Lecture 2b -

Design
Methods and
Requirements

Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements

Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE, Lecture 2b - Design Methods and Requirements
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
Richard J. AQUINO, MSCE, MSCM
Design
Process
Assoc. Prof. II
Limit States CE and EnP
Design Codes
Department of Civil Engineering
Design
Philosophy College of Engineering
WSD Central Mindanao University
SDM University Town, Musuan, Bukidnon
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
23 August 2021
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Objectives of Design
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP A structural engineer is a member of a team that works together to design a
Design
building, bridge, or other structure.
Process

Limit States

Design Codes
In the case of a building,
Design • architect generally provides the overall layout
Philosophy
WSD
SDM
• mechanical engineer designs mechanical systems
Loads • electrical engineers designs electrical systems
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
• structural engineer designs structural frames and components
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Objectives of Design
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
The structure should satisfy four major criteria:
II
CE and EnP
• Appropriateness – The arrangement of spaces, spans, ceiling heights, access,
and traffic flow must complement the intended use. The structure should fit
Design
Process its environment and be aesthetically pleasing.
Limit States
• Economy – The overall cost of the structure should not exceed the client’s
Design Codes
budget. Frequently, teamwork in design will lead to overall economies.
Design
Philosophy • Structural adequacy – it involves two major aspects.
WSD
SDM (a) A structure must be strong enough to support all anticipated loadings safely.
Loads (b) A structure must not deflect, tilt, vibrate, or crack in a manner that impairs its
Load Factors
Strength reduction
usefulness.
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile • Maintainability – A structure should be designed so as to require a minimum
strain

Handbooks
amount of simple maintenance procedures.
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Structural Design Process
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. Main Objective
II
CE and EnP to ensure that the structure is able to withstand the load effects1 with an
appropriate margin of safety against failure.
Design
Process
• failure is a condition where the structure ceases to fulfill its intended function
Limit States

Design Codes
• failure occur because the structure has achieved its maximum resistance and
Design can no longer carry the imposed loads or, although it can still carry the loads,
Philosophy
WSD
because it has undergone excessive deformations that have rendered the
SDM
structure unusable
Loads
Load Factors • structures must be designed – to be both safe and functional (or serviceable)
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
• strength and serviceability (i.e. limit on deflection) is thought as “limit states”
strain

Handbooks
and Computer 1
The load effects are is bending moment, shear force, axial force, torque, deflection, and
Software
vibration.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
The Design Process
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
The design process is a sequential and iterative decision-making process.
Design
Process

Limit States The three major phases of the design process are the following2
Design Codes

Design
• Definition of the client’s needs and priorities
Philosophy
WSD
• Development of project concept
SDM
• Design of individual systems
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software 2
For more detailed discussion, see pp. 12-13 of [?]
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Limit States
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said
Process to have reached a limit state. The limit states for reinforced concrete structures
Limit States
can be divided into three basic groups, i.e.
Design Codes
• Strength limit states
Design
Philosophy
WSD
• Serviceability limit states
SDM
• Special limit states
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strength Limit States
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II These involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Strength limit
CE and EnP
state should have a very low probability of occurrence, because it may lead to loss
Design
Process
of life and major financial losses. The major strength limit states are as follows:
Limit States • Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body
Design Codes • Failure of critical parts of the structure
Design
Philosophy • Progressive collapse
WSD
SDM • Formation of a plastic mechanism
Loads
Load Factors
• Instability due to deformations of the structure
Strength reduction
factor • Fatigue
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Serviceability Limit States
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE, These involve disruption of the functional use of the structure, but not collapse per
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. se. Because there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence
II
CE and EnP can generally be tolerated than in the case of a strength limit state. The major
Design
serviceability limit states include the following:
Process
• Excessive deflections for normal service – Excessive deflections may cause
Limit States
machinery to malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to
Design Codes
damage to nonstructural elements or to changes in the distribution of forces.
Design
Philosophy • Excessive crack widths – Although reinforced concrete must crack before the
WSD
SDM reinforcement can function effectively, it is possible to detail the reinforcement
Loads
Load Factors
to minimize the crack widths.
Strength reduction
factor • Undesirable vibrations – Rarely been a problem in reinforced concrete
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain buildings.
Handbooks Note: Serviceability issues such as control of deflections, vibrations, and cracking are mostly a
and Computer
Software function of the stiffness of members, i.e. EI where I for rectangle is I = bh3 /12 [?].
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Special Limit States
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
This class of limit states involves damage or failure due to abnormal conditions or
Design
Process
abnormal loadings and includes:
Limit States • damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes,
Design Codes • structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions,
Design
Philosophy • structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and
WSD
SDM • long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem with
Loads
Load Factors
concrete structures).
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Limit-States Design
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Limit-states design is a process that involves
Process
• the identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e., identification of the
Limit States
significant limit states),
Design Codes

Design
• the determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each
Philosophy
WSD
limit state, and
SDM
• structural design for the significant limit states.
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Limit-States Design
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM • For buildings3 , a limit-states design starts by selecting the concrete strength,
Assoc. Prof.
II cement content, cement type, supplementary cementitious materials,
CE and EnP
water-cementitious materials ratio, air content, and cover to the reinforcement
Design
Process
to satisfy the durability requirements of ACI Code Chapter 19.
Limit States • Next, the minimum member sizes and minimum covers are chosen to satisfy
Design Codes the fire-protection requirements of the local building code.
Design
Philosophy
• Design is then carried out, starting by proportioning for the ultimate limit
WSD
SDM
states followed by a check of whether the structure will exceed any of the
Loads serviceability limit states.
Load Factors
Strength reduction
For a water tank, however, the limit state of excessive crack width is of equal importance to any
factor of the strength limit states if the structure is to remain watertight. In such a structure, the design
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain for the limit state of crack width might be considered before the strength limit states are checked.
Handbooks
and Computer 3
This sequence is followed because the major function of structural members in buildings is to
Software
resist loads without endangering the occupants.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strength and Stiffness
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process
• the proper design of a reinforced concrete structure consists in the judicious
Limit States
selection of member size and material strengths to provide the structure
Design Codes

Design
with enough strength and stiffness to ensure that both safety and serviceability
Philosophy are satisfied
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Other Aspects of Design
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process • proportioning of members for cost effectiveness and ease of construction
Limit States
• consider where appropriate – maintenance and aesthetics
Design Codes

Design Note that in practice, the engineer must satisfy all aspects of structural design
Philosophy
WSD
while ensuring an economical design of the structure.
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Structural Safety
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process
• structural safety (i.e., protecting the life of the occupants) is a matter of
Limit States public concern and the most important objective
Design Codes • to satisfy the structural safety requirement, structural components must be
Design
Philosophy adequately proportioned to have enough strength to resist the effects of the
WSD
SDM
anticipated loads
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ACI 318 - Building Code Requirements
Richard J.
AQUINO,
for Structural Concrete (ACI318-XX)
MSCE,
MSCM and Commentary (ACI318R-XX)
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process Early 1900s: WSD was mainly used.
Limit States ACI 318-56: USD was first introduced.
Design Codes
ACI 318-63: Treated WSD and USD on equal basis.
Design
Philosophy
WSD
ACI 318-71: Based entirely on strength approach (USD)
SDM WSD was small part called Alternate Design Method (ADM).
Loads
Load Factors
ACI 318-77: ADM moved to Appendix A
Strength reduction
factor USD was called Strength Design Method.
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ACI 318 - Building Code Requirements
Richard J.
AQUINO,
for Structural Concrete (ACI318-XX)
MSCE,
MSCM and Commentary (ACI318R-XX)
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
ACI 318-83: ADM moved to Appendix B
ACI 318-89: ADM back to Appendix A
Design
Process
ACI 318-95: Unified Design was introduced in Appendix B
Limit States

Design Codes
ACI 318-99: Limit State at Failure Approach was introduced
Design ACI 318-02: Change load factor to 1.2D + 1.6L
Philosophy
WSD ACI 318-05: Appendix D: Anchoring to Concrete - modified in different ways
SDM

Loads ACI 318-08: Significant changes of appendixes relative to precast/prestressed

Load Factors
Strength reduction
concrete
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
ACI 318-11: Appendix D: Anchoring to Concrete - with changes
Handbooks ACI 318-14: The Reorganized ACI 318-11
and Computer
Software ACI 318-19: Latest Edition - allows the use of higher grades of steel
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
NSCP Editions (Abinalesetal2009)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
NSCP Editions (Abinalesetal2009)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
2010, latest 2015
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
NSCP Code Bases (Abinalesetal2009)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction • NSCP 2010 Chapter 4
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain • NSCP 2015 Chapter 4 is using ACI 318-14 (concrete design)
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Two Design Philosophy
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II • Working Stress Design (WSD) - main approach used from early 1900s until
CE and EnP
the early 1960s, focused on conditions at service loads (i.e., at the maximum
Design
Process
loads under the intended use of the structure). Elastic method.
Limit States • Strength Design Method (SDM) - the prevalent procedure (with few
Design Codes exceptions) used in practice, which focuses on conditions at loads greater than
Design
Philosophy
service loads, when failure may be imminent, is deemed conceptually a more
WSD realistic approach to establish structural safety.
SDM

Loads Note: Both approaches, provide approximately the same level of safety and
Load Factors
Strength reduction
serviceability.
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Comments on the Strength Design
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM • The 1956 ACI Code was the first that officially recognized and permitted the
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
strength design method.
• The 1963 ACI Code treated the working stress method and the strength
Design
Process design method on an equal basis; but, actually, the major portion of the
Limit States working stress method was based on strength.
Design Codes
• With the relegation of the working stress method to a small section referred to
Design
Philosophy as the “alternate method,” the 1971 ACI Code entirely accepted the strength
WSD
SDM
design method.
Loads • Between 1971 and 1999, the ACI Code had the “alternate design method” in
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
an appendix, but it was removed from the 2002 and subsequent editions of the
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
ACI Code.
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Working Stress Design
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design • structural element is design under service load condition (also called
Process

Limit States
working load) which do not exceed some predesignated allowable values
Design Codes • apply factor of safety (F.S.) to strength of materials for allowable stress level,
Design
Philosophy Fa
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Working Stress Design
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
The working stress method may be expressed by the following:
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
f ≤ fallow
Design
Process Stress from service load ≤ Allowable stress, Fa
Limit States

Design Codes where

Design
Philosophy
f – an elastic stress computed under service load
WSD
SDM
fallow – a limiting or allowable stress prescribed by a building code, usually
Loads percentage of fc′ for concrete or fy for steel
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
Concrete: Fa = 0.45fc′ (ACI)
Handbooks
and Computer Steel: Fa = 0.50fy
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
WSD - Obstacles
Richard J. Wang etal, 2018
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II • Since the limitation is on the stress under the total service load, there is no
CE and EnP
simple way to account for different degrees of uncertainty of various kinds of
Design
Process loads. Generally the dead load is known more accurately than the live load,
Limit States which may have unknown and variable distribution.
Design Codes • Creep and shrinkage of concrete, which contribute major time-dependent
Design
Philosophy
effects on a structure, are not easily accounted for by calculation of elastic
WSD
SDM
stresses.
Loads • Concrete stress is not proportional to strain up to its crushing strength, so
Load Factors
Strength reduction
that the inherent safety provided is unknown when a percentage of fc′ is used
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile as the allowable stress.
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strength Design Method
Richard J. formerly called Ultimate Strength Design (USD)
AQUINO,
MSCE, • the service loads are increased by factors to obtain the load at which
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. failure is considered to be “imminent”
II
CE and EnP • the load is called the factored load or factored service load
Design
• at factored load condition the structure is about to fail
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
strength provided ≥ strength required (to carry factored loads)
Philosophy
WSD
Design Strength ≥ Required Strength
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
• apply F.S. in design via:
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain Load factors (> 1.0) – applied in the required strength
Handbooks
and Computer
Strength reduction factors (< 1.0) – applied in the design
Software strength
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Safety Provisions – General
Richard J. Wang etal, 2018
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. • Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some
II
CE and EnP reserve load above what is expected under normal use.
Design • Such reserve capacity is provided to account for a variety of factors, which
Process
may be grouped into two general categories: factors relating to overload and
Limit States

Design Codes
factors relating to understrength
Design • Overloads may arise from changing the use for which the structure was
Philosophy
WSD
designed, from underestimation of the effects of loads by oversimplification in
SDM
calculation procedures, and from effects of construction sequence and
Loads
Load Factors
methods.
Strength reduction
factor • Understrength may result from adverse variations in material strength,
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
workmanship, dimensions, control, and degree of supervision
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Satefy Provisions – General
Richard J. Wang etal, 2018
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
• The purpose of a safety provision is to limit the probability of failure and
II
CE and EnP yet permit economical structures.
Design
• Obviously, if cost is no object, it is easy to design a structure whose probability
Process
of failure is nil.
Limit States
• To arrive properly at a suitable degree of safety, the relative importance of
Design Codes
various items must be established. Some of those items are
Design
Philosophy 1. Seriousness of a failure, either to humans or goods.
WSD
SDM
2. Reliability of workmanship and inspection.
Loads
3. Expectation of overload and to what magnitude.
Load Factors 4. Importance of the member in the structure.
Strength reduction
factor 5. Chance of warning prior to a failure.
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain By assigning percentages to those five items and evaluating the circumstances for any given
Handbooks situation, proper values for overload factors U and strength reduction factors ϕ can be established.
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Basic Design Relationship
Richard J. Beam with loads and a load effect
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II • A beam that supports its own weight, w ,
CE and EnP
plus some applied loads, P1 , P2 and P3 .
Design
Process • These loads cause bending moments as
Limit States shown.
Design Codes
• The moment diagram is independent of the
Design
Philosophy composition or shape of the beam.
WSD
SDM • The bending moment is referred to as a
Loads load effect.
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
• Other load effects include shear force, axial
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain force, torque, deflection, and vibration.
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Basic Design Relationship
Richard J. Internal resisting moment
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
• The figure shows flexural stresses acting on
II
CE and EnP
a beam cross section.
• The compressive and tensile stress blocks
Design
Process can be replaced by forces C and T separated
Limit States
by a distance jd.
Design Codes
• The resulting couple is called an internal
Design
Philosophy resisting moment.
WSD
SDM • The internal resisting moment when the
Loads
Load Factors
cross section fails is referred to as the
Strength reduction
factor
moment strength or moment resistance.
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain • The word strength also can be used to
Handbooks
and Computer
describe shear strength or axial load strength.
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Basic Design Relationship
Richard J. Resistance (strength) vs effects of the loads
AQUINO,
MSCE, The beam in the previous slide, will support the loads safely if, at every section,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. the resistance (strength) of the member exceeds the effects of the loads4 :
II
CE and EnP
resistances ≥ load effects (1)
Design
Process

Limit States To allow for the possibility that the resistances will be less than computed or
Design Codes the load effects larger than computed, the following are introduced:
Design
Philosophy
• strength-reduction factor, ϕ < 1
WSD
SDM
• load factors, α > 1
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
ϕRn ≥ α1 S1 + α2 S2 + ... (2)
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
where Rn – nominal resistance (strength) and S – load effects based on specified
Handbooks
and Computer loads.
Software 4
Is the basic limit-states design equation.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Basic Design Relationship
Richard J. Resistance (strength) vs effects of the loads
AQUINO,
MSCE, Written in terms of moments,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
ϕM Mn ≥ αD MD + αL ML + ... (3)
Design
Process
where
Limit States • Mn is the nominal moment strength.
Design Codes
• The word nominal implies that this strength is a computed value based on
Design
Philosophy the specified concrete and steel strengths and the dimensions shown on
WSD
SDM
the drawings.
Loads • Similar equations can be written for shear, V , and axial force, P.
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
ϕV Vn ≥αD VD + αL VL + ... (4)
Handbooks ϕP Pn ≥αD PD + αL PL + ... (5)
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Basic Design Relationship
Richard J.
AQUINO, In ACI, the symbol U is used to refer to the combination below and is referred to
MSCE,
MSCM as the factored loads.
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
U = αD D + αL L + ... (6)
Design
Process
The symbols Mu , Vu , Tu , and so on, is referred to as factored-load effects
Limit States
calculated from the factored loads. For example,
Design Codes

Design
Philosophy Mu = αD MD + αL ML + ... (7)
WSD
SDM

Loads
Thus,
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor ϕM Mn ≥ αD MD + αL ML + ... (8)
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
ϕM Mn ≥ Mu (9)
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Summary (ACI 318 - 5.3.1)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Resistances ≥ Load Effects
Assoc. Prof.
II Strength Provided ≥ Required Strength
CE and EnP
Design Strength ≥ Required Strength
Design
Process ϕ(Nominal Strength) ≥ U
Limit States
ϕRn ≥ U
Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
where, ϕ = strength reduction factor
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
For a member subjected to moment, shear, and axial load
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
ϕMn ≥ Mu
strain
ϕVn ≥ Vu
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
ϕPn ≥ Pu
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE, • Structural failures usually occur under combinations of several loads.
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. • These combinations have been presented companion action format.
II
CE and EnP • This is an attempt to model the expected load combinations.
Design • ACI Code Section 5.3 are examples of companion action load combinations
Process
chosen to represent realistic load combinations that might occur.
Limit States
• In principle, each of these combinations includes one or more permanent loads
Design Codes

Design
(D or F) with load factors of 1.2, plus the dominant or principal variable load
Philosophy
WSD
(L, S, or others) with a load factor of 1.6, plus one or more companion-action
SDM variable loads.
Loads
Load Factors
• The companion-action loads are computed by multiplying the specified loads
Strength reduction
factor (L, S, W, or others) by companion-action load factors between 0.2 and 1.0.
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain • The companion-action load factors were chosen to provide results for the
Handbooks
and Computer
companion-action load effects that would be likely during an instance in which
Software the principal variable load is maximized.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Combinations
Richard J. ACI 318 - 5.3.1
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. Required Strength (U) = Load Factors × Service load
II
CE and EnP
= Factored Load
Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer Note: The terms in these equations may be expressed as direct loads (such as distributed loads
Software
from dead and live weight) or load effects (such as moments and shears caused by the given loads).
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
In the design of structural members in buildings that are not subjected to significant
Design
Process wind or earthquake forces the factored loads are computed from either equations
Limit States

Design Codes U = 1.4D (ACI Eq. 5.3.1a)

Design
Philosophy where D is the specified dead load. Where a fluid load, F , is present, it shall be
WSD
SDM included with the same load factor as used for D in this and the following
Loads equations.
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
For combinations including dead load; live load, L; and roof loads:
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1b)
CE and EnP

Design where
Process

Limit States
• L = live load that is a function of use and occupancy;
Design Codes • Lr = roof live load;
Design
Philosophy
• S = roof snow load and
WSD
SDM
• R = roof rain load
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
For the common case of a member supporting dead and live load only, it is written
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile as:
strain

Handbooks
and Computer U = 1.2D + 1.6L
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
If the roof load exceeds the floor live loads, or if a column supports a total roof
CE and EnP load that exceeds the total floor live load supported by the column:
Design
Process U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.5W ) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1c)
Limit States

Design Codes The roof loads are principal variable loads in Eq. above (5.3.1c), and they are
Design
Philosophy
companion variable loads in Eqs. (5.3.1b) and (5.3.1d).
WSD
SDM
U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1d)
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
Wind load, W , is the principal variable load in Eq. (5.3.1d) and is a companion
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain variable load in Eq. (5.3.1c).
Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design • Wind loads specified in ASCE/SEI 7-10 represent strength-level winds, as

Process
opposed to the service-level wind forces specified in earlier editions of the
Limit States
minimum load standards from ASCE/SEI Committee 7.
Design Codes

Design • If the governing building code for the local jurisdiction specifies service-level
Philosophy
WSD
wind forces, 1.6W is to be used in place of 1.0W in Eqs. (5.3.1d) and
SDM
(5.3.1f), and 0.8W is to be used in place of 0.5W in Eq. (5.3.1c).
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP If earthquake loads are significant:
Design
Process U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S (ACI Eq. 5.3.1e)
Limit States

Design Codes where

Design
Philosophy
• the load factor of 1.0 for the earthquake loads corresponds to a strength-level
WSD
SDM
earthquake that is larger than a service-load earthquake.
Loads • If the loading code used in a jurisdiction is based on the service-load
Load Factors
Strength reduction
earthquake, the load factor on E is 1.4 instead of 1.0.
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP Dead loads that stabilize Overturning and Sliding
Design
Process If the effects of dead loads stabilize the structure against wind or earthquake loads,
Limit States

Design Codes U = 0.9D + 1.0W (ACI Eq. 5.3.1f)

Design
Philosophy
WSD
or
SDM

Loads U = 0.9D + 1.0E (ACI Eq. 5.3.1g)

Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Combinations
Richard J. ACI 318 - 5.3.1
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM In applying the load combinations, ACI Code Section 5.3.2 should be applied -
Assoc. Prof.
II “The effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall be investigated”.
CE and EnP

Design Also note that loads must always be taken to cause the more severe effect and
Process
that their effect can be either additive or subtractive.
Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Load factors for small live loads
Philosophy
WSD
SDM
ACI Code Section 5.3.3 - The load factor on live load L in Eq. (5.3.1c), (5.3.1d),
Loads and (5.3.1e) shall be permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for (a), (b), or (c);
Load Factors
Strength reduction • Garages
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
• Areas occupied as places of public assembly
Handbooks
and Computer
• Areas where L is greater than 4.8 kN/m2
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Load Factors and Load Combinations
Richard J. Source: [?]
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Lateral Earth Pressure, H
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
• Where lateral earth pressure adds to the effect of the principal variable load, H
Design
Process
should be included in Eqs. (5.3.1b), (5.3.1f), and (5.3.1g) with a load factor
Limit States
of 1.6.
Design Codes • When lateral earth pressure is permanent and reduces the affect of the
Design principal variable load, H should be included with a load factor of 0.9.
Philosophy
WSD • For all other conditions, H is not to be used in the ACI load combination
SDM

Loads
equations.
Load Factors
Strength reduction
Note: Structural actions (or load effects) due to the restraint of volume change
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile caused by temperature changes, by creep and shrinkage and by differential
strain

Handbooks
settlement, T , must be included in the basic load combinations given above. For
and Computer
Software
appropriate load factors and other loads see ACI-5.3.6 through ACI-5.3.12.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Example: Computation of
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Factored-Load Effects (Moment)
MSCE, Typical Frame / Beam 5 (B-5)
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Service Moment due to Service Self
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Service Moment due to Service
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Superimposed Dead Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Service Moment due to Service Live
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strength-Level Moment due to
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Strength-Level Wind Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strength-Level Moment due to
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Strength-Level Seismic Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Required Moment Strength due to
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Dead Load only
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Required Moment Strength due to
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Dead plus Live Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Required Moment Strength due to
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Dead plus Live plus Seismic Load
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Design Envelope: Required Moment
Richard J.
AQUINO,
Strength
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Tabulated Results
Richard J. Summary of the Required Moment Strength (Mu )
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Tabulated Results
Richard J. Summary of the Required Shear Strength (Vu )
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ϕ factor purposes (ACI 318 - R21.1.1)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
The purposes of the strength reduction factor ϕ are:
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
• to account for the probability of understrength members due to variations
in material strengths and dimensions
Design
Process
• to account for inaccuracies in the design equations
Limit States

Design Codes • to reflect the available ductility and required reliability of the member under
Design the load effects being considered, and
Philosophy
WSD
SDM
• to reflect the importance of the member in the structure
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction Note that all other things being equal, brittle failures are assigned lower strength reduction factors
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile to safeguard the structure against failures that may be catastrophic, or that may occur with little
strain
or no warning. Conversely, noncatastrophic, ductile failure modes, where member strength can be
Handbooks
and Computer
reached with ample warning of failure, are assigned larger strength reduction factors.
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ϕ values (ACI 318 - 21.2.1)
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
Action or structural element Strength reduction factor ϕ
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
Moment, axial force, or 0.65 to 0.90
II
CE and EnP
combined moment and in accordance
axial force with 21.2.2
Design
Process Shear 0.75
Limit States Torsion 0.75
Design Codes Bearing on concrete 0.65
Design Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85
Philosophy
WSD Brackets and corbels 0.75
SDM
Struts, ties, nodal zones, and 0.75
Loads
Load Factors bearing areas in strut-and-tie models
Strength reduction
factor Plain concrete element 0.60
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
Anchors in concrete elements 0.45 to 0.75
Handbooks
and Computer
Software See ACI Table 21.2.1 for more details.
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Notations
Richard J. ACI 318 - 2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. ϵt - net tensile strain in extreme layer of longitudinal tension reinforcement at
II
CE and EnP nominal strength
Design ϵty - value of net tensile strain in the extreme layer of longitudinal tension
Process
reinforcement used to define a compression-controlled section
Limit States

Design Codes c - distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, mm

Design
Philosophy
d - distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal tension
WSD reinforcement, mm
SDM

Loads dt - distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of extreme

Load Factors
Strength reduction
longitudinal tension reinforcement, mm
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
Note: In general, d ̸= dt , however, d = dt for single layer of longitudinal tension
Handbooks
reinforcement.
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ϕ for moment, axial force or combined
Richard J.
AQUINO,
moment and axial force
MSCE, ACI 318 - 21.2.2
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II 21.2.2 Strength reduction factor for moment, axial force, or combined moment
CE and EnP
and axial force shall be in accordance with Table 21.2.2.
Design
Process 21.2.2.1 For deformed reinforcement, ϵty shall be fy /Es . For Grade 420
Limit States deformed reinforcement, it shall be permitted to take ϵty equal to 0.002.
Design Codes For, Grade 420 rebars
Design
Philosophy
fy 420
WSD
ϵty = = = 0.0021 ≈ 0.002
SDM
Es 200, 000
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
For, Grade 280 rebars
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain fy 280
Handbooks
ϵty = = = 0.0014
and Computer Es 200, 000
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Strain distribution and net tensile
Richard J.
AQUINO,
strain
MSCE, ACI 318 - 21.2.2
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
ϕ vs Net tensile strain
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain
Given: Net tensile strain in extreme layer of longitudinal tension reinforcement, ϵt .
Handbooks
and Computer Unknown: Find the corresponding value of ϕ.
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE, Thus, the general formula for the transition sections
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.  
II
ϵt − ϵty
CE and EnP
ϕ = ϕc + (ϕt − ϕc )
0.005 − ϵty
Design
Process

Limit States
For spirals conforming to 25.7.3, where
Design Codes • ϕc = 0.75,
Design
Philosophy
• ϕt = 0.90
WSD
SDM
• ϕc = 0.75,
Loads • ϕt − ϕc = 0.15
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor  
ϕ vs Net tensile ϵt − ϵty
strain
ϕ = 0.75 + 0.15
Handbooks 0.005 − ϵty
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Computing ϕ in Transition
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE, Thus, the general formula for the transition sections
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.  
II
ϵt − ϵty
CE and EnP
ϕ = ϕc + (ϕt − ϕc )
0.005 − ϵty
Design
Process

Limit States
For other case, where
Design Codes • ϕc = 0.65,
Design
Philosophy
• ϕt = 0.90
WSD
SDM
• ϕc = 0.65,
Loads • ϕt − ϕc = 0.25
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor  
ϕ vs Net tensile ϵt − ϵty
strain
ϕ = 0.65 + 0.25
Handbooks 0.005 − ϵty
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Summary: ϕ vs Net tensile strain
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Summary: ϕ vs Net tensile strain
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Summary: ϕ vs Net tensile strain
Richard J. ACI 318 - 21.2.2
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Example: Compute values of ϕ
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
For a given beam with material strengths, fc′ = 28 MPa, fy = 420 MPa and
Design
Process Es = 200, 000 MPa, compute the values of ϕ for other case, where
Limit States
a. ϵt = 0.001
Design Codes

Design
b. ϵt = 0.008
Philosophy
WSD
c. ϵt = 0.004
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Example: Compute values of ϕ
Richard J. Solution:
AQUINO,
MSCE, f 420
MSCM For Grade 420 rebars, ϵty = Eys = 200,000 = 0.0021 ≈ 0.002 (ACI Code permits)
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
a. ϵt = 0.001 < ϵty is in compression-controlled section, thus, ϕ = 0.65.
b. ϵt = 0.008 > 0.005 is in tension-controlled section, thus, ϕ = 0.90.
Design
Process c. ϵty < ϵt = 0.004 < 0.005 is in transition section, thus,
Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Example: Compute values of ϕ
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
 
Design ϵt − ϵty
Process ϕ = 0.65 + 0.25
Limit States
0.005 − ϵty
 
Design Codes 0.004 − 0.002
ϕ = 0.65 + 0.25 = 0.8167 ≈ 0.82
Design 0.005 − 0.002
Philosophy
WSD
SDM Note that ACI Code (see footnote of Table 21.2.2) permits to use ϕ corresponding
Loads
Load Factors
to compression-controlled sections, thus, alternatively, ϕ = 0.65.
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Dimensions and Tolerances
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE, Based on accepted practice, ACI Committe 117 has provided recommended
MSCM
Assoc. Prof. tolerances for concrete construction and materials. See p. 40 of Wang etal (2018)
II
CE and EnP for more detials.
Design
Process

Limit States

Design Codes

Design
Philosophy
WSD
SDM

Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Handbooks
Richard J.
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP
These publications contain useful tables and charts that can speed up design for
Design the experienced designer.
Process

Limit States
• Reinforced Concrete Design Manual by ACI
Design Codes • CRSI Design Handbook 2008
Design
Philosophy • PCI Handbook
WSD
SDM • ACI Detailing Manual
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Software
Richard J. Wang etal, 2018
AQUINO,
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
II
CE and EnP

Design • Today, computer software is used for a considerable portion of the design
Process
computations.
Limit States

Design Codes
• The designer, especially the inexperienced engineer, should be wary of using
Design commercial software (for analysis or design, or for both) to do computations
Philosophy
WSD
that the designer/engineer does not thoroughly understand and would be
SDM
unable to formulate in the absence of a computer program.
Loads
Load Factors
Strength reduction
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain

Handbooks
and Computer
Software
Lecture 2b -
Design
Methods and
Requirements
Software
Richard J.
AQUINO, Basic Computations:
MSCE,
MSCM
Assoc. Prof.
• Spreadsheets
II
CE and EnP • MathCad or SMath Studio
Design
• MATLAB or Octave Pro
Process
• Python
Limit States

Design Codes

Design Structural Analysis and Design:

Philosophy
WSD • GRASP and GEAR
SDM

Loads • FrameCE
Load Factors
Strength reduction • STAAD.Pro
factor
ϕ vs Net tensile
strain • SAP2000
Handbooks
and Computer
• Tekla Structures
Software