receiver to forwarded documents,
ii. To provide a permanent record for future reference,
iii. To provide valuable evidence in the event of legal disputes
iv. To provide an opportunity to build/enhance goodwill of the business/good reputation

Parts of a Business Letter

A good business letter should bear the following components or elements:

a) Date: This refers to the day, month and year when the letter is written e.g. 30th July
2016. The name of the month should neither be abbreviated nor stated in figures (do
abbreviate or state in figures).
b) Name and address/receiver’s name: This refers to the name and address of the target
receiver of the message. Business courtesy requires people to be addressed under
respectful titles e.g. “Mr.” followed by personal names. These titles are used for
business firms whose titles include a personal name e.g. partnerships. They are not
used in incorporated bodies i.e. limited companies but for this category, it should be
addressed through an officer such as; the general manager, finance officer, secretary
etc.
c) Salutation: The customary opening salute is “Dear Sir/Madam” or “Dear Sirs”“Dear
Mr.…..” The last salutation is used to give a friendly tone to the letter especially
between persons known to each other.
d) Subject/heading: This is the summarized theme of the letter. Subject is used in saving
time for the letter receiver because it gives the main idea in very few words. Subjects of
letters are written below the salutation and are often underlined for emphasis. No full
stop is provided at the end of the subject because it is not a complete sentence.

45
e) Message/Body: This means the main ideas to be communicated are arranged in
appropriate paragraphs and in logical flow. In writing the message, care must be taken
to ensure use of good and easily understood language, economy of words and clarity of
the subject matter and the use of short sentence.
f) Complimentary clause: This depends on the type of salutation earlier used. It is similar
to “good bye” by a visitor. For example, if a friendly salutation is “Dr, Mr./Mrs.”…., the
close is “Yours sincerely”. If the salutation is formal “Dear Sir/Madam”…close is ”Yours
faithfully”.
g) Signature: Business letters should be signed. Many signatures are illegible and it is
therefore advisable to write out full names of the letter writer just below the signature
and also the designation/office.

Enclosures: This refers to material that accompanies the letter. It may be included or left
out depending on whether there is an item enclosed or not. Where an item has been
enclosed, the word enclosure or its abbreviation end is written at the bottom left hand
portion of the letter and the figure indicating the number of items enclosed i.e. encl-2.

Requirements/Qualities of a good business letter

A good business letter should bear the following characteristics:-

i. Favourable impression/good presentation: This means the letter should be neat and
attractive in appearance in order to stimulate the receiver’s desire to read it.
Factors that help create a favourable impression of a business letter include use of
quality stationery, attractive letter heads, neat typing and prints as well as orderly
arrangement of the parts of the letter (organized content).
ii. Appeal to readers’ point of view: This means the letter should be written to appeal
to its receivers to take the desired action. To achieve this, business letters should
convince the reader how taking the desired action will be of advantage to him/her.
iii. Correct in all details: Errors in a business letter can prevent it from evoking the
desired response from the receiver. Errors in it may arise from carelessness and also
failure to consult reference sources which may result in miss-spelt words, names,
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 errors in dates and figures. Errors in use of capital letters and other grammatical
errors. Some errors may annoy the reader and make him/her lose faith in the
sender of the letter. Errors in the letter may also harm the goodwill of the
concerned organization. N/B: Letters should therefore be proof read carefully and
all mistakes corrected before sending.
iv. Courteous and sincere: This means a business letter should be crafted carefully in a
way to appreciate its receiver without taking him/her for granted. Respectful
language should be used and words such as ‘please, ‘thank you’, ‘we appreciate’,
‘we are most grateful’ etc may all reflect good gratitude, respect and good manners.
v. Promote goodwill/reputation of the sending organization: Goodwill is considered
one of the major purposes of all business messages. Goodwill may come from
products or services, ethical behavior or conduct of members in an organization,
superior service to customers and prompt response to customers’ needs and
attention to details.
vi. Clear and complete: This means a business letter should be written in the simplest
expressions which are easily understood by the reader. Jargon or technical words
should be avoided. The letter should also contain all necessary details to avoid the
need for other letters of clarification and to assist the reader take necessary action
promptly.
vii. Concise/precise/brief: This means business letters should cover the subject under
discussion in the fewest words possible and that irrelevant details should be
avoided. However, clarity of the message and completeness of details should not be
compromised by conciseness of the letter.
viii. Smooth flow of ideas: This means each part of a letter should be related to the
other parts and those ideas should be arranged in a logical sequence. Words such as
“therefore”, “nevertheless”, “finally”, “furthermore” may be used to connect
sentences and paragraphs.
ix. It should be well paragraphed: There is no formula for determining the number of
paragraphs. A letter should have at least two paragraphs. A letter writer should

47
 ensure short paragraphs with each conveying a principle idea. However, too many
paragraphs should be avoided. A typical four size page should contain 3-4
paragraphs.
x. It should adopt a fully blocked format or a semi blocked format. The format that is
initially adopted should be consistently used to the end of the letter. Consistency
means the tone of the letter is uniform throughout.

Layout/Format of Business Letters

There are two types of formats that are often available in business letter:-

1. Fully blocked style: All parts begin from the left hand margin. There is no paragraph
space left from the margin. Two line spaces are left to separate on part of the letter
from the next e.g. the date from the inside address, the salutation, the subject and the
body.
2. Semi blocked style: In this letter, the sender’s address and date appear on the right
hand top corner. All other parts of the letter are blocked from the left hand margin.
The subject is centered in the middle of the page. The complementary close and
signature are also centered in the middle of the page.

Types of Business letters

1. Enquiry /request/favor letters: This letter is sent by a prospective buyer to find out
availability of specified goods or services, their prices and terms of sale. Such a letter
may be accompanied by a stamped addressed envelope for the reply. The inquiry
should state the important specifications of the product such as colour, size or
quantity, the date when required, the purpose/use of the product as well as other

48
 terms/conditions desired. Business organizations may find themselves making request
for information, literature appointments and reservations.
2. Quotations: This refers to a reply to an inquiry and is prepared by a prospective seller
or supplier to a prospective buyer. In replying to an enquiry, a quotation should clearly
examine the request made and address it comprehensively. The quotation should
describe the type of goods or service they have the quality and sizes, the terms and
conditions, the prices and also indicate a willingness to serve the prospective customer.
3. Order/ request for supply of goods or services: An order is a request by a prospective
buyer to a prospective supplier to provide goods and services that have been
previously quoted. An order is therefore placed or prepared on the basis of a quotation
and must therefore refer to the quotation number and date. This letter is concise but it
states all the necessary items required their characteristics and the date when they are
required. The letter should observe politeness and be written in a businesslike manner.
4. Acknowledgement: This letter is prepared by a supplier upon receipt of an order. The
letter aims at appreciating the order and it refers by name to the goods ordered. It
assures the prospective buyer that the order is being attended to and also gives a
chance to the buyer to correct any errors in the order before dispatch of goods by the
seller. The letter should promise to give or to provide further service in future.
5. Letter of complaint: Letters of complaint may be prepared by customers in the event of
delayed delivery, delivery of wrong types of products, spoil/damaged goods, poor or
wrong packaging or even overstated prices that lead to overcharges on the invoice.
Complaint letters require restraint on both sides because they may be emotional in
nature. Emotions should not be revealed in the letter because it may turn out that
theother party is not wrong after all. The following rules should be observed when
writing complaint letters:-
 Avoid rudeness because it may lead to unwillingness to cooperate and be
helpful,
 Avoid assuming that the reader is to blame because this may not be the case
and one may have a reason and a good defense,

49
  Confine the complaint to facts and avoid exaggerating matters. This means
stating exactly what the problem is,
 Avoid suggesting how the mistake may have occurred or even how it should
be corrected as this is a matter for the other party.
6. Reply to a complaint/correction/adjustment letters: One should never ignore a
complaint. It is an occasion for the receiver to put matters right and should be acted on
promptly to avoid resentment by the complainant. Acknowledge the complaint and let
the complainant know that you are looking into the matter. Assume the complainant is
right and do not indicate that he is unreasonable. Where the complaint turns out to be
unfounded, or baseless, this fact should be pointed out politely and without
reprimanding the complainant.
The complainer should be let known that perhaps it is by mistake that the complaint
arose. Replies to complaints should express a desire to continue in business and to
be in service with the complainant. The letter should also communicate that the
error was not intentional and that efforts will be made to ensure subsequent deals
have no similar errors.
7. Debt collection letters: Debt collection letters seek payment for overdue accounts.
These letters should be formed with care to avoid offending the debtor unnecessarily.
There may be genuine reason for the delay in payment of the account. Such letters
should bear the following qualities:-
 Persuade the debtor to pay,
 Retain the customer and enhance goodwill or the reputation of the
organization,
 It should not threaten the customer with legal proceeding until all other
means have been tried and have failed and
 It should regret where the ultimate action is legal proceedings.

Application Letters

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Letters that request for jobs are often called job application or employment letters. A letter of
application for a job may be written:-

a) In response to a newspaper advertisement or any other form of advertisement,

b) At the suggestion of a relative or friend and
c) On one’s own initiative even though one does not know of a specific job opening in the
particular organization.

Anyone who applies for a job expects to sell his qualifications, skills and experience to the
prospective employer. The letter should therefore be impressive and appeal to the employer. A
good application should bear the following qualities:-

i. Good appearance/good impression: This quality can be achieved by a good layout of

the contents of the letter, use of good quality print and paper, cleanliness. This gives
the employer a first clue to the writer’s personality and work habits.
ii. Well organized: This means the ideas in the letter should be clearly communicated and
presented in an orderly manner avoiding mixing up ideas. The writer should transmit
his resume and supplement it with a personal sales message. The resume describes
fully one’s education (academic and profession) and experience. It is one’s curriculum
vitae (CV). A letter of application for a job should begin with a summary statement of
the writer’s special qualifications. Other less special qualifications should follow
thereafter. The letter should indicate why the applicant desires to work for the
organization.
iii. Well developed body: This means the body of the letter should emphasize the writer’s
educational background that is specifically relevant to the job applied for. The writer
should indicate why he would like to be employed by the firm and give specific
reasons for being interested in that particular organization. The ideas in the body
should flow; connecting words should be used to link one idea to the other.
iv. Well concluded: Application letters should conclude by telling the reader what you
wish to do. The writer may ask for an interview and make the request easy to grant.

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 REPORTS

In large organizations, top managers cannot keep in touch with all operations of the company
and they often rely on reports from others to whom they have delegated authority. Information
may be reported at different level of business management.

Types of reports:-

i. Routine reports,
ii. Special reports.

Routine reports: These reports deal with matters that periodically recur. Some matters such as
AGM of shareholders, audit reports keep recurring. Others include reports on sales
representatives to their sales managers, periodic reports of departmental managers on their
performance, reports made at committee meetings recur. The information made on such
reports is similar although the times are different. Some organizations have pre- designed
forms on which to make routine reports. This simplifies the work of presenting such reports.

Special reports: These are once only/ad hoc reports. They provide information on matters of
particular interest and concern. They cover a specific situation and the nature of the
information is not likely to recur. They may be replies to requests for information by an
executive on a specified project. They may also be requested by top management in order to
help them shape business policies. Special reports may be made by individuals, by groups, by
members of staff, by specialists in given fields or by special committees appointed to
investigate different issues. They may be made in summary form and consist of only a single
page or they may be detailed and covering many pages.

Qualities of a good report

A good report should bear the following:-

i. Complete: This means that the report should cover all matters within the terms of
reference. It also means the reports should gather all facts carefully, interpret the

52
 honesty and distinguish between what is presented as a fact and that which is an opinion
as well as stating whether the findings are favourable or not.
ii. Clarity/clear: This means the reporter should present the report in a language that can
easily be understood by the reader and it must be presented in a grammatically correct
language. For a report to be clear, the reporter must think clearly from the beginning and
ensure the ideas are presented in an orderly logical manner.
iii. Concise/brief: This does not mean using few words necessarily, but emphasis should be
put on the economy of words. Completeness and clarity of a report should not be
sacrificed by the economy of words. To be brief, it implies writing to the point, working
to a plan and avoiding making the report longer than it should be.
iv. Readable/legible: This means the report should be presented in an attractive manner and
in terms that capture the reader’s attention. A report should be presented in a language
that is interesting and that which motivates the reader to follow up the ideas to the end.

Forms of presenting a report/layout

Repots may be presented in the following ways:-

1. Reports in letter form

2. Reports in tabular form and
3. Reports in paragraph form.

Reports in letter form: This format is often adopted in case of short reports. It takes the
presentation of a letter that is addressed to the person on whose instructions the report is
made. The structure is that of an ordinary business letter complete with signature and date.
The subject is included above the body of the letter. The content (body) is usually arranged in
the following order:-

a) Terms of reference: This forms the opening paragraph and it mentions the request for
the report, the scope of the report and a formal statement that the report is being
submitted.

53
 b) Procedure: Procedure refers to the methods of investigation used to collect information.
A report may use various methods to collect data. Some may include; consulting
experts, enquiries, tests carried out and any other method of fact collection.
c) Findings: This means the facts as ascertained in the information collected
d) Conclusions: This means what the reporter deduces or interprets from the facts
collected.
e) Recommendations: This means a statement of the reporter’s suggestions on what
should be done if this had been asked for under the terms of reference.

N/B: The reporter should thereafter write a complementary clause just like any other business
letter. For very short reports, the terms of reference and procedure may be combined under
one sub-heading to form the introduction while findings, conclusions and recommendations are
combined to make the last paragraph. The six elements i.e. terms of reference, procedure,
findings, conclusion and recommendations make the typical parts of a report.

Reports in tabular form: This format is adopted in the presentation of long detailed reports.
Materials in the report are classified and grouped under headings and sub-headings to simplify
the reader’s task. A table of content is made to make the reader’s task even easy by giving an
over view of the ideas covered in the report. Such a table indicates the main headings and sub-
headings of the report and also includes a list of any diagrams and other items appended to
clarify ideas in the report. A report in tabular form enables the reader:-

 To group the essential information on a first reading

 To understand the relationship between various parts of the report and
 To select those parts of the report he/she may be especially interested in and avoid
reading the entire work

When reports are very long, a summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations may be
made and presented on a single page to make the readers work easier and to ensure fast
reading.

54
Reports in tabular form begin with the title page which sets out the terms of references. This is
followed by a table of content, the summary and thereafter the detailed report under headings
and subheadings and ends up with nay appendices and diagrams. The report should be signed
and dated by the person who submits it.

Reports in paragraph form: This is a simple presentation of long reports in numbered

paragraphs that are headed. The difference between the presentation and tabular form is that
the paragraphs are given numbers for easier identification alongside the heading.

i. Introduction
ii. Terms of reference

All other details are similar to those of long reports and the tabular presentation.

Purpose of Reports

1. To provide information: Managers in business organizations require information to

make various decisions and to facilitate planning business activities.
2. To provide ideas and opinions: Business organizations engage highly skilled employees
as managers. Reports from such managers may give ideas to entrepreneurs on how to
solve problems that face the business.
3. To report facts: Business may require establishing facts in a matter that requires
defense. A poor reputation that may have been caused by false information from
competitors can be collected by establishing the true position and collecting facts which
are then presented to the public.
4. To provide recommendation: Business may require solutions or recommendations on
what should be done in a given challenge. Managers in business organizations may rely
on recommendations or reports to guide the activities of business by implementing
what is recommended.

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Format of Reports
The purpose of reports and their subject matter varies widely, but there are certain
generally accepted principles of report writing that can be applied to most types of
reports. These are:-
1. Title: The report should have a title and should be explicit- that’s, it should
indicate clearly what the report is about and brief- i.e. the title should be as
short as possible while at the same time being explicit.
2. Identification of report writer, report user and date: Reports should indicate
clearly whom they are directed at, who has written them and the date of their
preparation
3. Confidentiality: If the report is confidential, this fact must be printed at the top
of the report.
4. Contents page: If the report is extensive, it should open with a list of contents by
a section, paragraph, number etc.
5. Terms of reference: The introductory section of the report should explain why
the report has been written. The terms of reference should explain not only the
purpose of the report but also any restrictions on its scope. Timescale is
important and it should be specified in terms of reference. “The report was to be
handed in by 10th August 2016”.
6. Sources of information: If the report draws on other sources for information,
these sources should be acknowledged in the report. Alternatively, if the report
is based on primary research, the nature of fact finding should be explained.
7. Sections: The main body of the report should be divided into sections. These
sections should have a logical sequence and each section should ideally have a
clear heading.
8. Appendices: To keep the main body of the report short enough to hold the
reader’s interest, detailed explanations, charts and tables of figures should be
put into appendices. The main body of the report should make cross references
to the appendices in appropriate places.

56
 9. Report summaries: Long reports should be summarized in brief. However, it is
better to keep the main report itself brief with the detail in appendices hence a
report summary would not be necessary.

The short formal report

The report is used in formal reporting situations, mainly internal where middle or senior
management reports to senior or top management. It will be split into logical sections as
follows:-

1. Terms of reference
2. Procedures
3. Findings
 Main section heading
 First sub heading of section 3.3
 Second sub heading of section 3.3 etc
4. Conclusions
5. Recommendations
 First main recommendations
 Second main recommendations

Title: For this kind of report, at the top (or on a title page) should be the title of the
report. This includes: who has prepared it, for whom it is intended, the date of
completion and the status of the report (confidential or urgent).

Terms of reference: Here, lay out the scope and purpose of the report. What is to be
investigated, what kind of information is required, whether recommendations are to be
made etc.

Procedure: This outlines the steps taken to make an investigation, collect data or put
events into motion. It could be telephone calls were made, documents/files consulted,

57
computer files accessed, visits of the site/observation etc. They should be briefly
described with names of other people involved.

Findings: The information itself is set out with appropriate headings and subheadings.
Findings will usually be written in descending order of importance, where the most
important comes first. The content should be complete but concise and clearly
structured.

Conclusions: This section allows for summary of main findings- if the report is lengthy
and complex. This is particularly helpful to those who may wish to read the entire
report.

Recommendations: If asked to do so in terms of reference, the writer of the report may

suggest the solution to the problem investigated so that the reader will be able to make
a decision if necessary.

The short informal Report

The structure of the informal report is less developed. It is shorter and not complex thus
does not require elaborate referencing and layout. Its sections may have various titles
but three sections may be considered as below:

Background or Introduction or Situation: This sets the context of the report. It includes
everything that will help the reader to understand the rest of the report. This section
may contain the equivalent of terms of reference and procedure.

 The reasons why it was requested

 The current situation
 Any background information on people and things that will be mentioned in the
following sections.

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Findings or Analysis of the situation: The detailed information gathered narrative of
events or other substance of the report is set out. It may be organized as a series of
continuous pros paragraphs; it may be sub-headings or numbered lists. The input of this
section is not sufficiently complex to justify a highly schematized indented layout.

Action or Solution or Conclusion: In this last section, the main points of the report are
summarized as conclusions and any actions required. Recommendations or means of
solving a problem are outlined. Thus, the conclusions and recommendations are
combined.

The long Formal Report- The report in Tabular Form

This format is used for high level, extensive reports. It could be 50 or hundreds of pages.
The principal components are:-

 Title page
 Contents page
 Synopsis of findings
 Terms of reference
 Procedure
 Sectionalized findings
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 Bibliography

A schematic arrangement in which the material is classified and grouped under headings
and subheadings greatly simplifies the reader’s task. A table of contents makes his/her
task easier as it gives a bird’s eye view of the subject matter covered as well as a close
up of sections that specially interest him. With very lengthy reports, it is also helpful to
prepare a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations consisting of no
more than a single page.

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Capitals, numerals, lettering, underscoring and indenting are all employed as devices for
presenting the different items with varying degrees of emphasis. The numbering and
lettering scheme adopted will depend on the house style.

MEMORANDUM/MEMO

A memo is a written communication that is used within the company/organization. It is

an internal written communication. Memos are used to communicate with other
employees regardless of where they may be located whether in the same office in the
same building or in a different branch far away. A memo defies the formality of the
business letter by omitting the inside address, the salutation and complementary clause.

Main parts of a memo are:

i. The heading: This includes the name of the company, its logo and the word
MEMORANDUM in capital letters across the page. The words “TO” and “FROM”
and the date.
ii. The subject: It is a brief statement on what the memo is about. The subject helps
the reader to prepare for the content and it also assist in fulfilling the
correspondence for future reference.
iii. The message/body: Memos present the main idea in the first paragraph and the
details follow thereafter. The conclusion may be a suggestion for future action or
a request for guidance on some matter. Memos may be written to persuade
members in a given organization to take a specified action or memos that convey
bad news to members in the same organization.
N/B: Memos are a popular form of written downward communication or
between managers at the same level in the organization.

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Format of a memo

MEMORANDUM
To : All Employees
From : Managing Director
Date : 10th August 2016
RE: DRESS CODE AT THE WORKPLACE
This is to inform employees that they should maintain appropriate dress as laid
down in the code of conduct manual.

Thank You.

FORMS AND QUESTIONAIRE DESIGNS

FORMS
A business form is a logically structured document with a fixed arrangement of
captioned spaces, designed for entering, extracting or communicating the
required information.
Design of Forms: The guidelines of a good form design are:-
 The function and reference number of the form should be clearly shown
at the top e.g. Application Form,
 The name of the organization should appear at the top if it is to be used
externally,
 The overall design should be uncomplicated and functional, not
forbidding to the eye of the form filler and convenient for retrieval
purposes. Therefore make use of lines, boxes to assist clarity and quick
location of information.
 The wording should be clear and concise
 Sufficient room should be allowed for the information requested but too
much space

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