IGCSE

Physics
Study guide
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Block 1: General physics
1 Making measurements
1.1 Measuring units
Multiplying Prefix Abbreviation Multiplying Prefix Abbreviation
factor factor
101 Deca- t 10-1 Deci- d
102 Hecto- h 10-2 Centi- c
103 Kilo- k 10-3 Milli- m
106 Mega- M 10-6 Micro- µ
109 Giga- G 10-9 Nano- n
1012 Tera- T 10-12 Pico- p

1.1 Measuring length and volume

 Measuring lengths
o Ruler
 Measuring volumes
o Regular object – Length, Width, Height
o Irregular object – Measure water displacement

1.2 Improving precision of measurement

 Vernier calipers
o Close caliper jaws tightly but firmly on the sides of the object being measured
o Read the main scale, just to the left of the zero of the Vernier scale.
o Read the Vernier scale, where one of its markings is exactly aligned with one of the
markings on the main scale.
o Thickness
 Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
 E.g. 35mm + 0.7mm
 Micrometre screw gauge
o Turn the barrel until the jaws tighten on the object using the frictional clutch to
ensure the right amount of pressure
o Read the main scale to the nearest 0.5 mm
o Read the fractional scale
o Thickness
 Main scale reading + Fractional scale reading
 E.g. 2.5mm + 0.17mm
1.3 Density
 The ratio of mass to value of a substance
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑀 𝑘𝑔 𝑔
 𝜌= or 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = or 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 =
𝑉 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3
 The SI unit for load is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁

1.4 Time
 Types of timing devices
o Analog clock
o Digital clock
o Light gate sensor

1.5 Pendulum
 A weight, called a ‘bob’, hangs on the end of a string, clamped by two jaws
 A period is the time for one swing of a pendulum (Centre, right to left, then back to centre)

2 Describing motion
2.1 Speed and velocity
 Speed
o The distance travelled by an object per unit of time
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
o 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚
o 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑠
o The SI unit for speed is 𝑚/𝑠
 Velocity
o The speed of on object at a given direction

2.1.2 Methods to calculate speed

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Light gate sensor
o Using two light gates to capture the time taken to travel between the two light gates
o Using an ’interrupt card’, to capture length of time beam is broken.
2.2 Distance-time graphs

Travelling forward Stopping Travelling backward

ard ard ard

Accelerating Decelerating

 Speed = Gradient of distance-time graph

ard ard
2.3 Acceleration
 The rate of the change in the speed of an object per unit time
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢 𝑚/𝑠
 𝑎= or 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 𝑠
𝑡
 The SI unit for acceleration is 𝑚/𝑠 2

2.4 Speed-time graphs

Accelerating Decelerating Constant speed Stopping

 Distance = Area under speed-time graph

 ard
Acceleration = Gradient ofard
speed-time graph
 3 Forces and motion
 Forces produce acceleration
 Resultant forces
o The single force that has the same effect as two or more forces

3.1 Weight
 The force of an object feels due to gravity
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 or 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚/𝑠 2
 The SI unit for weight is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁

3.1.2 Difference between mass and weight

 Mass is the amount of matter in an object

 Weight is the gravitational force that acts on an object’s mass

3.2 Falling
 Terminal velocity
o When an object falls, gravity accelerates the object downwards
o As the object falls, air resistance increases
o Eventually air resistance would equalize the force of gravity
o The object will stop accelerating, terminal velocity is reached

 Falling without air resistance (on a graph)

Distance Speed

Time Time

 Falling with air resistance (on a graph)

Distance Speed

Time Time
  Parachuting
1. Skydiver accelerate after freefall
2. Acceleration slows as air resistance increases
3. Terminal velocity when gravity equals air resistance
Speed
4. Parachute deploys and speed decreases
5. Speed decreases until terminal velocity is reached again

Time

 Objects moving in a circular path

o For an object to move in a circular path, the object needs to be acted on by a
force at right angles to its velocity

3.3 Force
 The action of one body on a second body that causes its velocity to change
 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 or 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚/𝑠 2
 The SI unit for force is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁

3.4 The idea of momentum

 Momentum
o The product of an object’s mass and its velocity
o 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
o 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 or 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚/𝑠
o The SI unit for momentum is 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
 Impulse
o It is the change of momentum of an object
o 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
o 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
o 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 𝐹𝑡
 The impulse equation is related to 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑣−𝑢
1. 𝑎 = 𝑡
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
2. Substituting ‘a’ gives 𝐹 = or 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑡

 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

3.5 Scalars and vectors
Scalar quantities Vector quantities
Speed Velocity
Mass Force
Energy Weight
Density Acceleration
Temperature

 Vector quantities have a direction and magnitude

 Scalar quantities only has magnitude

4 Turning effects of forces

4.1 Conditions of equilibrium
 Forces must be balanced (no resultant force)
 Turning effects of the forces must be balanced (no resultant turning effect)

4.2 Moments
 The turning effect of a force about a point
 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡
 𝑁𝑚=𝑁×𝑚
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

4.2 Stability and centre of mass

 Centre of mass
o The point where all of object’s mass is concentrated
 Conditions for stability
o Low centre of mass
o Wide base
5 Forces and matter
5.1 Forces acting on solids
 Stretch Tensile forces
 Compress Compressive forces
 Bend Bending forces
 Twist Torsional forces

5.2 Hooke’s Law

 “The extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it, provided it doesn’t
exceed its limit of proportionality”
 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 or 𝑁 = 𝑁/𝑐𝑚 × 𝑐𝑚
 The SI unit for load is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁

5.2 Pressure measurements

 Manometer (for gas pressure)
o U-shaped tube holding a small amount of liquid
o Used to measure the difference in pressure between two gases
 Barometer (made of mercury)
o An inverted glass tube filled with mercury in a pool of water
o Vacuum forms at the top of the tube
o Used to measure atmospheric pressure
o Length of the column of mercury depends on atmospheric pressure
o Unit = mm Hg (Millimetres of mercury)

5.3 Pressure
 The force acting on an object per unit area at right angles to a surface
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
 𝑃=𝐴
 The SI unit for pressure is 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎

5.4 Liquid pressure

 The deeper an object goes into a liquid, the greater weight above it thus the greater
the pressure
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ × 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
6 Energy transformations and energy transfers
6.1 Forms of energy
 Energy
o Also known as work
o SI unit for energy is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐽
 Energy stores
o Energy stored in in an object
 Energy transfers
o Energy transferred from object to another

Energy stores Energy transfers

Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Gravitational potential energy Thermal (heat) energy
Internal energy Light energy
Chemical energy Sound energy
Nuclear energy
Strain (elastic) energy

 Kinetic energy
o The energy that an object possesses due to its motion
1
o 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
1
o 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
o The SI unit for KE is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐽
 Gravitational potential energy
o The energy an object possesses because of its position in a gravitational field
o 𝐺. 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ
o 𝑈𝑔 = 𝑚 × 𝑔 × ℎ
o The SI unit for GPE is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐽
 Internal energy
o The total kinetic energy and potential energy of all atoms and molecules in an object
o The hotter a material, the more internal energy
o Energy is transferred from a hot material to a cold material
o Heat
 It is the object’s internal energy
 The total energy of all its particles
o Temperature
 The average kinetic energy of an object
6.3 Conversation of energy
 Law of conservation of energy
o Energy can be changed (transferred) from one type or another, but it can’t be
created or destroyed
 Energy efficiency
 The fraction of the amount of energy outputted that ends up in its desired form
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
× 100

7 Energy and resources

7.1 The energy we use
Renewable energy Non-renewable energy
Solar energy Fossil fuel
Wind and wave power Nuclear fuel
Biomass fuel
Water power

7.2 Energy from the Sun

 Most of the energy we use can be traced back to the Sun
o Fossil fuels are stores of energy from the Sun millions of years ago
o Solar energy absorbed by solar cells to produce electricity
o Most hydroelectric power uses the heat from the Sun needed for the water cycle
 Some forms of energy doesn’t come from sunlight
o Small amounts of hydroelectric energy makes use of tides caused by the
gravitational pull from the Sun and the Moon
o Nuclear energy makes use of nuclear fuels mined underground
o Geothermal energy comes from heat from the ground

7.3 Fusion and Fission

 Fusion
o Energy produced from the joining of atoms
o Mainly found on the Sun
o Produces less radiation
 Fission
o Energy produced from the splitting of atoms
o Used in nuclear power stations
o Produces nuclear waste
8 Work and power
8.1 Work
 Work is done when energy is transferred from one store to another
 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
 𝑊 = ∆𝐸

And

 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 or 𝐽 = 𝑁 × 𝑚
 1𝐽 = 1𝑁𝑚
 Same as 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 × ℎ

8.2 Power
 The rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is transferred
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑊
 𝑃=
𝑡

And
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
∆𝐸
 𝑃= 𝑡
 The SI unit for power is 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 𝑊
 1𝑊 = 1𝐽/𝑠