lEE E Std 81-1962

IEEE Recommended Guide for

Measuring Ground Resistance and
Potential Gradients in the Earth

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Published by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 345 East 47th Street, New York, New York 10017
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 IEEE Recommended Guide for
Measuring Ground Resistance and
Potential Gradients in the Earth

Published by

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

345 East 47th Street, New York, N. Y. 10017

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Institute wishes to acknowledge its indebtedness to those who have so freely given of
their time and knowledge and have conducted experimental work on which many of the A I E E
publications are based.

This publication was prepared by the Ground Resistance and Potential Gradient Measure­
ments Subcommittee of the Special Instruments and Auxiliary Apparatus Committee. The
Subcommittee is composed of:

John C. Parker, Choir man

A. L. Rickley, Secretary

E. L. Able George D. Lippert

John G. Anderson C. W. Lund
1). W . Bodel L. W. Matsch
E. J. Bonnesen Edgar H . Olsen
Myron A. Bostwick Stanley G. Paun
J. G. Cassan B. Lawrence Philip
E. B. Curdts C. S. Roadhouse
V. C. Detty Leon N. Sherban
C. A. Duke George S. Smith
John I. Holbeck G. Gordon Smith
Paul B. Jacob, Jr. Harry Sohon
D. T. Jones A. W. Spinks
Allen L. Kinyon T. B. Thompson
B. E. Lenehan

Appreciation is expressed to the following members of the subcommittee who participated

earlier in the development of this publication.
W. C. Ball C. H. Jensen
J. P. Holm V. H . Kraybill
R. W. Inman M. A. Leland

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 CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE
1.00 PURPOSE 5
2.00 SCOPE 5
3.00 OBJECTIVES OF TESTS 5
4.00 DEFINITIONS 5
S.OO CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUNDING
CONNECTION 7
5.01 General 7
5.02 Characteristics 7
5.03 Earth Resistivity 7
5.04 Current Flow from an Electrode 7
5.05 Equipotential Lines 8
5.06 Theoretical Value of Ground Resistance 8
6.00 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHILE MAKING
GROUND TESTS 8
6.01 Station Ground Tests 8
6.02 Lightning Arrester Ground Tests 9
6.03 Small Isolated Ground Tests 9
7.00 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 9
7.01 Complexities 9
7.02 Stray Direct Currents 9
7.03 Stray Alternating Currents 9
7.04 Reactive Component of Impedance of a Large
Ground System 10
8.00 METHODS OF MEASURING EARTH
RESISTIVITY 10
8.01 Two-Point Method 10
8.02 Four-Point Method 10
8.03 Soil Samples 10
9.00 METHODS OF MEASURING GROUND
RESISTANCE 11
9.01 General 11
9.02 Two-Point Method 11
9.03 Three-Point Method 11
9.04 Fall-of-Potential Method 11
9.05 Ratio Method 12
9.06 Staged Fault Tests 12
10.00 AUXILIARY ELECTRODES 13
11.00 COUPLING BETWEEN TEST CIRCUITS 13
12.00 INSTRUMENTATION FOR GROUND
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 13
12.01 Ratio Ohmmeter 13
12.02 Double-Balance Bridge 14
12.03 Single-Balance Transformer 15
12.04 Ammeter-Voltmeter 15
12.05 Integrity of Ground Grid Tests 15

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 13.00 POTENTIAL GRADIENT MEASUREMENTS 16
13.01 Potential Contour Surveys 16
13.02 Step and Touch Voltages 17
14.00 MODEL TESTS 17
14.01 Purpose 17
14.02 Material Required 17
14.03 Resistance Test Procedure 17
14.04 Potential Gradient Test Procedure 18
14.05 Principles to be Followed in Use of Model 18
15.00 BIBLIOGRAPHY 19

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 RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
AND POTENTIAL GRADIENTS IN THE EARTH
1.00 PURPOSE
1.01 It is the purpose of this Guide to describe and dis­
cuss the present state of the technique of measur­
ing ground resistance and impedance, earth resis­
tivity, and potential gradients resulting from cur­
rents in the earth and the prediction of the magni­
tudes of ground resistance and potential gradients
from scale model tests.1 Factors governing the
choice of instruments and the techniques for various
types of work are covered, such as the purpose of
the measurement, the accuracy required, the time
and instruments available, and the nature of the
ground or grounding system under test.
1.02 The Guide is intended to assist the engineer or the
technician in obtaining accurate, reliable data, but
not in the interpretation of such data. It points out
test procedures to promote the safety of personnel
and property, and to prevent interference with the
operation of neighboring facilities.
2.00 SCOPE
2.01 The testing methods covered in this Guide include
those applicable to:
(1) The measurement of the resistance and im­
pedance to earth of electrodes varying from
small rods and plates to large grounding sys-
terns of stations.
(2) Ground potential surveys, including the meas­
urement of step and touch voltages, and po­
tential contour surveys.
(3) Scale-model tests for laboratory determination
of the ground resistance and potential gradients
for an idealized design.
(4) The measurement of earth resistivity.
2.02 The methods covered herein are generally limited
to those using direct current or periodically re­
versed direct current, or commercial power fre­
quencies. This Guide does not claim to cover all
possible methods, even within these limitations.
2.03 Extreme precision is seldom possible because of the
many variables encountered; therefore, the meas­
urements should be carefully made by the most suit­
able method available, with a thorough understand­
ing of the possible sources of error.
2.04 Definitions of terms pertinent to the subject matter
are given, with references to their sources where
known. Those approved or standardized by other
bodies are used wherever possible.
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3.00 OBJECTIVES OF TESTS
3.01 Measurements of ground resistance or impedance
and potential gradients on the surface of the earth
due to ground currents are necessary to:
(1) Verify the adequacy of a new grounding sys­
tem.
(2) Detect changes in an existing grounding sys­
tem.
(3) Determine hazardous step and touch voltages.
(4) Design protection for personnel and for power
and communication circuits.
3.02 Scale-model tests are useful in developing new de­
signs for grounding systems and for comparing
them with old ones.
3.03 Earth resistivity measurements are useful for:
(1) Estimating the ground resistance of a proposed
station structure or grounding system.
(2) Estimating potential gradients including step
and touch voltages.
(3) Computing the inductive coupling between
neighboring power and communication circuits.
(4) Designing cathodic protection systems.
4.00 DEFINITIONS
4 QJ Definitions as given herein apply specifically to the
application of this Guide. For additional definitions
see American Standard Definitions of Electrical
Terms C42-1941, C42.35-1957 and C42.65-1957, or
the latest revision thereof approved by the Ameri­
can Standards Association. The three-part numbers
in parenthesis preceding the titles of some of the
definitions included in this Guide.indicate the num­
ber of the corresponding definition in C42. The
definitions which do not carry the three-part num­
ber will be submitted for consideration of inclusion
in the next revision of C42.
4.0210 (35.15.005) Ground. A ground is a con­
ducting connection, whether intentional or acci­
dental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is
connected to the earth or to some conducting
body, of relatively large extent, which serves in
place of the earth. It is used for establishing and
maintaining the potential of the earth (or of the
conducting body) or approximately that potential,
on conductors connected to it, and for conduct­
ing ground current to and from the earth (or the
conducting body).
4.0211 (35.15.010) Grounded. Grounded means
that the system, circuit, or apparatus referred to is
provided with a ground.
 4.0212 (35.15.015) Ground-Return Circuit. A 4.0223 Potential Profile. A potential profile is a
ground-return circuit is a circuit in which the plot of potential as a function of distance along a
earth is utilized to complete the circuit. specified path.

4.0213 (35.15.020) Ground Current. G r o u n d cur­
rent is current flowing in the earth or in a ground­
ing connection.
4.0214 Grounding Electrode. A g r o u n d i n g elec­
trode is a conductor imbedded in the earth, used
for maintaining ground potential on conductors
connected to it, and for dissipating into the earth
current conducted to it.
4.0215 (35.15.105) Grounding Connection. A
grounding connection is a connection used in es­
tablishing a ground and consists of a grounding
conductor, a grounding electrode and the earth
(soil) which surrounds the electrode.
4.0216 Ground Grid. A ground grid is a system
of grounding electrodes consisting of interconnected
bare cables buried in the earth to provide a common
ground for electrical devices and metallic struc­
tures. It may be connected to auxiliary grounding
electrodes to lower its resistance.
4.0217 Ground Mat. A ground mat is a system
of bare conductors, on or below the surface of the
earth, connected to a ground or a ground grid to
provide protection from dangerous touch voltages.
Note: Plates and gratings of suitable area are common
forms of grotind mats.
4.0224 Surface Potential Gradient. Surface po­
tential gradient is the slope of a potential profile,
the path of which intersects equipotential lines at
right angles.
4.0225 Touch Voltage. T o u c h voltage is the po­
tential difference between a grounded metallic
structure and a point on the earth's surface equal
to the normal maximum horizontal reach, approx­
imately one meter.
4.0226 Step Voltage. Step voltage is the poten­
tial difference between two points on the earth's
surface, separated by a distance of one pace, which
will be assumed to be one meter, in the direction
of maximum potential gradient.
4.0227 (05.30.005) Conductivity. T h e conductiv­
ity of a material is the direct-current conductance
between the opposite, parallel faces of a portion of
the material having unit length and unit cross-
section.
4.0228 (05.30.015) Resistivity. T h e resistivity of
a material is the reciprocal of its conductivity.
Note: In the earlier work on earth currents and impedance,
earth conductivity ( \ ) was generally used, expressed in
abmhos per centimeter cube. At present, most engineers use
earth resistivity (p), expressed in ohms per meter cube
(commonly written "meter-ohms") or in ohms per centi­
meter cube ("ohm-cm").

4.0218 Grounding System. A grounding system

CONVERSION T A B L E
consists of all interconnected grounding connections
Resistivity, (p) Resistivity, (p) Resistivity, (p) Conductivity, (X)
in a specific area. meter-ohms ohm-cm ohm-feet abmhos per cm"

4.0219 Ground Resistance. T h e ground resis­ 1 100 3.28 10-n

tance of a grounding electrode is the ohmic resis­ 10 1,000 32.8 IO-12
tance between it and a remote grounding electrode 50 5,000 164 2xl0-i3
of zero resistance. By "remote" is meant at a dis­ 100 10,000 328 IO-13
tance such that the mutual resistance of the two 200 20,000 656 5 x 10-"
electrodes is essentially zero. 1,000 100,000 3,280 IO-14
10,000 1,000,000 32,800 10-i5

4.0220 Mutual Resistance of Grounding Elec-

trodes. T h e mutual resistance of t w o ground­ 4.0229 (65.02.267) Coupling. Coupling is the as­
ing electrodes is equal to the voltage change in sociation of two or more circuits or systems in
one of them produced by one ampere of direct such a way that power may be transferred from
current in the other, and is expressed in ohms. one to another.

4.0230 (65.02.270) Capacitive Coupling. Capaci-

4.0221 (05.15.030) Electric Potential. T h e elec­
tric potential of a point is the potential difference
between the point and some equipotential surface,
usually the surface of the earth, which is arbitrar­
ily chosen as having zero potential. A point which
has a higher potential than a zero surface is
said to have a positive potential; one having a
lower potential has a negative potential.
tive coupling is the association of two or more
circuits with one another by means of capacitance
mutual to the circuits.
4.0231 (65.02.273) Resistive Coupling. Resistive
coupling is the association of two or more circuits
with one another by means of resistance mutual to
the circuits.

4.0222 Equipotential Line or Contour. An equi­ 4.0232 (65.02.276) Direct Coupling. Direct coup­
potential line or contour is the locus of points hav­ ling is the association of two or more circuits by
ing the same potential at a given time. means of a self-inductance, capacitance, resistance

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 or a combination of these which is common to the
circuits.
4.0233 (65.02279) Inductive Coupling.
(1) In communication circuits, inductive coupling
is the association of two or more circuits with
one another by means of inductance mutual
to the circuits.
Note: This term, when used without modifying
words, is commonly used for coupling by means
of mutual inductance, whereas coupling by means
of self-inductance common to the circuits is
called direct inductive coupling.
(2) In inductive coordination practice, inductive
coupling is the interrelation of neighboring
electric supply and communication circuits by
electric or magnetic induction or both.
4.0234 (05.30.010) Effective Conductivity. The
effective conductivity of a material to a periodic
current is the effective conductance between the
opposite, parallel faces of a portion of the material
having unit length and unit cross-section.
4.0235 (05.30.020) Effective Resistivity. The ef­
fective resistivity of a material to a periodic cur­
rent is the effective resistance between the oppo­
site, parallel faces of a portion of the material
having unit length and unit cross-section.
5.00 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GROUNDING CONNECTION
5.01 General
Connections to earth have resistance, capacitance
and inductance, all of which affect their current-
carrying ability. The resistance of the connection is
of particular interest to those concerned with power
frequencies because it is affected by the resistivity
of the earth in the area of the connection. The
capacitance and inductance values are of interest to
those concerned with higher frequencies, such as
are associated with radio communications and light­
ning.
Ground resistance measurements are made: (1) to
determine the actual resistance of the ground con­
nections; (2) as a check on calculations; (3) to
determine: (a) the rise in ground potential, and its
variation throughout an area, that results from
the flow of ground fault current in a power system,
(b) the suitability of a grounding connection for
lightning protection, and (c) the suitability of a
grounding connection for radio-frequency trans­
mission at a transmitter; and (4) to obtain data
necessary for the design of protection for buildings,
the equipment therein, and any personnel that may
be involved.
Ground connections of all power and communication
systems should be studied to determine the varia-
tions in ground potential that can be encountered
during ground fault conditions so as to assure per-
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sonnel safety, adequacy of insulation and continuity
of service.
5.02 Characteristics
The characteristics of a grounding connection vary
with the composition and physical state of the soil
as well as with the extent and configuration of the
buried electrode. Earth in any given locality is
composed of various combinations of dry earth,
swampy ground, gravel, slate, sandstone or other
natural materials of widely varying resistivity. It
may be relatively homogeneous over a large area,
or it may be effectively saucered in granite, sand
or other matter having a high resistivity and thus
be practically insulated from the surrounding area.
Consequently, the characteristics of a grounding
connection (ohmic resistance) vary with the sea­
sons which affect temperature, moisture content
and compactness.
Calculations and experience show that, in a given
soil, the effectiveness of a ground grid is dependent
largely upon the over-all size of the ground grid.
The addition of buried conductors and driven rods
within an enclosure nevertheless aid somewhat in
reducing the ground resistance. This reduction di­
minishes with the addition of each successive con­
ductor or rod. A good method for reducing the
ground resistance of a transmission line tower or
mast is to install radial counterpoises.
After the installation of a substation or other
grounded structure, the settling of the earth with
annual cyclical weather changes tends to reduce the
ground resistance substantially during the first year
or two.
5,.03 Earth Resistivity
Earth resistivity, expressed in ohm-centimeters, is
the resistance of a cubic centimeter of earth meas­
ured between opposite surfaces. It can also be ex­
pressed in meter-ohms, (by dividing centimeter-
ohms by 100). Resistivity varies not only with the
type of soil, but also with its temperature, mois­
ture content, compactness and homogeneity. Mix­
tures of various materials, e.g., loam, sand, gravel,
rock, etc., may also be encountered. Moreover, bur­
ied conductive objects also affect resistivity. The
literature indicates that the values of resistivity
vary from 1.0 to 100 ohm-centimeters (0.01 to 1
meter-ohm) for sea water and up to 1011 ohm-
centimeters (109 meter-ohms) for sandstone.
The resistivity of the earth increases slowly, with
decreasing temperatures, from 25C to 0 C. Below
0 C the resistivity increases rapidly. The rate of
change of earth resistivity with temperature is dif­
ferent for different types of earth.
5 .04 Current Flow from an Electrode
The amount of current flow from an electrode is
usually determined primarily by the voltage and
 impedance of the external circuit, rather than by
the impedance of the electrode itself to the sur­
rounding earth. The latter is usually important
primarily in determining the potential rise of the
electrode, and the magnitude of the gradients which
will occur in its vicinity, during the current flow.
However, it should be pointed out that for low-
voltage systems and also for small grounding
systems, the impedance of the electrode to the sur­
rounding earth may greatly affect the current flow.
The impedance of a grounding electrode is usually
measured in terms of resistance because the re­
actance is generally negligible. This resistance will
not usually vary greatly from year to year after
the first year or two following the burial of the
ground grid. Although the ground grid may be
buried only a foot or two below the surface, the
variation of the resistance for larger stations seems
to bear little relationship to the variation of the re­
sistivity at the burial level. This is because the bulk
of the current from a large ground grid would nor­
mally flow almost directly downward in the area
under the station, unless the area is situated over
a high-resistance stratum.
Although the above statements appear to be con­
tradictory they are, nevertheless, true. Records
which have been kept of large area ground grids
over a period of eighteen years show little variation
in the measured value of resistance, whereas re­
sistivity measurements in the same area show wide
variations (as much as 17 to 1 at shallow depths).
It should be recognized that the resistance of a
grounding connection with a small number of driv­
en rods may vary more closely with that indicated
by resistivity measurements. This indicates that
the resistance of large area ground grids is propor­
tional to resistivity measurements made for greater
depths where less variation is encountered.
The current flow from a transmission line fault
to a substation ground grid tends to follow the
transmission line. Depth of mean current path is
directly proportional to the square root of the
earth resistivity and inversely proportional to the
square root of the frequency. Thus resistance tends
to increase the cross-sectional area of the current
path, whereas inductance tends to decrease it and
to tie it more closely to the transmission line. This
tendency will also affect the pattern of the current
path away from the electrode.
5.05 Equipotential Lines
As a result of current flow from an electrode to
earth and through its earth path, equipotential lines
plotted at right angles to these current lines will
assume a shape controlled by the path of the cur­
rent. The density of equipotential lines, having
equal voltage differences between them, across a
path in a given direction determines the step voltage
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which may be encountered. This gradient will be
highest near the grounding electrode.
The distance between equipotential lines, meas­
ured along the surface of the earth radially from
the grounding connection, will vary with a num­
ber of factors. These include: variations in resis­
tivity of the earth, the presence of buried pipes,
conduit, railroad rails, steel fences, metallic cable
sheaths and the presence of overhead lines carry­
ing ground current.
As indicated in Section 5.04, a preponderance of
the ground current tends to return to the source,
under the transmission line through which it flows.
Consequently, it will be found that the ground po­
tential under the transmission line carrying fault
current will have a steeper gradient than in the
adjoining earth. This results in changing the pat­
tern of the equipotential lines whenever different
transmission lines are faulted. Therefore, equipo­
tential lines cannot be established simply by meas­
uring resistance from the grounding connection to
various points around it.
When once established, the voltage between the
equipotential lines for a given fault condition can
be expected to vary directly with ground fault
current magnitude. This assumes no change in
resistivity of the earth around the grounding con­
nection, during the flow of fault current.
5.06 Theoretical Value of Ground Resistance
Calculated or theoretical value of the resistance of
an electrode to remote earth can vary considerably
from the measured value because of the following
factors:
(1) Condition of the soil at the time each measure­
ment is made.
(2) Extent of the resistivity survey; i.e., number
and dispersal of tests, probe spacings, etc.
(3) Area and configuration of the buried electrode.
(4) Effect of adjacent buried conductors.
In order to decrease the sources of error in estab­
lishing the relationship between earth resistivity
and ground resistance it is advisable to take re­
sistivity and resistance measurements under simi­
lar weather and moisture conditions.
Where resistivity varies with probe spacing and
consequently with depth, the measured resistance of
an electrode buried in the vicinity will generally
correlate more closely with resistivity values at
deeper levels than those taken near the surface.
Recent findings substantiate this relationship and
indicate that measurements for substation resistiv­
ity surveys should be taken at probe spacings of
fifty feet or more.
 6.00 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHILE
MAKING GROUND T E S T S
6.01 Station Ground Tests
It should be impressed on all test personnel that a
lethal potential can exist between the station
ground and a remote ground if a system fault in­
volving the station ground occurs while ground
tests are being made.
Since one of the objects of tests on a station
ground is the establishment of the location of an
effectively remote point for both current and po­
tential electrodes, the leads to these electrodes must
be treated as though a possible potential could
exist between these test leads and any point on the
station ground grid. Some idea of the magni­
tude of this possible potential may be gained from
the consideration that even in the larger stations
the ground grid will have an impedance in the
order of 0.08 ohm and an "average" maximum
ground fault current is in the order of 5,000
amperes; therefore, under these conditions the po­
tential to a remote point will be in the order of
400 volts. For higher ground impedance or greater
fault currents, the rise of station ground voltage
will be higher than 400 volts. In very few large
stations is the maximum rise of station ground
voltage less than 400 volts, and this value can be
taken as the minimum to be expected with maxi­
mum fault current into any station. For smaller
substations the fault currents are usually less than
5,000 amperes; but at the same time the ground
impedance is greater than 0.08 ohm, with the net
effect of retaining the 400-volt minimum rise of
station ground potential.
All of the preceding discussion points to the neces­
sity of caution when handling the test leads, and
under no circumstances should the two hands or
other parts of the body be allowed to complete the
circuit between points of possible high potential
difference. It is true that the chances are extremely
remote that a station ground fault will occur while
test leads are being handled, but this possibility
should not be discounted.
The use of rubber gloves is advisable in many in­
stances. The determination of when rubber gloves
should be used should be in accordance with the
safety procedures and practices adopted by the par­
ticular organization involved.
6.02 Lightning Arrester Ground Tests
These grounds fall in a special category because
of the extremely high short-duration currents car­
ried by lightning arrester grounds. These currents
may be in excess of 50,000 amperes for surge cur­
rents, with a possibility of power-follow currents
in the case of a defective arrester. An isolated
lightning arrester ground should never be tested
with the arrester in service because of the possible
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high-potential gradient around the ground con­
nection.
603 Small Isolated Ground Tests
If there is no possibility of fault currents into the
ground to be tested, the only precaution concerns
possible high-potential gradients around the test
electrodes. If current is passed into a remotely lo­
cated electrode, as in the fall-of-potential method,
it is worthwhile to insure against a curious person
being allowed near the current electrode while tests
are in progress. To a much lesser extent, in rural
areas grazing cattle should not be allowed near the
test current electrode.
7.00 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
7.01 Complexities
The measurement of ground resistance and the po­
tential gradients resulting therefrom, introduce a
number of complexities not encountered in other
resistance and potential measurements.2
It may be necessary to make multiple measure­
ments and to plot trends. Stray currents and other
factors may interfere with the measurements.
With development and industrial growth adjacent
to power substations, it becomes increasingly dif­
ficult to pick a suitable direction or location for a
reference probe to make a resistance test More­
over, the connection of overhead ground wires,
buried water pipes, cable sheaths, etc, all have the
effect of physically distorting and enlarging the
ground grid.
In testing substation ground grids a precaution
should be to let the earth settle for a year after
construction for uniform compactness to insure
greater accuracy. Nevertheless, ground resistance
measurements should be made immediately after
the ground grid has been installed to be certain that
there are no major omissions of grounded com­
ponents normally connected into the ground grid.
7.02 Stray Direct Currents
Conduction of electricity in the soil is electrolytic
and the flow of direct current results in chemical
action and polarization potential difference. Direct
potentials are produced between various types of
soil and between soil and metal by galvanic action.
Galvanic potentials, polarization, and, if present,
stray direct currents may seriously interfere with
direct-current measurements. Therefore, periodic­
ally reversed direct current is used in making
measurements. However, when using periodically
reversed direct current for resistance measurements
the resulting values will be fairly close, but they
may not be accurate for all alternating-current
applications. When an alternating current of a
given frequency is used for ground resistance
measurements, the results may not be applicable
for other frequencies.
 7.03 Stray Alternating Currents
Stray alternating currents in the earth, and even
in the grounding system under test, and also test
electrodes present an additional complication. The
effects of stray alternating current may be miti­
gated in ground resistance measurements by util­
izing a frequency that is not present in the stray
current. Most measuring devices use frequencies
within a range of SO to 100 cycles per second.
The effects of potentials resulting from stray al­
ternating currents may also be mitigated, if they
are reasonably steady and the harmonic content is
small, by balancing such potentials in the measur­
ing device with an equal, but oppositely phased
potential. In some cases, simultaneous measure­
ments of stray currents and the resultant potential
will give a useful indication of ground resistance.
7.04 Reactive Component of Impedance of a Large
Ground System
The impedance of a large ground system may
have a significant quadrature component.3 There­
fore, certain precautions should be taken when
measuring the 60-cycle impedance of a large
grounding system. For such measurements the test
device should be operated at approximately sys­
tem frequency of 60 cycles per second, but the
test frequency should be slightly above or below
60 cycles per second for the most accurate results.
Most instruments employ a periodically reversed
current for these measurements. Staged ground
fault tests can also be used for this purpose.
8.00 METHODS OF MEASURING
EARTH RESISTIVITY
8.01 Two-Point Method
Rough measurements of the resistivity of undis­
turbed earth can be made in the field with the
Shepard Soil Resistivity Meter and similar two-
point methods. The apparatus consists of one small
and one smaller iron electrode, both attached to an
insulating rod. The positive terminal of a battery is
connected through a milliammeter to the smaller
electrode and the negative terminal to the other
electrode. The instrument can be calibrated to read
directly in ohm-centimeters at nominal battery volt­
age. This type of apparatus is easily portable and
with it a number of measurements can be made in
a short time on small volumes of soil either in
holes driven in the ground or in the walls or bot­
tom of excavations.
8.02 Four-Point Method
The most accurate method in practice, of measur­
ing the average resistivity of large volumes of
undisturbed earth, is the four-point method.4 Small
electrodes are buried in four small holes in the
earth, all at depth "b" and spaced in a straight
line at intervals "a". A test current / is passed be­
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tween the two outer electrodes and the potential E
between the two inner electrodes is measured with
a potentiometer or high-impedance voltmeter. Then
E/I gives the mutual resistance R in ohms which
can be substituted in the equation below. The re­
sistivity p in the terms of which "a" and "b" are
measured is:
4*aR
V a2+4b2 V a2+b*
It should be noted that this does not apply to
ground rods driven to depth "b"; it applies only to
small electrodes buried at depth "b", with insul­
ated connecting wires. However, in practice, four
rods are usually placed in a straight line at inter­
vals "a", driven to a depth not exceeding 0.1 a.
Then we assume b=0 and the formula becomes:
P = 2TSLR
and gives approximately the average resistivity of
the soil to depth "a". Since "a" is usually meas­
ured in feet and the resistivity required in metric
units, it is convenient to use one of the forms :
P = 1.92ai? meter-ohms, or 192 &R ohm-cm.
A set of readings taken with various probe spac-
ings gives a set of resistivities which, when plotted
against depth on log-log paper, indicate whether
there are distinct layers of different soil or rock,
their respective resistivities, and the depth of the
upper layer. In inductive coordination work, spac-
ings up to 3,000 feet often have been used. For
these long spacings, the resistance is of the order
of a few hundredths of an ohm, and a sensitive
direct-current potentiometer with a battery supply
as high as 180 volts may be required. For the
shorter spacings, the four-terminal instruments
shown in Figures 12.01, 12.02 and 12.03 are con­
venient and adequate. For some instruments cor­
rections may be required for the potential probe
resistances. In such cases correction factors can
usually be obtained from the supplier of the in­
strument.
8.03 Soil Samples
The resistivity of soil samples may be measured
with the four-point method (Paragraph 8.02) by
placing the sample in a small rectangular test cell
of square cross-section having four identical, equal­
ly spaced electrodes, in a straight line. Reasonable
accuracy cannot be obtained if the size of the box
is too small in relation to the electrode spacing "a".
The determination of soil resistivity from the value
of resistance measured between opposite faces of a
soil sample of known dimensions is less accurate
than the four-point method, because the interfacial
resistances of the soil sample and the test elec­
trodes are included in the measured value.
It is difficult and in some cases impossible to obtain
 a useful approximation of soil resistivity from
resistivity measurements on samples. This is due
to the difficulty of obtaining representative, homo­
geneous soil samples, and in duplicating the origin­
al soil compaction and moisture content in the
test cell.
9.00 M E T H O D S O F MEASURING
GROUND RESISTANCE
9.01 General
In this section, only general methods are covered.
5 6 7
. , - For the instrumentation available refer to
Section 12.00. While in this section the ohmic
value is called "resistance", it should be remem­
bered that there is a reactive component that should
be taken into account when the ohmic value of
the ground under test is less than one-half ohm.
This reactive component has little effect in grounds
with an impedance higher than one ohm. The resis-
tance of a ground electrode usually is determined
with alternating or periodically reversed current to
avoid possible polarization effects when using direct
current. The frequency of this alternating current
should be at or near the power frequency.
9.02 Two-Point Method
In this method the total resistance of the unknown
and an auxiliary ground is measured. The resis­
tance of the auxiliary ground is presumed to be
negligible in comparison with the resistance of the
unknown ground, and the measured value in ohms
is called the resistance of the unknown ground.
The usual application of this method is to deter­
mine the resistance of a single-rod driven ground
near a residence that also has a common municipal
water supply system that uses metal pipe without
insulating joints. The water pipe ground is as­
sumed to be in the order of one ohm and must be
low in relation to the permissible driven ground
maximum, which is usually in the order of 25 ohms.
Obviously, this method is subject to large errors
for low-valued driven grounds but is very useful
and adequate where a "go, no-go" type of test is
all that is required.
9.03 Three-Point Method
This method involves the use of two auxiliary
grounds with the resistances of the auxiliary
grounds designated "r 2 " and "r 3 " and with the
ground to be measured designated " n " . The resis­
tance between each pair of grounds is measured
and designated " n 2 " , "ri 3 ", and "r 2 s'\ where
r\i = t\ -j- r 2 etc. Solving the simultaneous equa­
tions, it follows that
( n 2 ) —■ (r 2 3 ) + (r«)
n =
2
Therefore, by measuring the resistance of each
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pair of ground electrodes in series and substituting
the resistance values in the equation, the value of
rr may be established. If the two auxiliary grounds
are of materially higher resistance than the ground
under test, the errors in the individual measure­
ments will be greatly magnified in the final result.
For this measurement the electrodes must be at
some distance from each other; otherwise absurd­
ities may arise in the calculations, such as zero or
even negative resistances. In measuring a single-
driven ground the distance between the three sep­
arate ground electrodes should be at least 15 feet,
with a preferable spacing of 25 feet or more. For
larger area grounds, which are presumably of
lower resistances, spacing in the order of the di­
mensions of the ground field is required as a min­
imum. This method becomes awkward for large
substation grounds, and some form of the fall-of-
potential method is preferred.
g Fall-of-Potential Method
This method has several variations and is applic­
able to all types of ground resistance measure­
ments. As mentioned in Section 9.01, the "resis­
tance" of a large ground has an appreciable com­
ponent of reactance ohms when the resistance is
less than 0.5 o h m ; therefore the measured value is
in "impedance" ohms and should be so considered,
although the generally used terminology is "resis­
tance of the ground".
The method involves passing a current into the
ground to be measured and noting the influence of
this current in terms of voltage between the ground
under test and an auxiliary "potential" electrode.
An auxiliary "current" electrode is used to permit
passing a current into the ground to be tested. This
current electrode should be effectively outside the
"influence" of the ground to be tested. This influ­
ence is sometimes called "extent" of station ground
and may be considered as the distance beyond
which there is a negligible effect on the measured
rise of ground voltage caused by ground current.
Theoretically the influence extends to infinity; but
practically there is a limit, because the influence
varies inversely as some power of the distance from
the ground to be tested. This influence is deter­
mined and allowed for during the test on ground
grids or deep-driven ground rods of one ohm or
less. In the case of small-area or single-rod driven
grounds the influence is assumed to be negligible at
100 feet, and the potential electrode is placed mid­
way between the current electrode and the ground
under test.
In a test of large-area, low-impedance grounds,
the potential electrode is moved away from the
ground under test in steps. A value of impedance
is obtained at each step. This impedance is plotted
as a function of distance, and the value in ohms at
which this plotted curve appears to level out is
 taken as the impedance value of the ground under If it is found by test that the current electrode is
test within the influence of the station ground, the cur­
rent electrode must be moved farther from the
A representative curve for a low impedance ground
ground under test; otherwise the indicated value of
is shown as Curve A in Figure 9.04-1. Curve B
impedance of the ground under test will be low
illustrates the effect of coupling as described in
in Curve A of Figure 9.04-1.
Section 11.00. The data for this figure were taken
from a test made on a station that had a ground Curves for a higher impedance ground are shown in
grid approximately 400 by 480 feet (192,000 square Figure 9.04-2. There is no preferred placement of
feet). Distances were measured from the station electrodes in this case, as may be seen from the
fence; hence the impedance is not zero at zero indicated values. Since the coupling effects are a
distance on the curve. very small part of the total value in ohms, the
most practical placement of the electrodes should
In Curve A, Figure 9.04-1, the distance at which
be chosen, usually with the test electrodes in the
the plotted impedance appears to level out is about
same physical direction.
600 feet; this 600-foot distance may be termed
the influence of this particular ground; this distance
9.05 Ratio Method
may be used to locate the "remote" ground for
neutralizing transformers used on communication In this method the resistance of the ground under
circuits. test is compared with a known resistance, usually
by using the same electrode configuration, as in the
fall-of-potential method. Since this is a comparison
TO 1.2 OHMS AT
method, the ohm readings are independent of the
IOOO FUT test current magnitude if the test current is high
enough to give adequate sensitivity.
amurr tucnooe noo
— monFtme
9.06 Staged Fault Tests
Staged high-current tests may be required for
. EliCTROU m
DHXOTONAS those cases where specific information is desired on
— mcrnoot
a particular grounding installation. Also, a ground
POTWMTtAL £L£C7B00£ impedance determination can be obtained as auxil­
OFPOSTTEONtKTION
CUMfNTBUCTROOe iary information at the time of actual ground faults
by utilizing an oscillograph or one element of the
automatic station oscillograph.
In either case the instrumentation is the same. The
MPtMMCE HfASUBCP fXCM
cam* of STATION ONOONO object is to record the voltage between selected
OHO IN BOTH TUTS
points on one or more oscillograph elements. The
0 200 400 600 800 IOOO 1200 FEET voltages to be recorded will probably be of such
DISTANCE BETWEEN POTENTIAL ELECTRODE AND STATION FENCE
magnitude that potential transformers will be re­
Figure 9.04-1 quired. The ratio of the potential transformers and,
therefore, the maximum voltage that can be ap­
plied to the transformers may be determined in
advance of the staged tests by using the fall-of-
potential method at practical values of test current.
The only problem involved is in the calibration of
the oscillograph circuit, which is composed of a
potential transformer with a possible high resis­
tance in the primary. This resistance is composed
of the remote potential ground in series with a long
lead. A satisfactory method of calibration of the
deflection of the oscillograph element may be made
by inserting a measured voltage in the primary
circuit in series with the lead and the remote po­
tential ground as used during the test.
The location of the actual points to be measured
is, of course, dependent on the information desired ;
0 200 4C0 COO 600 1000 1200 FEET but in all cases due allowance must be made for
DISTANCE BETWEEN POTENTIAL ELECTRODE AND STATION FENCE coupling between test circuits, as given in Section
Figure 9.04-2 11.00.
12

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 10.00 A U X I L I A R Y ELECTRODES
In the two-point method it is inferred that exist­
ing electrodes will be used; that is, a very low
resistance reference electrode must be available;
otherwise another method should be used.
In the three-point method two additional test elec­
trodes are required that should have a resistance
value in the same general order as the ground
being tested. A s a general rule, the additional
11.00 C O U P L I N G B E T W E E N T E S T C I R C U I T S
electrode should not have a resistance of more
than five times that of the ground being tested;
otherwise the precision of measuring may give
absurd results, as in the case of a low test ground
resistance being used with two additional high-
resistance electrodes. This simply means that, if
the ground being tested is a cluster of driven
rods, each of the two additional electrodes should
be a cluster of at least three driven rods. The
most practical arrangement of an auxiliary ground
in this case is three rods in a triangle, with about
10 feet to each side. The use of auger- or screw -
type ground rods is advisable where the earth is
relatively soft, while the use of driven rods is
advisable where the soil is extremely hard or
rocky.
The requirements of the electrodes in the fall-of-
potential method are not so critical. The current
electrode should have a resistance low enough to
allow sufficient test current to flow with the
available test supply voltage. The resistance of
the current electrode does not affect the accuracy
of the results when this electrode is properly
placed outside the influence of the ground to be
tested. In the ammeter-voltmeter method a mini­
mum of two amperes of test current is desirable.
For safety reasons the maximum test voltage
should not exceed 440 volts. This means the cur­
rent electrode resistance should not exceed ap­
proximately 200 ohms. In most locations a cluster
of three driven rods, four feet deep, with triangu­
lar spacing of 10 feet, will have a resistance of
less than 200 ohms, although in a very dry loca­
tion it may be necessary to pour water around the
rods to lower the current electrode resistance to
the lowest practical value, which may be over 200
ohms. The addition of salt to the water poured
around the test electrode is of very little value;
the moisture is the main requirement. The poten­
tial electrode in the fall-of-potential method must
meet only the requirements of the voltage-indi­
cating element of the instrument being used. (See
Section 12.04).
With ratio-type instruments (Figure 12.01, for
example) the sensitivity, but not the accuracy, is
affected by the current electrode resistance, which
may be up to 200 ohms without causing a sensi­
ble loss of sensitivity. With good commercial in­
struments, a negligible measurement error is in­
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troduced with a potential electrode resistance of
1,000 ohms, and some instruments will permit
10,000 ohms in the potential electrode. This means
that little attention needs to be paid to obtaining
a low resistance; therefore the potential electrode
may be moved easily from point to point, and in
many cases a simple rod can be pressed into the
soil to act as an adequate potential electrode.
T h e effect of coupling is of importance only when
measuring ground impedances of one ohm or less.
When the ground to be tested is a very large area
and may have an impedance of less than one-tenth
ohm, the coupling may introduce an error equal
to the value of the ground under test. The defi­
nitions of various types of coupling are given in
Sections 4.0229 to 4.0233.
The inductive coupling in ground testing causes
an error when the current in the lead to the test
current electrode induces a voltage into the poten­
tial lead. Also, the return test current flowing in
the earth from the current electrode causes a
voltage drop in the earth because of the resistive
coupling and the direct inductive coupling of the
return earth path. For the " average" earth resis­
tivity this is in the order of 0.03 ohm per 100
feet, but this value may vary widely. If the effects
of coupling have an appreciable influence on the
measured results, these effects may be held to a
minimum by placing the potential electrode in a
physical direction opposite from that of the cur­
rent electrode to avoid inductive coupling between
the current and potential test leads. Where oppo­
site directional placement of the current and po­
tential test leads is not practical, a satisfactory re­
sult usually can be obtained if a physical angle of
90 degrees between current and potential is real­
ized. Separate current and potential test leads
should be available in order that no part of the
current test lead circuit will be included in the
measurement of a low impedance ground.
12.00 I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N FOR
GROUND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
12.01 Ratio Ohmmeter
A commonly used instrument for measuring
ground resistance is shown in Figure 12.01.
Current from the hand-cranked direct-current
generator is reversed periodically by the current
reverser and flows in the earth between ground
" X " under test and auxiliary electrode "C". The
fall-of-potential between " X " and the other auxil­
iary electrode " P " is rectified by the potential
reverser, which is on the same shaft, and there­
fore, operates in synchronism with the current re­
verser. The coils operate in a field provided by a
 permanent magnet The current coil tends to turn
the pointer toward zero, while the potential coil
tends to turn the pointer toward a higher ohm
reading. The operating current through these coils
is furnished respectively by the current through
and the voltage drop across the ground under
test; therefore the scale of the instrument can be
marked in ohms. A suitable range switch pro­
vides a divider to the scale values.
By connecting terminals "Pi" and "Ci" (also,
"P2" and "C2") together, the instrument becomes
a two-terminal ohmmeter anl may be used in any
of the methods; but the connections to separate
auxiliary grounds, as shown in Figure 12.01, are
preferred. For grounds over one ohm the "Pi"
and "Ci" terminals may be connected together to
use a common lead to the ground under test.
The synchronous reversing switch (combination
current and potential reverser) used in this in­
strument makes it relatively insensitive to stray
voltages in the potential circuit. In most cases a
cranking speed, which eliminates the effect of rela­
tively large stray voltages, can be used. Some dif­
ficulty may be experienced in obtaining a reading
in an extreme case of a ground of less than 0.5
ohm with stray voltages of more than 10 volts.
CL C. GENERATOR
y\n*QBOUND UNDER TEST ^AUXILIARY OR REFERENCE
POTENTIAL
Figure 12.01 Ratio Ohmmeter
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6B0UND UNOER
TEST
MUX. POTENTIAL
WOUND
AUX. CURRENT
OffOUND
Figure 12.02 Double-Balance Bridge
12.02 Double-Balance Bridge
This bridge method for measuring ground resis­
tance is shown in Figure 12.02.
In this method current from the alternating-cur­
rent source flows in two parallel circuits. The
lower circuit includes fixed resistance "A", ground
"X" under test, and auxiliary current ground "C".
The upper circuit includes fixed resistance "B"
and an adjustable slide rheostat on which two
sliders, "Sa" and "Sb", make contact. With the
detector switch closed to the left, slider "Sa" is
adjusted until the detector shows a balance. The
currents in the two branch circuits are then in­
versely proportional to resistances "A" and "B".
The switch then is closed to the right, and slider
"Sb" is adjusted until the detector again shows a
balance. The potential drop between "X" and "P"
is then equal to the drop in portion "Rb" of the
slide rheostat, and the resistance of the ground
under test then is given by Rx = RbA/B. The
scale over which "Sb" moves can be calibrated to
read Rx directly.
In testing high resistance grounds the alternating-
current source may be a buzzer operating from
dry cells, and the detector may be a telephone
receiver. The tone of the buzzer usually can be
recognized and balanced out even in the presence
of considerable background noise caused by stray
alternating currents. Resistance at "P" merely
reduces the sensitivity of the detector. Excessive
resistance at "C" may limit the range of resistance
GROUNDS^
that can be measured. The locations of electrodes
" P " and "C" are determined by the same con­
CURRENT
siderations as in the fall-of-potential method,
given in Section 9.04.
14
 12.03 Single-Balance Transformer
An instrument that uses a single balance to give
a bridge type of measurement is shown schematic­
ally in Figure 12.03.
In this instrument a battery is used to drive a
vibrator that has two sets of contacts. The first
set of contacts reverses the direction of flow of
primary current to a transformer that provides
test current between the auxiliary current elec­
trode and the ground under test. The second set
of contacts gives "sense direction" to the balancing
galvanometer, which then can indicate whether
the dial setting is low or high.
When the slider of the potentiometer is adjusted
until there is no potential between the slider and
auxiliary electrode "P", as shown by a galvan­
ometer null, the portion of rheostat "Ri" bears a
definite relationship to the resistance of the
ground under test. Therefore the potentiometer
can be calibrated in ohms with appropriate multi­
pliers provided by taps on the ratio transformer
as selected by the range switch. Since a negligible
current flows in the potential electrode circuit at
balance, the resistance of the potential electrode
does not affect accuracy but does have an effect
on the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
This instrument is relatively insensitive to stray
voltages; and only in an extreme case will diffi­
culty be experienced, as noted in the last para­
graph of Section 12.01.
12.05
TEST VfiorttfTlAL "cVtUHMT
Figure 12.03 Single-Balance Transformer
12.04 Ammeter-Voltmeter
There are no particular requirements for the am­
meter in any of the measurement methods. The
15
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voltmeter requirements, when there is no stray
voltage, are simply that the impedance of the volt­
meter be high in relation to the reference elec­
trodes.
When accuracy is required, the impedance of the
reference electrode must be considered when
measuring the voltage caused by current flow into
the measured ground. It is obvious that less error
is introduced when using a high-impedance volt­
meter, and this error will become negligible when
a vacuum tube type of voltmeter is used.
When there is a stray voltage in the ground to be
measured and this voltage is large compared with
the voltage caused by the test current, this stray
voltage must be balanced out, both in magnitude
and phase, before test current is applied. The volt­
meter in this case should be frequency selective,
because only one frequency can be balanced out.
Usually the only case where such a selective-
frequency voltmeter is required is in the measure­
ment of large grounds with a value of less than
0.2 ohm.
A simplified schematic diagram of the test con­
nections for a selective-frequency voltmeter-am­
meter circuit is given as Figure 12.04. The test
current is measured by taking the voltage drop
across a 0.1-ohm shunt and is monitored by an
ammeter while the voltmeter is being used to
measure the voltage between the potential elec­
trode and the ground under test. This arrange­
ment provides a form of ratio measurement and
thus limits the errors to scale errors of the instru­
ment and ratio errors of' the shunts and multipliers.
Integrity of Ground Grid Tests
In this test the object is to determine whether the
various parts of the ground grid are connected with
low-resistance copper. This copper is, of course,
shunted by the surrounding earth, which usually
has a very low impedance.
The best method for making integrity-of-ground-
grid tests uses a large but practical direct current
and some means of detecting the voltage drop
caused by this current. Direct-reading ohm-
meters can be used if the sensitivity is adequate.
The ammeter-voltmeter method, using alternating
current, cannot be used satisfactorily for this
test, because the reactance ohms of a large cop­
per wire is greater than the resistance ohms; also,
the buried wire in this case is shunted by the sur­
rounding earth, which path may have slightly
less reactance ohms than the wire. Therefore a
continuity test for buried wire would give inde­
terminate results if alternating current is used.

'•HOUND M I N T Or LAROEST
POWCR TRANSFORMERS
I ^-STATION FENCE
Figure 12.04 Selective-Frequency Voltmeter-
Ammeter Circuit
By extension of this reasoning, it is practically
impossible to sensibly lower the impedance be­
tween two ground grids of any distance apart,
each of which has an impedance in the order of
0.1 ohm at 60 cycles per second. The addition of
copper connectors, however large, will not lower
the reactance ohms between the two ground grids.
The resistance component can be lowered by addi­
tional connectors, and this component is used to
determine the integrity of the ground grid.
One practical "integrity" test consists of passing
about five amperes into the ground grid at the two
points to be checked. The voltage drop across these
points is measured with a millivoltmeter or port­
able potentiometer, and the effective resistance is
calculated from the current and voltage readings.
From these readings and calculated ohms of cop­
per it can be determined whether there is an ade­
quate connection. For those ground systems that
have a direct voltage between points, the change
of voltage caused by the test current is used to
calculate the resistaance.
For the majority of large-ground systems in ser­
vice there will be a relatively large alternating
voltage between the points to be measured, com­
pared with the direct millivolts to be detected.
The effects of the alternating component on the
detector can be mitigated by shunting the moving
coil in the millivoltmeter, or the galvanometer in
the potentiometer, with a capacitor of 20 micro­
farads or more. This capacitor should preferably
have a liquid impregnated paper dielectric, but
some modern electrolytic condensers have so little
leakage that they may be used in this application.
13.00 POTENTIAL GRADIENT
MEASUREMENTS
13.01 Potential Contour Surveys
A potential contour survey is made to locate pos­
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sible hazardous potential gradients in the vicinity
of grounded electrical structures during fault
conditions. 8» 9 The voltage drop to points sur­
rounding the structure is measured from a known
reference point and plotted on a map of the loca­
tion. A potential contour map may then be drawn
by connecting points of equal potential with con­
tinuous lines. If the contour lines have equal volt­
age differences between them, the closer the lines,
the greater the hazard. Actual gradients due to
ground fault current are obtained by multiplying
test current gradients by the ratio of the fault cur­
rent to test current.
The most accurate measurements of potential
gradients are made with the voltmeter-ammeter
method. A known current, in the order of 100
amperes, held constant during test, is passed
through the ground grid to a remote ground
test electrode and returned through an insulated
conductor. A remotely located ground test elec­
trode is necessary to prevent gradient distortion,
caused by the mutual impedance of inadequately
spaced ground electrodes. This distance may
vary from 1000 feet for a small ground grid to a
mile or more for larger installations. Measure­
ments should be made with a very-high-impedance
voltmeter from a point on the ground grid to
points on the surface of the earth along profile
lines radial to the point of connection to the
ground grid. Unless suitable means are employed
to mask out residual ground currents, the test
current must be of sufficient magnitude to do so.
At the same time care must be taken to prevent
heating and drying of the soil in contact with the
ground grid or test electrode to avoid variations
in voltage gradients during a series of measure­
ments. Economics and the necessary detail re­
quired will determine the number of measure­
ments to be made.
When more than ore overhead line or under­
ground cable are connected to a substation, po­
tential gradients in and around the substation
may be quite different for faults on different lines
or cables. Likewise, faults aft different locations
in large substations may result in differences in
potential gradients in and around the substation.
It may, therefore, be advantageous to determine
potential gradients in and around a large sub­
station for two or more fault conditions.
Underground metallic structures, e.g., neutral con­
ductors, metallic cable sheaths, metallic water and
gas lines, etc., metallic structures on the surface
of the ground such as railroad rails and fences
 and overhead ground wires in the vicinity of a sub-
station, whether connected to the ground grid or
not, may have a significant effect on potential
gradients and should be considered when making
potential gradient measurements.
When a potential gradient survey cannot be justi­
fied economically, potential gradients may be cal­
culated from ground resistance or soil resistivity
measurements. The accuracy of such calculations
will be dependent upon the accuracy of the meas­
urements, and the unknown abnormalities of the
earth around and below the ground grid. The ade­
quacy of such calculations may be verified with a
relatively few potential gradient measurements.
13.02 Step and Touch Voltages
The magnitude of step and touch voltages 0 Figure
13.02 may be scaled off of a potential contour map
of the site or actually measured by the voltmeter-
ammeter method.
E
STEP \^zl
POTENTIAL RISE ABOVE
REMOTE EARTH DURING
SHORT CIRCUIT
STEP VOLTAGE AT A GROUNDED STRUCTURE
TOUCH VOLTAGE ATA GROUNDED STRUCTURE
FIGURE 13.02
14.00 MODEL TESTS
14.01 Purpose
The main purpose of a model test is to help pre­
dict the probable resistance to true earth of a
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complex ground electrode or to predict the prob­
able voltage gradient of a complex ground sys­
tem. 10 . »
14.02 Material Required
The materials required for model tests are: a tank
of nonconducting material filled with water, a
small quantity of common salt or copper sulfate
to make the water an electrolyte, a scale model
of the electrode or grounding system in question,
an alternating-current source of power with some
means of varying the voltage so the proper cur­
rent flow may be obtained, a voltmeter with a
minimum sensitivity of 5000 ohms per volt, a
portable ammeter, a "return path" plate, a known
electrode shape such as a hemisphere, and a small
wire probe.
14.03 Resistance Test Procedure
1. Suspend the hemisphere electrode in the elec­
trolyte with the diameter at water surface.
With a small current flowing (less than 0.5
ampere) make a series of voltage readings
between hemisphere electrode and a small
wire probe, at equal distances apart on surface
of electrolyte between model and "return
path" plate which is immersed in the electro­
lyte as far away from model as possible. The
readings should rise rapidly from zero, level
off, and then rise rapidly again to full test
voltage as probe approaches "return path"
plate. Midway on the level-off point, the
voltage may be considered as the voltage from
the electrode to "true earth" and the voltage
drop to that point is the "applied voltage".
This "applied voltage" and the measured cur­
rent yields the resistance, ( R = B/I).
2. From formula R = P in which R is the
rD
resistance in ohms, P is the resistivity of the
electrolyte in ohms per centimeter-cube, and
D is the diameter of the hemisphere in
centimeters, calculate P after measuring R.
3. Now suspend the model of the electrode
(which may be a simple model of a ground
rod arrangement or a complex irregular elec­
trode such as a tower footing) in the electro­
lyte as it would be in the soil, measure R and
solve for an equivalent hemisphere. The resis­
tance of the actual complex electrode can then
be predicted for any other value of resistivity
such as the resistivity of the soil in which it
will be placed.
14.04 Potential Gradient Test Procedure
Measure the voltage on the surface of the elec-
 trolyte at regular intervals between a selected
point on the model being tested and the level-
off point mentioned before. Plot this as a percent­
age of the "applied voltage" against the distance
from the selected point. This shows the voltage
gradient.
14.05 Principlet to be Followed in Use of Model
1. Alternating current should be used to prevent
polarization of electrode which would cause
errors at low currents.
2. Current densities should be kept low—less
than 0.1 ampere per square centimeter of
electrode.
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3. The probe should be about Y% inch round rod
cut off square and should not be immersed
more than % inch deep.
4. The model should be to scale and large
enough to simplify its manufacture and assure
a reasonable accuracy, but should be small
enough to be convenient. A 20/1 scale is often
satisfactory.
5. The tank should not be smaller than five
times the model's maximum dimension. This
will give error of less than 10 percent from
results obtained from an infinite tank. If the
tank size were increased to seven times
model's dimension, error will be less than 5
percent.
 15.00 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bibliography on Ground Resistance and Potential Gradients in the Earth, Ground Resis­
tance and Potential Gradient Measurements Subcommittee of the AIEE Special Instru­
ments and Auxiliary Apparatus Committee, AIEE Transactions Paper 60-1.

2. Master Test Code for Resistance Measurements, AIEE No. 550, May, 1949.

3. The Effect of Reactive Components in the Measurement of Grounding Circuits, L. H.

Harrison, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 72, Part II, 1953, pp. 340-345.

4. A Method of Measuring Resistivity, F. Wenncr, National Bureau of Standards, Scientific

Paper, 12, No. S-258, 1916, p. 469.

5. Some of the Fundamental Aspects of Ground Resistance Measurements, E. B. Curdts,

AIEE Transactions, Vol. 77, Part I, 1958, p. 760.

6. The Technique and Instrumentation of Low-Impedance Ground Measurements, C. A. Duke,

L. E. Smith, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 77, Part I, 1958, p. 767.

7. A Manual on Ground Resistance Testing, James G. Biddle Co., Publication 25-J-1952.

8. Voltage Gradients Through the Ground Under Fault Conditions, AIEE Working Group
56.1, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 77, Part III, 1958, pp. 669-692.

9. A Guide to Safety in Alternating-Current Substation Grounding, No. 80, AIEE,

10. Grounding Electrode Characteristics from Model Tests, H. R. Armstrong, AIEE Trans­
actions, Vol. 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 1301-1305.

11. Grounding Electrode Potential Gradients from Model Tests, H. R. Armstrong, L. J.

Simkin, AIEE Conference Paper 59-1201.

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