Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics: June 2 - 6, 2014

Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics
June 2nd – 6th, 2014,

Aalto University,
Espoo, Finland
given by
Prof. Darrell Socie

University of Illinois, USA
Prof. Grzegorz Glinka

University of Waterloo, Canada
© 2014 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 1

Bibliography
1. Bannantine, J., Corner, Handrock, Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis, Prentice-Hall,
1990.... (good general reference)
2. Dowling, N., Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Prentice Hall, 2011, 3rd edition
(middle chapters are a great overview of most recent approaches to fatigue analysis),
3. Stephens, R.I., Fatemi, A., Stephens, A.A., Fuchs, H.O., Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John
Wiley, 2001.... (good general reference),
4. M. Janssen, J. Zudeima, R.J.H. Wanhill, Fracture Mechanics, VSSD, The Netherlands, 2006
(understandable, rigorous, mechanics perspective),
5. Socie, D.F., and Marquis, G.B., Multiaxial Fatigue, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
Warrendale, PA, 2000
5. Haibach, E., Betriebsfestigkeit, VDI Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1989 (in German).
6. Bathias, C., and Pineau, A., Fatigue des Materiaux et des Structures, Hermes, Paris, 2008 (in
French and English),
7. Radaj, D., Design and Analysis of Fatigue Resistant Structures, Halsted Press, 1990,
(Complete, civil and automotive engineering analysis perspective),
8. V.A. Ryakhin and G.N. Moshkarev, Durability and Stability of Welded Structures in Earth Moving
Machinery”, Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1984 (in Russian, cranes and earth moving machinery),
9. A. Chattopadhyay, G. Glinka, M. El-Zein, J. Qian and R. Formas, Stress Analysis and Fatigue of
Welded Structures, Welding in the World, (IIW), vol. 55, No. 7-8, 2011, pp. 2-21.

Mechanical Engineer – yesterday and today……
Slide ruler Calculator Computer PC/laptop
1-2 operation/min. 1-10 operation/min. 10? operation/min.
Before yesterday Yesterday Today

DAY 1
Contemporary Fatigue Analysis

Methods
(basics concepts and assumptions)

Information Path for Strength and Fatigue Life Analysis
Material Component Loading

Properties Geometry History
Stress-Strain
Analysis
Damage Analysis
Fatigue Life

Stress Parameters Used in Fatigue Analyses
Sn – net nominal stress; S – gross nominal stress
e – local linear-elastic notch-tip stress
peak K – stress intensity factor
a local actual elastic-plastic notch-tip stress
peak – K S a Y
Kt = e /Sn – stress concentration factor
peak
S M S
e peak K
peak e
peak 2 a
a Sn crack
peak Sn
y
y
0 y 0 0
a
dn dn
T T T
a) S
b) c)
What stress parameter is needed for the Fracture
Mechanics based (da/dN- K) fatigue analysis?
S
The Stress Intensity Factor K characterizing
the stress field in the crack tip region is
K
x
2 x
needed!
Stress (x)
The K factor can be obtained from:

x - ready made Handbook solutions (easy to use
but often inadequate in practice)
0
a - from the near crack tip stress (x)
distribution or the displacement data obtained
T from FE analysis of a cracked body (tedious)
- from the weight function by using the FE
stress analysis data of un-cracked body
S (versatile and suitable for FCG analysis)

Loads and stresses in a structure
Load F
peak

The Most Popular Methods for
Fatigue Life Analysis - outlines
• Stress-Life Method or the S - N approach;

uses the nominal or simple engineering stress ‘ S ‘ to
quantify fatigue damage
• Strain-Life Method or the - N approach;

uses the local notch tip strains and stresses to quantify
the fatigue damage
• Fracture Mechanics or the da/dN - K approach;

uses the stress intensity factor to quatify the fatigue
crack growth rate

Information path for fatigue life estimation based on
the S-N method
LOADING GEOMETRY, Kf MATERIAL
F
E
PSO
0
t
Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL
n
Damage Analysis A
e D
F
No N
Fatigue Life

The Similitude Concept in the S-N Method
a) Structure
F
Q
hs/2
or
n/2
n
Stress amplitude,
K0
K1
K5 K2
K3
K4
K5
0
Number of cycles, N
The Similitude Concept states that if the nominal stress histories in the structure and in the test
specimen are the same, then the fatigue response in each case will also be the same and can be
described by the generic S-N curve. It is assumed that such an approach accounts also for the stress
concentration, loading sequence effects, manufacturing etc.

Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based on the
S-N Approach
a) Structure
The S – N method
b) Component
F
e) Standard S-N curves Q
c) Section with welded joint
hs/2
Weld
d) Standard welded joints
or
n/2
R
P
Stress amplitude,
K0 V
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
Number of cycles, N
5
Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based
on the S-N Approach (continued)
f) h) Fatigue damage:
n
Stress,
m5
1 1
D1
K5 N1 C5
m5
t 1 2
n D2
N2 C5
m5
1 3
D3
N3 C5
m5
g) 1 4
D4
N4 C5
Stress
m5
3 4 1 5
D5
N5 C5
i) Total damage:
D D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 ;
1
j) Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

2

The linear hypothesis of Fatigue Damage Accumulation
(the Miner rule)
Ni( m m
i) = A or Ni=A/( i)
Stress range,
N5
N1 N4 N2 N3 N0 Cycles
nR
5
m m
1 1 1 4
D Di D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
D1 ; D4 ; i 1
N1 A N4 A
m m 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 3
;
D2 ; D5 0; D3 ; N1 N2 N3 N4 N5
N2 A N3 A
if D 1 Failure !!
1 1
LR ; Nf LR nR
D 1 N1 1 N2 1 N3 1 N4 1 N5
The FALSN fatigue life estimation software – Typical input and output data
Weldment

The scatter in fatigue:Fatigue S-N curves for assigned probability
of failure; P-S-N curves
S45 Steel tempered
at 600o C (W1)
500
f(N)
m
Stress amplitude Sa [N/mm2]
a A N
450 P=99%
P=90%
f(S) P=50% 8
P=10% 6
P=1% 48
400
Probability of failure
P(%)
105 106 107 108

(source: S. Nishijima, ref. 39) Number of cycles N
Probabilistic fatigue life assessment
LOADING STRUCTURAL COMPONENT MATERIAL
S
S
Rw
PWL
No N
t
fS fK fR
S Smax K Kf R Rw
SAMPLING A SET OF RANDOM DATA
COMPUTING of Tj
j<L
T
N
Failure probability calculation

Pf = P[T(X) T r]:
L f (T Tr )
Pf
L

Characteristic regions of cumulative
probability of the fatigue life distribution
Un-satisfactory Most
Over designed
frequent

Information path for fatigue life
estimation based on the -N method
LOADING GEOMETRY, Kf MATERIAL
F
PSO E
0
t
Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL
Damage Analysis
2Nf
Fatigue Life

The Similitude Concept in the – N Method
/2)
a) Specimen ' j)
f b
f
x 2N f '
2N f c
log (
f
peak peak 2 E l)
y
z
peak log
0 (2Nf)
b) Notched component
The Similitude Concept states that if
the local notch-tip strain history in the
notch tip and the strain history in the
test specimen are the same, then the
fatigue response in the notch tip region
and in the specimen will also be the
same and can be described by the
material strain-life ( -N) curve.

Steps in fatigue life prediction procedure based on
the - N approach
a) Structure
peak
hs
peak
hs n
b) Component
d)

f)
e)
peak
1 1'
3 5 1
7 n'
tt
E K'
0
2 8 0
6
4 ,
1,1'
5,5'
7,7' '
3
2 f ' , '
f f
peak
Neuber : '
E f ' , '
f f
8 N f ?,?
6 2,2'
4
/2)
Fatigue damage:
'
f b c
f '
2N f 2N f 1 1 1 1
log (
2 E f D1 ; D2 ; D3 ; D4 ;
N1 N2 N3 N4
Total damage:
f/E
D D1 D2 D3 D4 ;
e/E
p e=
0 Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

2N log(2Nf) 2Ne
(continued). Steps in fatigue life prediction procedure based on the -N approach

Three basic sets of input data for the evaluation of the Fatigue Crack
Initiation Life and Reliability (the – N approach)
LOADING COMPONENT MATERIAL
S K5 2
2
,
f K'
,
S S f
E p
2
t 2N 1
f(k) f(Kt)
fM1 fM3
e ’f M K’
Scaling factor k SCF Kt
fM2
SAMPLING: k , Kt , f , f' , K’ s ’f
LIFE CALCULATION: T i
i <L
Y
Computing of failure probabilities

L f (T Tr )
Pf P T X Tr
L
f(T) R(T) = 1 - F(T)

1
T T
Probability of failure

Information path for fatigue life estimation based on
the da/dN- K method
LOADING GEOMETRY, Kt MATERIAL

F
E
PSO
0
t
Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL
da n
dN
Damage Analysis
Kth K
Fatigue Life

The Similitude Concept in the da/dN – K Method
10-6
a) Structure
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle

10-7
H
F 10-8
Q
10-9
b) Weld detail
a
10-10
10-11
10-12
K 1 10 100
K,MPa m
a c) Specimen
The Similitude Concept states that if the stress

P intensity K for a crack in the actual component
and in the test specimen are the same, then the
fatigue crack growth response in the component
and in the specimen will also be the same and
can be described by the material fatigue crack
P growth curve da/dN - K.

Steps in the Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based
on the da/dN- K Approach
a) Structure
e)
Stress, S
S3 S4
b) Component
S1
t
S2
F
S5
Q
Weld
R
P
V d)

Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based on the
da/dN- K Approach (cont’d)
i)
af
f)
Stress intensity factor, K
(indirect method)
Crack depth, a
Weight function, m(x,y)
(x, y)
K x, y m x, y dxdy Fatigue Life
A
K
Y
n a
ai
Stress intensity factor, K
Number of cycles , N
(direct method)
g)
KI yFE 2 xFE h) Integration of Paris’ equation
a
or
m
K E
dU
EG
ai C Ki Ni
da
N
K af a0 ai
Y
n a i 1
N Ni

Probabilistic analysis using MC simulation
LOADING STRUCTURAL COMPONENT MATERIAL
da n
S dN
PWL
Kth K
t
fS fa fK
fC
S Smax a a Kt C C
K
fKth
SAMPLING RANDOM VARIABLES
Kth Kth
CALCULATION of Tj fKc
Kc KIc
j<L
Yes
No
Failure probability calculation

Pf = P[T(X) Tr]:
L f (T Tr )
Pf
L
The FALPR statistical simulation flow chart for the analysis of fatigue crack growth
Irregular geometrical shape of a real fatigue crack

Welded Joint with Load = 4000 lb (ai/ci=0.286)
300000
250000 Exp. (Specimen #11)

Exp. (Specimen #12)
Exp. (Specimen #14)
Fatigue life N f (Cycle)
200000 Exp. (Specimen #15)

Exp. (Specimen #16)
Exp. (Specimen #17)
Exp. (Specimen #18)
150000 Pre. Life (Loc. 1) No Rs
Pre. Life (Loc. 1) With Rs
100000
50000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Crack Length 2c (in)

Global and Local Approaches to Stress
Analysis and Fatigue

Stress state near the notch tip (on the symmetry line)
a
22
a a=
23 21
0 a= 0
12
a=0
2 32
a
11
a a= 0
31 13
a
33
1
3
a
11 0 0
a a
ij 0 22 0
a
0 0 33

Stress state in the disk at the blade-disk interface
a
22
a a=
23 21
0 a= 0
12
2 a
a
11 = 0
32
1 a 13
a= 0
31
a
33
3
a
11 0 0
a a a
ij 0 22 23
a a
0 32 33

Stresses concentration in axis-symmetric notched body
22 F
C 2
peak C
F
22
n
22
n Anet
33
A, B
11
and
A D B
1
peak Kt n
22 3
22
D
11
F
33
Stresses concentration in a prismatic notched body
22
F
A, B, C
2
peak C
F
n
22
D 22
Anet
11
11
n
and
A
E
peak Kt n
D B 1
22 33
E
3
F
33

How to get the nominal stress from the Finite
Element Method stress data?
r
The smallest optimum element

size < ¼r !!

Fi
F
0 t
Fi-1
Fi+1
peak, i
f Fi ; f F ?
n, i
g Fi ; g F ?
n
pea
k

Loads and Stresses
The load, the nominal stress, the local peak stress and the stress concentration factor
Axial load – linear elastic analysis

F
F
n ;
Anet
Stress
peak
n
n kF F ; peak hF F ;
y Analytical, FEM Hndbk
0
kF 1 ; hF peak
; hF kF K t ;
dn Anet F
T
n, i kF Fi ; peak , i hF Fi ;
F

Loads and Stresses
M Bending load – linear elastic analysis
M cnet
Stress
peak n ;
Inet
n
y n kM M ;
0
cnet
dn kM ; n,i
kM M i ;
T I net
peak ,i hM M i or peak ,i k M M i K tb
b) M

Stress Concentration Factors in Fatigue Analysis
The nominal stress and the stress concentration factor in simple load/geometry configurations
Simple axial load
Tension Bending
P P
S or S
M n
Anet Agross
S
Pure bending load
Stress
M cnet M c gross
Stress
peak peak
n or S
n I net I gross
n
peak peak
r y r y Kt or K t
0 n S
0
net Kt gross Kt
dn dn
T T Kt – stress concentration factor
(net or gross, net Kt gross Kt !! )
peak – stress at the notch tip

S
M n- net nominal stress
S
S - gross nominal stress
Stress concentration factors for notched machine components
3.0
n
2.8
peak/
2.6
Stress concentration factor Kt=
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8 P d b P
1.6
h
1.4 peak
1.2 n =P/[(b-d)h]
1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Diameter-to-width ratio d/b
(B.J. Hamrock et. al., ref.(26)

Stress concentration factors for notched machine components
r
3.0
2.8
n
M M
peak/
2.6 H h
Stress concentration factor Kt=
b
2.4
2.2
Mc 6M
peak n
2.0 I bh2
1.8
1.6 H/h=6
H/h=2
1.4 H/h=1.2
H/h=1.05
1.2
H/h=1.01
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Radius-to-height ratio r/h
(B.J. Hamrock et. al.

Stress concentration & stress distributions in weldments
t1
pea
k
E
r D
hs
n
M A
t B
C
P
F
C
Various stress distributions in a T-butt weldment with transverse fillet welds;
• Normal stress distribution in the weld throat plane (A),

• Through the thickness normal stress distribution in the weld toe plane (B),
• Through the thickness normal stress distribution away from the weld (C),
• Normal stress distribution along the surface of the plate (D),
• Normal stress distribution along the surface of the weld (E),
• Linearized normal stress distribution in the weld toe plane (F).
Stress concentration factor for a butt weldment
under axial loading
l = hp
g=h
P P
t
0.65
W
1 exp 0.9
2h 1 h
K tten 1 2
W W r
1 exp 0.45 2.8 2
2h t
where : W t 2h 0.6 hp
Range of application - reasonably designed weldments, (K.Iida and T. Uemura, ref. 14)

Stress concentration factor for a T-butt
weldment under tension load; (non-load carrying fillet weld)
t1= tp h
Validated for : 0.02 r/t 0.16 and p
30o 60o, source [14]
h
x
P P
t
y
0.65
W
1 exp 0.9
2h 1 h
K tt 1
W W r
1 exp 0.45 2.8 2
2h t
where : W t 2h 0.3 t p 2hp
Cyclic Loads and Cyclic Stress Patterns
(histories) in Engineering Objects

Loads and Stresses
F Simultaneous axial and bending load
M
n,i kF Fi kM M i ;
Stress
peak
peak ,i
kF Fi Ktt kM M i Ktb;
n
or
y
peak ,i
hF Fi hM M i ;
0
dn kF , kM ; From simple analytical stress analysis

T
K tt , K tb ; From stress concentration handbooks
b) M
F hF , hM ; From detail FEM analysis

The load W and the nominal stress n in an railway axle
32 M b
n ,min
d3
W a) 1
b)
d N.A.
y 2
W/2
W/2 W/2
B A x 3
RB RA
Moment Mb 32 M b
n ,min c)
d3 1 cycle
l 1
L n,max
Stress
M bc 32 M b n,a
S n peak ;
I d3 2 time
W d d3 n,min
Mb L l ; c ; I ; 3
4 2 64
Note! In the case of smooth components,
such as the railway axle, the nominal stress and the local peak stress are the same!
Fluctuations and complexity of the stress state at the
notch tip
x3 x3
33
T
F F
x2 22 22 x2
2R
t
23
33
Non-proportional loading path Proportional loading path
23
ABC ABC
23
23
A 23
A
0 t 0 t
2
B 22
0 2
B
22 22 0
C
0 t C 0 t

How to establish the nominal stress history?
a) The analytical or FE analysis should be carried out for one characteristic load magnitude, i.e.
P=1, Mb =1, T=1 in order to establish the proportionality factors, kP, kM, and kT such that:
P
n kP P; M
n k M M b; T
n kT T
b) The peak and valleys of the nominal stress history n,,i are determined by scaling the peak and
valleys load history Pi, Mb,I and Ti by appropriate proportionality factors kP, kM, and kT such that:
P
n, i kP Pi M
n, i kM Mb,i ; T
n, i kT Ti
c) In the case of proportional loading the normal peak and valley stresses can be added and the
resultant nominal normal stress history can be established. Because all load modes in proportional
loading have the same number of simultaneous reversals the resultant history has also the same
number of resultant reversals as any of the single mode stress history.
n,i
kP Pi kM Mb,i ;
d) In the case of non-proportional loading the normal stress histories (and separately the shear
stresses) have to be added as time dependent processes. Because each individual stress history
has different number of reversals the number of reversals in the resultant stress history can be
established after the final superposition of all histories.
n ti k P P ti k M M b t i

Superposition of nominal stress histories induced by two
independent loading modes
Two proportional modes of loading Two non-proportional modes of loading
Mode a Mode a
n,a
n,a
Stress
Stress
time
0 0
Mode b
n,b
n,b
Mode b
Stress
Stress
time
0 0
Resultant stress: n= n,a+ n,b Resultant stress:

n(ti)= n,a(ti)+ n,b(ti)
n
n
Stress
Stress
0 0

Wind load and stress fluctuations in a wind
turbine blade
In-plane bending Out of plane bending
14 14
Load-lag stress [MPa] Wind speed [m/s]
Load-lag stress [MPa] Wind speed [m/s]

12 12
10 10
8 - 28
5
- 30
0
0
- 40
-5
- 50
605 610 615 620 600 605 610 615 620
600
Time [s] Time [s]
Source [43]
Note! One reversal of the wind speed results in several stress reversals
Wind speed fluctuations + Blade vibrations Stress fluctuations

Characteristic load/stress history in the aircraft wing skin
a)
b)
0
Flying
Stress
c)
time
0
Taxiing Landing Source [9]
a) Ground loads on the wings, b) Distribution of the wing bending moment induced by the ground
load, c) Stress in the lower wing skin induced by the ground and flight loads

Fi
F
0 t
Fi-1
Fi+1
peak, i
f Fi ; f F ?
n, i
g Fi ; g F ?
n
pea
k

Loading and stress histories
Nominal stress history, n Notch tip stress history,
Load history, F peak
peak
peak,max
n,max
n
Fmax
Stress
Stress
Load F
peak,
n,i i
Fi
n,i+1 peak,i+1
Fi+1
0 Time Time Time
0 0
Fi-1
n,i-1
peak,i-1
+1
Characteristic non-dimensional load/stress history

n, i i
n,i kF Fi
i+1
peak , i Kt n, i K t kF Fi
0
i-1
Fi n,i peak , i
n,i
Fmax n ,max peak ,max
1 n,i 1
-1
How to get the nominal stress n from the
Finite Element method stress data?
Notched shaft under axial, bending and torsion load
x3
M T M
F
F x2
d
D
T
Discrete cross section stress distribution
t obtained from the FE analysis
r x3
n pea
k
a) Run each load case

separately for an unit 22
load d 0
b) Linearize the FE stress
field for each load case

0 0
y dy 6 y ydy
m b t t
t1 n n n
t t2
n n
y y yi 6 y yi yi
1 1
(y1)
t t2
(yi)
n peak x
yi
Determination of
yi
t yn nominal stresses
from discrete FE data
by the linearization
yn method
(yn)
0 0 n
y 1 dy y dy y yi
m P t t 1
n ;
1 t 1 t t 0
t 0 n
t
y 1 y dy 6 y y dy 6 y yi yi
b c M 2 t t 1
n 3 2
;
I 1 t t t2
12
How to get the resultant stress distribution from the
Finite Element stress data? (Notched shaft under axial, bending load)
x3 b x3
n
Bending M M
23 P
P x
d
22 22
d
2
0
D
33
t
r
x3 m x3
n pea
k
Axial Resultant
(x3)
22 0 22
d
d

Cyclic nominal stress and corresponding fluctuating stress distribution
n, max n
Stress
n, 0 time
n, min
x3
22(x3, n,min) 22(x3, n,0) 22(x3, n,max)
Resultant
22
0
d

The stress state at the weld toe
• Multiaxial state of
stress at weld toe
• One shear and two
zz
normal stresses xx
• Due to stress
concentration, xx is
the largest component
– Predominantly responsible
for fatigue damage
xz
zx
xx
zz

Determination of the nominal, n, and the hot spot
stress , hs, from 3D-FE stress analysis data
a)
y
b) y
x L L
P x
P P P
(x,y)
t t
peak
(x,y)
L /2 0 hs
x , y dxdy
L /2 t P - depends on L and is constant along the weld toe line
n
t L t L
0 0
x 0, y dy 6 x 0, y ydy Independent of L but it changes
m b t t along the weld toe line
hs hs hs
t t2
a) Stress distribution in the critical cross section near the cover plate ending and the nominal or the
hot spot stress n (independent of length L ) and hs (independent of length L),
b) Stress distribution in the critical plane near the ending of a vertical attachment (gusset) and the
nominal or the hot spot stress n (dependent on length L ) or hs (independent of length L)
The Nominal Stress n versus the local Hot Spot Stress hs
m b m b
hs , A hs , A hs , A ; hs , B hs , B hs , B ;
P
n, A ;
t L
n, B ??; A hs,A y
P
P
B
hs,B (x,y)
y L
x x

Example:
Preparation and Analysis of Representative
Stress/Load History:
The Rainflow Cycle Counting Procedure

Stress/Load Analysis - Cycle Counting Procedure
and Presentation of Results
The measured stress, strain, or load history is given usually in the form of a time series, i.e. a sequence of
discrete values of the quantity measured in equal time intervals. When plotted in the stress-time space the
discrete point values can be connected resulting in a continuously changing signal. However, the time effect
on the fatigue performance of metals (except aggressive environments) is negligible in most cases.
Therefore the excursions of the signal, represented by amplitudes or ranges, are the most important
quantities in fatigue analyses. Subsequently, the knowledge of the reversal point values, denoted with large
diamond symbols in the next Figure, is sufficient for fatigue life calculations. For that reason the intermediate
values between subsequent reversal points can be deleted before any further analysis of the loading/stress
signal is carried out. An example of a signal represented by the reversal points only is shown in slide no. 141.
The fatigue damage analysis requires decomposing the signal into elementary events called ‘cycles’.
Definition of a loading/stress cycle is easy and unique in the case of a constant amplitude signal as that one
shown in the figures. A stress/loading cycle, as marked with the thick line, is defined as an excursion starting
at one point and ending at the next subsequent point having exactly the same magnitude and the same sign
of the second derivative. The maximum, minimum, amplitude or range and mean stress values characterise
the cycle. 1 cycle
max min
stress range max
max Stress a
min
a stress amplitude m
2 time
max 0
min mean stress
m
2 min
Unfortunately, the cycle definition is not simple in the case of a variable amplitude signal. The only non-
dubious quantity, which can easily be defined, is a reversal, example of which is marked with the thick line in
the Figures below.

Removing material from a clay mine in Tennessee

Bending Moment Time Series
20
15
10
Bending moment [10 kNm]
0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
Load point No.
Bending Moment measurements obtained at constant time intervals

Bending Moment History - Peaks and Valleys
20
Bending moment value [10 kNm]
15
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
Load point No.
Bending Moment signal represented by the reversal point values

Constant and Variable Amplitude Stress Histories;
Definition of the Stress Cycle & Stress Reversal
a) Constant amplitude stress history

max
max min ;
Stress
mean
max min
One cycle min a
2 2
0 Time
Variable amplitude stress history max min
b)
m ;
2
Stress
min
R
max
One
reversal Time
0
0
Stress Reversals and Stress Cycles in a Variable
Amplitude Stress History
The reversal is simply an excursion between two-consecutive reversal

points, i.e. an excursion between subsequent peak and valley or valley
and peak.
In recent years the rainflow cycle counting method has been accepted
world-wide as the most appropriate for extracting stress/load cycles for
fatigue analyses. The rainflow cycle is defined as a stress excursion,
which when applied to a deformable material, will generate a closed
stress-strain hysteresis loop. It is believed that the surface area of the
stress-strain hysteresis loop represents the amount of damage induced
by given cycle. An example of a short stress history and its rainflow
counted cycles content is shown in the following Figure.

Stress History and the “Rainflow” Counted Cycles
Stress history Rainflow counted cycles

Stress
i+1
i-1
i-2
i+2
Time
A rainflow counted cycle is identified when any two adjacent reversals in the
stress history satisfy the following relation:
ABS i 1 i ABS i i 1

The Mathematics of the Cycle Rainflow Counting Method
for Fatigue Analysis of Fluctuating Stress/Load Histories
A rainflow counted cycle is identified when any two adjacent reversals in

thee stress history satisfy the following relation:
ABS i 1 i ABS i i 1
The stress amplitude of such a cycle is: The stress range of such a cycle is:
ABS i 1 i ABS i 1 i
a
2
The mean stress of such a cycle is:
i 1 i
m
2
The rainflow cycle counting procedure - example
Determine stress ranges, Si, and corresponding mean stresses, Smi for the stress history
given below. Use the ‘rainflow’ counting procedure.
Si= 0, 4, 1, 3, 2, 6, -2, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3, -3, 1, -2 (units: MPa 102)
6
5
Stress Si (MPa 102)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-1
-2
-3
Reversing point number, i

The ASTM rainflow counting procedure
1. Find the reversing point with highest absolute stress magnitude,

2. The part of the stress history before the maximum absolute attach to the end of
the history,
3. Perform the rainflow counting on the re-arranged stress history, i.e. from
maximum to maximum
Original stress history
Absolute maximum !
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5

The ASTM modification of the Stress History
The original stress history
Absolute maximum
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5
6
5
4
The modified 3
stress history 2
1
0
4 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-1 1 2 3 5 8
-2
-3

The Modified Stress History according to the ASTM
6
5
Stress (MPa)x10 2
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
Start counting from point No. 2 !

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
starting point
Start counting from the point No. 2 !!
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
3 2 1; 6 7 3 2 2.5;
6 7 6 7 m,6 7 2 2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
1 4 3; 4 5 1 4 2.5;
4 5 4 5 m,4 5 2 2

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
2 (5) 7; 2 3 2 5 1.5;
2 3 2 3 m,6 7 2 2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
1 ( 2) 3; 9 10 1 2 0.5;
9 10 9 10 m,9 10 2 2

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
3 2 1; 13 14 3 2 2.5;
13 14 13 14 m,13 14 2 2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
4 1 3; 11 12 4 1 2.5;
11 12 11 12 m ,11 12 2 2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
-2
-3
6 ( 3) 9; 1 8 6 3 1.5;
1 8 1 8 m,1 8 2 2
Cycles counted –ASTM method

1. 6- 7 =1; m,6- 7 = 2.5;
2. 4- 5 =3; m,4- 5 = 2.5;
3. 13- 14=1; m,10- 11= 2.5;
4. 11- 12=3; m,11- 12= 2.5;
5. 2- 3 =7; m,2- 3 = 1.5;
6. 9- 10 =3; m,9- 10 =-0.5;
7. 1- 8 =9; m,1- 8 = 1.5;

Extracted rainflow cycles, m
Mean stress, m
m -32 -22 -13 -3.2 6.44 16.1 25.7 35.3 45 54 64.1 73.7 83.3 92.9 103 112 122 131 141 151
298.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
283.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
268.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
254 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
239 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5
224.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5
209.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
Stress range,
194.2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
179.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
164.3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5
149.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
134.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
119.5 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 5 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 14
104.6 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 7 3 2 1 2 1 0 0 29
89.64 0 1 2 3 7 2 0 0 0 1 2 8 10 7 5 6 2 1 0 0 57
74.7 1 1 3 4 3 5 0 1 2 2 10 18 23 20 17 11 4 1 0 0 126
59.76 2 1 5 7 4 1 4 5 1 2 11 20 34 31 31 28 9 7 1 1 205
44.82 1 6 9 7 9 7 10 3 3 8 15 37 49 64 62 41 16 11 2 1 361
29.88 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14.94 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
854
Total number of cycles, N=854

Extracted rainflow cycles, m

Total number of cycles in the entire history, NT
a) The stress range

exceedance diagram max
(stress spectrum)
j
nj=6 - number of cycles j=6
in the class j=6
Stress range
1 max/ max
max
12 3 j=4 j=6 j=7
j=4/
j/
max 0
Number cycles N
Relative stress range
nj=6/NT
0.5
b) the stress range

12 3 j=4 j=6 j=7 frequency distribution
diagram
0 1.0
0.5
Relative number of cycles N/NT

Day 1
The End

Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics: June 2 - 6, 2014

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Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics

June 2nd – 6th, 2014,

Prof. Darrell Socie

Prof. Grzegorz Glinka

© 2014 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 1

© 2014 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 2

Slide ruler Calculator Computer PC/laptop

1-2 operation/min. 1-10 operation/min. 10? operation/min.

Before yesterday Yesterday Today

© 2011 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 3

Contemporary Fatigue Analysis

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 4

Material Component Loading

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 5

The K factor can be obtained from:

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 7

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 8

• Stress-Life Method or the S - N approach;

• Strain-Life Method or the - N approach;

• Fracture Mechanics or the da/dN - K approach;

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 9

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 10

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 11

j) Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 13

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 15

105 106 107 108

SAMPLING A SET OF RANDOM DATA

Failure probability calculation

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 17

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 18

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 19

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 20

c) Section with welded joint

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 21

0 Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

(continued). Steps in fatigue life prediction procedure based on the -N approach

Computing of failure probabilities

f(T) R(T) = 1 - F(T)

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 27

LOADING GEOMETRY, Kt MATERIAL

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 28

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle

The Similitude Concept states that if the stress

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 29

c) Section with welded joint

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 30

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 31

Failure probability calculation

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 36

250000 Exp. (Specimen #11)

200000 Exp. (Specimen #15)

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 37

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 38

© 2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 39

© 2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 40

© 2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 42

The smallest optimum element

© 2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 43

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 44

Axial load – linear elastic analysis

© 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved. 45

M Bending load – linear elastic analysis