180150109031-Naresh Gohil

Electrical Measurements and

Measuring
Instruments(3160915)
LaboratoryManual
Department of Electrical
Engineering,Government
Engineering College,New Ravalvadi
Relocation Site,
Near Uma Nagar, Mirzapar
Road,Bhuj–370001
 180150109111

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLGE,BHUJ

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr.TADHANI PURVIK BHAVESHBHAI RollNo.9111

& Enrollment No.180150109111 of 6th Sem Electrical,Division:B has
satisfactorily completed the course in Electrical Measurements and
Measuring Instruments(3160915) within four walls of GOVERNMENT
ENGINEERING COLLGE,BHUJ.

Date of Submission:27/04/21

Staff In-charge: Head of Department

GovernmentEngineeringCollege,Bhuj Page1
 180150109111

Government Engineering College,

Bhuj Department of Electrical
Engineering
Subject:ElectricalMeasurementsandMeasuringInstruments(3160915)
Semester:B.E.VIthElectrical
Teaching
Credits ExaminationMarks
Scheme
Total
TheoryMarks PracticalMarks
L T P C Marks
ESE (E) PA(M) ESE (V) PA (I)
4 0 2 5
70 30 30 20 150

Sr.No. TitleofExperiment Date Marks Sign

Tomeasurethevalueofresistance 21/12
Exp. –1
byWheatstoneBridge.
Tomeasurethevalueofresistance 28/12
Exp. –2
byKelvin’sDoubleBridge.
Tomeasurethevalueofunknown 04/01
Exp. –3 inductance by Maxwell Inductance -
CapacitanceBridge.
Tomeasurethevalueofunknown 18/01
Exp. –4
inductancebyHay’sBridge.
Tomeasurethevalueofunknown 25/01
Exp. –5
inductancebyAndorson’sBridge.
Tomeasurevalueofunknownself- 01/02
Exp. –6
inductancebyOwen’sbridge.
Tomeasurevalueofunknownca- 08/02
Exp. –7
pacitancebySchearing’sbridge.
Tomeasurevalueofunknownin- 08/03
Exp. –8 ductance and capacitance using
LCRmeter.
To demonstrate distance meas- 22/03
Exp. –9
urementusingLVDT.
ToStudytheConstructionandWorkin 05/04
Exp. –10 gofMeggerandMeasure
theInsulationResistance.
Total

GovernmentEngineeringCollege,Bhuj Page2
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:1
Date:

Aim:MeasurementofResistance byWheatstoneBridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• MeasureMediumResistance.
• CompareDifferentResistance.

▪ Apparatus:
• DecadeResistorsbox
• WheatstoneBridgetrainerkit
• Connectingprobe

▪ Rationale:

Theclassificationofresistancefrommeasurementpointofviewisasfollows.

• LowResistance:Resistancehavingvalue 1Ωorlessthan1Ω.
• HighResistance:Resistancehavingvalue0.1MΩormorethan0.1MΩ.
• MediumResistance:Resistancehavingvaluebetween1Ωand
0.1MΩ.

MeasurementofMediumResistance:Followingdifferent
method
usedfor measurementof mediumresistance

• Ammeter–VoltmeterMethod
• SubstitutionMethod
• WheatstoneBridgeMethod
• OhmMeterMethod

WheatstonebridgeMethod:

Wheatstonebridgeisaveryimportantdeviceusedinmeasurement of
medium resistances.It is themost basic bridgeand still widely used in
industry. The Wheatstone bridge operates
onthenulldetectionprinciple.Itisusedmainlyforcomparisonmeasureme
ntandaswellashighlyaccurate measurement.
It has four resistive arms, consisting of resistances P, Q, R and
Stogether with the DC battery source and a Detector of
D’Arsonvaltypegalvanometer.
Now the current through galvanometer depends on the
potentialdifference between points b and d. The bridge is said to be
balancedifthereisnocurrentthroughthegalvanometeri.epotentialdiffer
encebetweenthe pointsbandd iszero.
 180150109111

As can be easily seen from the circuit diagram that drop

inpotential from a to b is I1P. And drop from a to d is I2R which
shouldbesame.
I1P=I2R
And also, when galvanometer current is zero the network can
beseenastwoparallelbranchesofP+QandR+S.Andinthatcondition
E
I1= I3=
P
+QE
I2= I4=
R+S
Usingabove3equationsweget,

QR=PS

So,unknownresistance
P
R= S
Q
P
Here, isknownasRatioArmand‘S’iscalledtheStandard
Q
Arm.

▪ CircuitDiagram:
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▪ Procedure:

• In Wheatstone bridge kit first of all adjust galvanometer in

nullcondition bynulladjustmentswitch.
• AdjustalltheknobsatzeroandRatioArmknobat1.
• Connect any unknown medium resistor to the Wheatstone
trainercircuit.
• Selectanyturnratiobyratioselectorswitchatwhichgalvanometer
shows minimum deflection by pressing battery
andGalvanometerswitchsimultaneously.
• Again,trytogetnulldeflection(Meansthebridgeisbalanced)by
changing 1000’s knob, 100’s knob, 10’s knob and 1’s knobfrom0
to 10.
• Findoutthefinalunknownresistance.

▪ ObservationTable:

Sr. Ratio Standard MeasuredRe

No. Arm(P/ Arm(S) sistance(R)
Q)
1. 10 4400ohm 44kohm
2. 1 7200ohm 7200ohm
3. 1 546ohm 546ohm
4. 1 90ohm 90ohm

▪ Calculation:

Forreading1 Forreading2
R= S *(P/Q) R= S *(P/Q)
=4400*10 =7200*1
=44 kohm =7200 ohm

Forreading3 Forreading4
R= S *(P/Q) R= S *(P/Q)
=546*1 =90*1
=546 ohm =90 ohm
 180150109111

▪ Conclusion:

After performing this practical Measuremen to Resistance by Wheatstone Bridge

we can conclude that the standard ohmic value and and measured resistance
value is almost same
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:2
Date:

Aim:MeasurementofLowResistanceby Kelvin’sDoubleBridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• MeasureLowResistance.

▪ Apparatus:
• Kelvin’sdoublebridgeVlabCircuit

▪ Rational:
The Kelvin Bridge is a modification of Whetstone Bridge
andprovidesgreataccuracyinmeasurementoflowresistance.Anunderst
andingat the Kelvin bridge arrangement may beobtainedby a study
of the difficulties that arises in a Whetstone bridge onaccount of
resistance of the leads and the control resistance
whilemeasuringlow valuesresistance.

Consider the bridge shown in figure. Where’ r’ represents

theresistance of the lead that connects the unknown resistance R is
tostandard resistance S. Two galvanometer connection indicated
bydotted lines are possible. The connection may be either to point
‘m’or ‘n’. When the galvanometer is connected to ‘m’, the
resistance, r,of the connecting lead is added to the standard
resistance, resultingin indication of too low unknown resistance, R.
when the connectionis made to point n, the resistance, r, is added
to the unknownresistanceresulting inindication oftoohigh avalueforR.
Suppose instead of using point m, which gives a low result or
n,which makestheresulthigh,wemakethegalvanometerconnection
 180150109111

toanyintermediatepoint
dasshownbyfulllineinfigure.Ifatpointdtheresistancer isdividedinto
twoparts,r1andr2,suchthat
r1 Pr2
=
Q
Thenthepresenceofr1theresistanceofconnectingleadscausesnoerror
inthe result.
P
R+r1= (s+r2)
Q
r1 Pr2
Butas =
Q
r1 = P

r1+r2 P+Q
P
r1= r ------------------(1)
P+Q
Similarly,
Q
r2 = r -----------------(2)
P+Q

Therefore, we conclude that making the

galvanometerconnection as at c, the resistance of
leads does not affect the
result.Theprocessdescribedaboveisobviouslynotapracticalwayofachie
vingthedesiredresultastherewouldcertainlybeatroubleindeterminingt
hecorrectpointforgalvanometerconnections.Itdoeshoweversuggestth
esimplemodificationthattwoactualresistanceunitsofcorrectratioarecon
nectedbetweenpointsmandn,thegalvanometerbeconnectedtothejunct
ionoftheresistors.Thisis
theactualKelvinBridge.
The Kelvin double bridge incorporates the idea of a second set
ofratioarmshencethenamedoublebridgeandtheuseoffourterminal
resistors for the low resistance arms. Figure shows
theschematicdiagramofKelvin doublebridge.
The ratio p/q is made equal to P/Q. under balance conditionsthere
is no current through the galvanometer, which means that thevoltage
drop between a and b, Eab is equal to the voltage drop
Eamdbetweenaandc.
P
Eab= Eac
P+Q
And
r
[
Eac=I R+S+(p+q) ]
(p+q+r)
 180150109111

[
Eamd=I R+
pp
{(p+q)r}]
+q p+q+r
pr
=I [R+ ]
p+q+r

Forzerogalvanometerdeflection
Eab=Eamd

NowifP/Q=p/qequationbecomes
R =PS/Q

The equation is the usual working equation for the Kelvin Bridge.
Itindicates the resistance of the connecting leads, r, has no effect
onthe measurement, provided that the two sets of ratio arms
haveequalratios.

• CircuitDiagram:
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▪ Procedure:
1. Set the voltage (V=12V) and switch on the board. Keep Switch(S)in
'Short'modeand adjust therheostat (Rs) tomaintain
thecurrent2A,3A,4Aor5Ainthe circuit.
2. ThensetSwitch(S)to'Open'modeandsetLowresistance(R)value
within 0.001 to 0.01 ohm from 'Set the Unknown Resistance'R''
box.
3. ThensetSwitch(S)to'Bridge'modeandSwitch(K)to'Open'mode.
4. Vary the values of P, Q, p and q from the control box below
ordirectlyputthevaluesintheboxesofrespectiveelementstogetazero
deflectiononthemillivoltmeterpointer.
5. Now,setSwitch(K)to'Close'modeandagainvarythevaluesofP,Q,pand
qtogetazerodeflectiononthemillivoltmeterpointer.
6. If "NULL" is achieved, click on 'Calculate' on 'Calculated
UnknownResistance Value' box to observe calculated value of
unknownresistance(R).

• ObservationTable:

SetV
Current Measured
Sr. alueo
Value( P(Ω) Q(Ω) p(Ω) q(Ω) S(Ω) Resistance
No. f
Amp) R(Ω)
R (Ω)
1 2 amp 50 50 49.997 50.2 0.001 0.003 0.00298

2 3 amp 50 50 49.99 50.203 0.001 0.004 0.00397

3 4 amp 50 50 50 50.508 0.001 0.006 0.00593

4 5 amp 50 50 50 50.8145 0.001 0.009 0.00885

• Calculation:

1. ForReading1

R=PS/Q

R=(49.997*0.001)/50.2 =0.000995
 180150109111

2. ForReading2

R=PS/Q

R=(49.99*0.001)/50.203=0.000995

3. ForReading3

R=PS/Q

R=(50*0.001)/50.508 =0.000989

4. ForReading4

R=PS/Q

R=(50*0.001)/50.8145 =0.000983

• Conclusion:

After performing this practical Measurement to fLow Resistance by Kelvin’s

Double Bridge we can conclude that the value of unknown low resistance value
is same as set value.
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:3
Date:

Aim:Measurement of Unknown Inductance by Maxwell’s

Inductance-Capacitancebridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:

Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• HowtomeasureunknownInductance

▪ Apparatus:

▪ OneDetectorsuchasHeadphoneorCRO.
▪ TrainerKitforMaxwell’sBridge

▪ Rationale:

Thisbridgeisusedtomeasurethevalueofanunknowninductance by
comparing it with a variable standard self-
inductance.Thebridgeconfigurationandphasordiagramunderbalancedc
onditionareshowninFigure.
 180150109111

The unknown inductor L1 of resistance R1 is compared with

thestandardknowninductorL2ofresistanceR2+r2.TheinductorL2isof the
same order as the unknown inductor L1. The resistances R1,R2, r2
etc., include, of course the resistances of contacts and leads invarious
arms. Other branch contain known no- inductive resistors R3andR4
respectively.

The bridge is balanced by varying L2 and one of the resistors

R3orR4.Alternatively,R3andR4canbekeptconstant,andtheresistance of
one of the other two arms can be varied by
connectinganadditionalresistor.

Underbalancedcondition,nocurrentflowsthroughthedetector.

(R1+jωL1)⋅R4=(R2+r2+jωL2)⋅R3...(1)

Equatingboththerealandimaginarypartsineq.(1)andseperatingthe
m,

L1=(R3/R4)L2...(2)

R1=(R3/R4)⋅(R2+r2)...(3)

ResistorsR3andR4arenormallyaselectionofvaluesfrom10,
100,1000and10,000Ω.r2 isadecaderesistancebox.

▪ CircuitDiagram:
 180150109111

▪ Procedure:

1. Apply Supply voltage (3V) from the signal generator with

arbitraryfrequency.

2. SelectthetypeoftheunknownInductor(AirCoreorIronCore)from'SetInd
uctorValue' tabbyclickingon'Set' button.

3. Thenswitchonthesupplytogetmillivoltmeterdeflection.

4. For Air Core experiment: Choose thevalues of R2, L2, r2, R3 andR4
from the control box below ordirectly put the values in theboxesof
respective elements.

5. Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "Null" or closest

to"Null".

6. If"Null"isachieved,switchto'MeasureInductorValue'tabandclick on
'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown Inductor(L1) and
unknown Internal Resistance (R1) of the Coil. Also observethe Quality
factor (or Q-factor) of the coil, which is defined as ωLr.where,w=2⋅π⋅f.

7. ForIronCoreexperiment:Followthesameprocedurefromstep2tostep6.

▪ ObservationTable:

Sr. R3 R4 Theoretical PracticalL1

L2(mH)
No. (Ohm) (Ohm) L1(mH) (mH)
1 9036984 324864 10E-6 0.27811 0.2781

2 11111110 324864 10E-6 0.34202 0.3420

3 11111110 324864 10E-6 0.39682 0.3968

Sr. R2 R3 R4 r2 Theoretical Practical

No. (Ohm) (Ohm) (Ohm) (Ohm) R1(ohm) R1(Ohm)
1 1 9036984 324864 0.01 28.0959 28.0959

2 1 11111110 324864 0.01 34.54436 34.5443

3 1 11111110 324864 0.01 40.079361 40.07936

 180150109111

▪ Calculation:

1) L1=(R3/R4)L2

L1=(9036984/324864) 10E-6

L1=0.27811 mH

R1=(R3/R4)⋅(R2+r2)

R1=(9036984/324864) ⋅(1+0.01)

R1=28.0959 Ohm

2) L1=(R3/R4)L2

L1=(11111110/324864) 10E-6

L1=0.0.34202 mH

R1=(R3/R4)⋅(R2+r2)

R1=(11111110/324864) ⋅(1+0.01)

R1=34.54436 Ohm
 180150109111

3) L1=(R3/R4)L2

L1=(11111110/280000) 10E-6

L1=0.39682 mH

R1=(R3/R4)⋅(R2+r2)

R1=(11111110/280000) ⋅(1+0.01)

R1=40.079361 Ohm

Conclusion:

After performing Measurement of Unknown Inductance by Maxwell’s Inductance-

Capacitance bridge experiment we conclude that using R1,R2,r2,R3 and R4
Parametres we can measure unknown Inductance in circuit and practical value
approximately same as the theoretical value.
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:4
Date:

Aim:MeasurementofUnknownInductancebyHey’sbridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:

Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldbeableto:
• HowtomeasureunknownInductance

▪ Apparatus:

▪ OneDetectorsuchasHeadphoneorCRO.
▪ TrainerKitforHey’sBridge

▪ Rationale:

Hay’sbridgeisamodificationofMaxwell’sbridge.Thismethod
ofmeasurementisparticularlysuitedforhighQinductors.

Configuration of Hay’s bridge under balanced state is shown

inFigure.

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the

branchAB is compared withthe standard known variable capacitor C4
onarm CD. This bridge uses a resistance R4 in series with the
standardcapacitorC4(unlikeinMaxwell’sbridewhereR4wasinparallelwith
 180150109111

C4).TheotherresistancesR2andR3areknownno-inductiveresistors.The
bridge isbalancedbyvarying C4 andR4.

Under balanced condition, since no current flows through

thedetector, nodes B and D are at the same potential, voltage
dropsacross arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4); similarly, voltage
dropsacrossarmsAB andACareequal(V1 =V2).

Equatingrealandimaginaryparts,wehave

SolvingEqs,wehavetheunknownquantitiesas

▪ CircuitDiagram:
 180150109111

▪ Procedure:

1. Setthevoltage(V=3V)andFrequency(500Hz)andsettheunknownindu
ctorvaluefrom'Setinductorvalue'tabbyclickingon'set'button.

2. Thenswitchonthesupplytogetmillivoltmeterdeflection.

3. Now vary the values of R2, R3, R4 and C4 from the control
boxbelowordirectlyputthevaluesintheboxesofrespectiveelements.

4. Observethemillivoltmeterpointertoachieve"Null".

5. If "NULL" is achieved, switch to 'Measure inductor value' tab

andclick on 'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown
inductor(Lx)and unknowninternalresistance ofthe inductor.

▪ ObservationTable:

Sr. W R2 R3 R4 Theoretical Practical

C4(uC)
No. (rad/sec) (Ohm) (Ohm) (Ohm) L1(mH) L1(mH)
1 500 5.5 1 0.45 7.756*10^- 0.4264 0.4215
5
2 500 4.5 1.05 0.55 7.756*10^- 0.2704 0.36
5
3 500 3.71 1.05 0.66 7.756*10^- 0.2240 0.294
5

Sr. W R2 R3 R4 Theoretical Practical

C4(uC)
No. (rad/sec) (Ohm) (Ohm) (Ohm) R1 (Ohm) R1 (Ohm)
1 500 5.5 1 0.45 7.756*10^- 3.71 1.02
5
2 500 4.5 1.05 0.55 7.756*10^- 3.907 0.67
5
3 500 3.71 1.05 0.66 7.756*10^- 3.86 0.477
5

▪ Calculation:

L1 = (5.5*1*7.756*10^-5)/(1+(500)^2*(0.45)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)=0.0004264
L1 = (4.5*1*7.756*10^-5)/(1+(500)^2*(0.55)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)=0.0002704
L1 = (3.71*1*7.756*10^-5)/(1+(500)^2*(0.66)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)=0.000223
 180150109111

R1= (5.5*1*(0.45)^2*(500)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)/(1+(500)^2*(0.45)^2*(7.756*10^-
5)^2)=3.71
R1= (5.5*1*(0.45)^2*(500)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)/(1+(500)^2*(0.45)^2*(7.756*10^-
5)^2)=3.906
R1= (5.5*1*(0.45)^2*(500)^2*(7.756*10^-5)^2)/(1+(500)^2*(0.45)^2*(7.756*10^-
5)^2)=3.86

▪ Conclusion:

After performing this practical Measurement of Unknown Inductance by

Hey’s bridge we can conclude that this experiment one should be able
to How to measure unknown Inductance the value of Resistance and
inductance value is almost same as theorycal value.
 180150109111

Date:
EXPERIMENT:5
Aim:MeasurementofInductanceofaGivenCoilbyAnderson’s
Bridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• Measuretheinductanceofa coil

▪ Apparatus:
OneDetectorsuchasHeadphoneorCRO.
• TrainerKitforAnderson’sBridge

▪ Rationale:
This bridge is a modification of the maxwell's inductive and capacitive bridge. Inthis
method, the self-inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor.This
method is applicable for precise measurement of self-inductance over widerange
of values. Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram of the bridge for balanceconditions.
Let,L1 =Self-inductanceis tobemeasured.
R1=Resistanceofself-inductor.
r1 = Resistance connected in series with self-
inductor.r,R2, R3,R4= Knownnoninductiveresistances.
C=Fixedstandardcapacitor.
180150109111
 180150109111

▪ CircuitDiagram:

▪ Procedure:

• ApplySupplyvoltage(3V)fromthesignalgeneratorwitharbitraryfrequenc
y.
• Setthevalueoftheunknownaircoredcoilfrom'SetInductorValue'tabbyclic
kingon'Set' button.
• Thenswitchonthesupplytogetmillivoltmeterdeflection.
• Choose the values of r1, R2, R3, R4, r, and C from the resistanceand
capacitance box. Varry the values to some particular values
toachieve"Null".
• Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "Null" or closest to"Null".
• If "Null" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Inductor Value' tab and clickon
'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown Inductor
(L1)andit's InternalResistance(R1).
 180150109111

▪ ObservationTable:

Sr. R2 R3 R4 r C L
No. Ω Ω Ω Ω µF H

1. 3.16M 1 0.93M 8.2 100 3.9

2. 6.3M 1 1.45M 8.31 100 5.0

3. 5.9M 1 0.9M 8.4 100 6.9

▪ Calculation:

L1= 3.9

L2 = 5.0

L3 = 6.9

▪ Conclusion:

After performing this practical Measurement of Inductance of a Given Coil by

Anderson’ s Bridge We can conclude that the value of Resistance is same as
Measurements value
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:6
Date:

Aim:Tomeasurevalueofunknownself-inductancebyOwen’s
bridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:

Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• Measureunknownself-inductance

▪ Apparatus:

• OneDetectorsuchasHeadphoneorCRO.
• TrainerKitforOwen’sBridge

▪ Rationale:

This bridge may be used for measurement of an inductance in termsof

capacitance. Fig. shows the connections for this bridge,
underbalanceconditions.

Let,
L1= Unknown self-Inductance of resistance
R1,R2=Variablenon-inductiveresistance,
R3=Fixednon-
inductiveresistance,C2= Variable
standard
capacitor,C4=Fixedstandardcapacit
or.

Atbalancecondition,

Equatingboththerealandimaginarypartsineq.(1)andseperatingthem,

ThebalancemaybeobtainedbyvariationofresistanceR2andcapacitorC2.
 180150109111

▪ CircuitDiagram:

▪ Procedure:
• ApplySupplyvoltage(3V)fromthesignalgeneratorwitharbitraryfrequenc
y.
• SelectthetypeoftheunknownInductor(AirCoreorIronCore)from'SetIndu
ctor value'tabby clickingon'Set'button.
• Thenswitchonthesupplytogetmillivoltmeterdeflection.
• For Air Core experiment: Choose the values of R2 and C2, R3 and
C4from the control box below or directly put the values in the boxes
ofrespectiveelements.
• Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "Null" or closest to"Null".
• If "Null" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Inductor value' tab and clickon
'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown Inductor
(L1)andunknownInternalResistance (R1)ofthe Coil.
• For Iron Core experiment: Follow the same procedure from step 2
tostep6.
 180150109111

▪ ObservationTable:

KnownCapa KnownCapa UnknownR UnknownI

Sr. citance(C2) citance(C4) R2 R4 esistance( nductance(
No. µF µF Ohm Ohm R1) L1)
Ohm H

1. 0.78 4.8203 6.5M 1 6.17 31724.51

2. 11.58 3.684 8.6M 1 3.17 31795.62

3. 34.31 4.3574 7.2M 1 1.26 31795.62

▪ Calculations:

1) Known Capacitance (C2)

C2=0.00000078 µF

Known Capacitance (C4)

C4=0.0000048203 µF

R2=6581439 ohm

R3=1 ohm

Unknown Resistance (R1)

R1=R3*(C4/C2)

=1*(0.0000048203/0.00000078)

=6.17987 ohm
 180150109111

Unknown Inductance (L1)

L1=R2*R3*C4

=6581439*1*0.0000048203*10^-6

=31724.51mH

2) Known Capacitance (C2)

C2=0.0000011588µF

Known Capacitance (C4)

C4=0.000003684 µF

R2=8643728 ohm
R3=1 ohm

Unknown Resistance (R1)

R1=R3*(C4/C2)

=1*(0.000003684/0.0000011588)

=3.17915 ohm

Unknown Inductance (L1)

L1=R2*R3*C4

=8643728*1*0.000003684*10^-6

=31843.4939mH
 180150109111

3) Known Capacitance (C2)

C2=0.0000034315 µF
Known Capacitance (C4)

C4=0.0000043574 µF

R2=7296927 ohm

R3=1 ohm

Unknown Resistance (R1)

R1=R3*(C4/C2)

=1*(0.0000043574/0.0000034315)

=1.2698 ohm

Unknown Inductance (L1)

L1=R2*R3*C4

=7296927*1*0.0000043574*10^-6

=31795.6297mH

Conclusion:

After performing this experiment we can find unkown resistance and

unkown inductance.
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:7
Date:

Aim:MeasurementofCapacitancebySchearing’sBridge.

▪ SpecificObjectives:

Afterperformingthisexperiment,oneshouldableto:
• MeasureunknownCapacitance

▪ Apparatus:

• OneDetectorsuchasHeadphoneorCRO.
• TrainerKitforSchearing’sBridge

▪ Rationale:

Schering bridges are most popularly used these days in

industriesformeasurementofcapacitance,dissipationfactor,andlossan
gles.

FigureshowsScheringbridgeunderbalancedcondition.Theunknowncap
acitorC1alongwithitsinternalresistancer1(representing loss) placed
on the arm AB is compared with thestandard loss-less capacitor C2
placed on the arm AC. This capacitorC2 is either an air or a gas
capacitor to make it loss free. R3 is anon-inductive resistance
placed on arm BD. The bridge is
balancedbyvaryingthecapacitorC4andthenon-
inductiveresistorR4parallelwithC4, placed onarmCD.

Underbalancedcondition,sincenocurrentflowsthroughthedetector,nod
esBandCareatthesamepotential,i.e.,V1=V2andV3 =V4.
 180150109111

Equatingrealandimaginaryparts,wehavetheunknownquantities:
r1=(R3*C4)/C2
and
C1=C2*(R4/R3)

▪ CircuitDiagram:

▪ Procedure:

• Apply Supply voltage (3V) from the signal generator with

arbitraryfrequency.
• Set the unknown Capacitance value from 'Set Capacitor Value' tab
byclickingon'Set' button.
• Thenswitchonthesupplytogetmillivoltmeterdeflection.
• Choose the values ofC2, C4, R3 and R4 from the capacitance
andresistancebox.Varrythevaluestosomeparticularvaluestoachieve"N
ull".
 180150109111

• Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "Null" or closest to"Null".

• If"Null"is achieved, switchto'MeasureCapacitorvalue'tab
andclickon'Simulate'.ObservecalculatedvaluesofunknownCapacitor(C
1)andit's InternalResistance(r1).

▪ ObservationTable:

KnownCapa KnownCapa UnknownR UnknownCa

Sr. citance(C2) citance(C4) R3 R4 esistance( pacitance(C
No. µF µF Ohm Ohm r1) 1)
Ohm µF

1. 2.0229 10.9032 1 1 5.3899 2.0229

2. 1.0128 11.111 1 1 10.971 1.0128

2.9909 0.0001 1 1 0.000033435 2.9909
3.

▪ Calculations:
1) R1 = (R3*C4)/C2

R1=(1*0.0000109032)/ 0.0000020229

R1=5.389885 Ohm

C1 = C2*(R4/R3)

C1=0.0000020229*(1/1)

C1=2.00229 µF

2) R1 = (R3*C4)/C2

R1=(1*0.000011111)/ 0.0000010128

R1=10.97057 Ohm
 180150109111

C1 = C2*(R4/R3)

C1=0.0000010128*(1/1)

C1=1.0128 µF

3) R1 = (R3*C4)/C2

R1=(1*1e-10)/ 0.0000029909

R1=3.3434*10E-6 Ohm

C1 = C2*(R4/R3)

C1=0.0000029909*(1/1)

C1=2.9909 µF

▪ Conclusion:

After Performing this experiment we conclude that Measure unknown

Capacitance And practical Value is approximately same as theoretical value.
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:8
Date:

Aim:TomeasurevalueofunknowninductanceandcapacitanceusingLCRm
eter.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterstudyingtheexperiment,oneshouldbeabletoknowabout:
• Constructionandoperationof LCRmeter
• HowtomeasureinductanceandcapacitanceusingLCRmeter

▪ Rationale:

LCR meters or LCR bridges are items of test equipment or

testinstrumentation used to measure the inductance, capacitance,
andresistanceofcomponents.

LCR meters tend to be specialist items of test equipment,

oftenused forinspectionto ensurethatthecomponents
arrivingarecorrect. They can also be used in a development laboratory
where itis necessary to test and measure the true performance of
particularcomponents.

The LCR meter or LCR bridge takes its name from the fact
thattheinductance,capacitanceandresistancearedenotedbytheletters
L, C, and R respectively. Some versions of the LCR meter
useabridgecircuitformatasthebasisofitscircuitgivingthenamethatisofte
nused.

Avarietyofmetersareavailable.SimplerversionsofLCRmeters
provide indications of the impedance only converting
thevaluestoinductance orcapacitance.

MoresophisticateddesignsofLCRbridgeareabletomeasurethe true
inductance or capacitance, and also the equivalent seriesresistance
and tanδ of capacitors and the Q factor of inductivecomponents. This
makes them valuable for assessing the overallperformanceor
qualityofthe component.

LCRmeterbasics:

Two main circuit techniques are used to form the basis of an

LCRmeter.
 180150109111

1) Bridgemethod:
This method uses the familiar Wheatstone bridge concept
asthe basis of its operation. The aim is to aim for a
conditionwhere the bridge is balanced and no current flows
through themeter. At the balance point the bridge component
positionscan be used to determine the value of the component
undertest.Thismethodistypicallyusedforlowerfrequencymeasur
ements - often measurement frequencies of up to 100kHzor
so are used.
In bridge method the device under test, DUT, is placed in
abridge circuit as shown, and its value can be determined
fromthe settings for the other elements in the bridge. It is the
LCRmeters using this technique that are known as LCR
bridges.Whenthecurrentfromthegeneratorflowsthroughthepres
sure coil, the coil tends to set itself at right angles to thefield
of the permanent magnet. The pressure coil thus governsthe
motion of the moving element, causing it to its
extremecounterclockwiseposition.Thepointonthescaleindicated
bythepointerunderthisconditionisinfiniteresistance.

The DUT impedance is represented by Zu in the circuit.The

impedance Z2 and Z3 are known. The oscillator
circuitgenerally operates at frequencies up to about 100 kHz
andcanusually be selectedbefore thetest.

Then Z1 can be changed until no current flows through

D.This is the balance position for the bridge. AT this point
thefourimpedancesinthecircuitobeytheequation:
ZU= (Z3/Z2)Z1
 180150109111

This basic bridge circuit is sometimes used on its own

inveryprimitiveLCRmeters.Someveryoldinstrumentsactuallyha
vetheelementsthataremanuallybalanced.However,technology
hasmovedonandhigherlevelsofintegration coupled with
operational amplifier circuitry enableaccurateautomated
versionsofthecircuittobeused.

2) Current-voltagemeasurement:
Thecurrentvoltageapproachisnormallyusedforcomponentsth
ataretobeusedforhigherfrequencyapplications.Itprovidesahighl
yaccuratemeasurementtechnique that can be used at high
frequencies and over awiderange of values.

Often known as the RF I-V measurement method,

thistechniqueforLCRmeasurementusesmeasurementsofcurren
t and voltage as the name implies. However, as thefrequencies
involved are high, it uses an impedance matchedmeasurement
circuit. In some cases, for very high
frequencyandhighprecisionmeasurementsaprecisioncoaxialtes
tportmaybe employed.

There are two types of the voltmeter and current

meterarrangements:onesuitedtolowimpedanceandtheotherfor
highimpedance measurements.
 180150109111

Usingthevoltageandcurrentvaluesfromthemeasurements,
the impedance of the device under test caneasily be derived.
By using a phase sensitive detector tomake these
measurements the relative phase of the voltageand current
can be used to determine the impedance of thedevice under
test in terms of resistance, capacitance andinductance. The
inductance or capacitance and the
resistancemaythenbedisplayedasseparate values.

Often a transformer is used in the circuit to enable

thesemeasurements to be made and to isolate the
measurementsfrom ground. However, this can limit the lower
frequencies
orthefrequencyrangeoverwhichmeasurementscanbemade.

LCRbridgemeasurementguidelines:

To make the best measurements using an LCR meter or

LCRbridge,afewsimpleguidelinesofhintsandtipscanbeemployed.

Effect of lead length: At frequencies above 1 MHz orso

the lead length can start to have an effect. As a roughguide a
good estimate for lead inductance is around 10 nHper cm of
lead. For the best measurements kep the leads
asshortaspossible.
Measure at operational frequency:When
makingmeasurements using an LCR meter it helps to use a
testfrequency as close to the actual operational frequency
aspossible. This means that the effects of any stray effects
orchangesduetofrequencyareminimized-
forexampleinductorcoresmayhavedifferentpropertiesatdifferen
t
 180150109111

frequencies. This can make a noticeable difference in

someinstances.
Adjust test amplitude:In the same way that it is
goodpractice to measure at a frequency that is as close to
theoperational frequency as possible, the same is true for
thetest amplitude. This is because component values may
varywith the signal applied. This is particularly true for
inductorsthat use cores such as ferrite that may introduce
losses.Thesemaybeamplitudedependent.
Discharge capacitors before
measurement:Somecapacitorsmaycarryaresidualchargeund
ersomecircumstances.Itisbesttodischargethembeforeanymeas
urements. As charge on some capacitors can linger forsome
time, it is always best to discharge them before anytests.

LCR meters / bridges are very useful test instruments.

Theymay not be as widely used as in previous years where they
wereoften found in goods-inwards areas for sample testing
incomingcomponents.However,thesedaysLCRmeterstendtobeuse
din some laboratories for testing the performance of
componentslikely to be used in development as well as in may
workshopswhere theycanbe usedasanaidfor faultfinding.

LCR meters / bridges are most often used to display

thecapacitance, inductance and resistance, but may also be used
tomeasure the Q of an inductor, or thetan δ of a capacitor.
Assuchtheyareparticularlyusefulitemsoftestequipment.

▪ Conclusion:

After studying the experiment , we should be able to know out Construction and
operation of LCR meter How to measure inductance and capacitance using LCR
meter
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:9
Date:

Aim:TodemonstratedistancemeasurementusingLVDT.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterstudyingtheexperiment,oneshouldbeabletoknowabout:
• Constructionandoperationof LVDT
• HowtomeasurethedistancebyLVDT.

▪ Rationale:

THEORY:-
LVDTisbasicallyamutualinductancetypetransformerwith
variable coupling between the primary and two secondary coils. It
isequivalenttoE.Pickoffinitsoperationexceptthereluctanceofmagnetic
path is mostly due to air path. Uniformlywound over
acertainlengthoftransducerandtwoidenticalsecondarycoilssystematically
wound on either side of the primary coils and away fromcenter. The
iron rod is freeto move inside the coil in either
directionfromthenullpointwhenprimarycoilisexcitedlyACsupplytheinduce
d emf of secondary are equal to each other with the core lying innull
position. The secondary are connected in series with but in
phaseoppositionsothatresultant output voltageiszero.
Displacementofcore in either direction from the null position results in
output voltageas read by an AC rms voltmeter and it is observed that
there is
aresidualvoltageatthenullposition.Duetocapacitancecouplingbetween
primary and secondary and the characteristics of a linear
overalimiteddisplacement.
 180150109111

PROCEDURE:
1. Connectthemultimeterattheoutputofkit.
2. Settherangetoamaximumvalue of10mm.
3. Morethegaugefromzerotomaximum of20mm.
4. Valueandnotethecorrespondingvaluesofvoltagesinthemultimeter.
5. Plotthegraphbetweendisplacementandvoltagesonthegraphpaper.

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

ActualMicr
Indicator O/PVol
Sr. ometer Actual–Indicator
Reading Error= tage(m
No. Reading *100%
(mm) Actual V)
(mm)
1 1 0.9 10 %
2 2 2 0%
3 3 3 0%
4 4 4.1 2.5 %
5 5 5 0%
6 8 7.9 1.25 %
7 10 10.1 1%
8
9
10
11

▪ Conclusion:
After performing this practical to demonstrate distance measurement using
LVDT the actual micrometor Readings and indicator reading is almost
same.
 180150109111

EXPERIMENT:10
Date:

Aim:ToStudytheConstructionandWorkingofMeggerandMeasuretheI
nsulationResistance.

▪ SpecificObjectives:
Afterstudyingtheexperiment,oneshouldbeabletoknowabout:
• Constructionandoperationofmegger
• Howtomeasuretheinsulationresistanceoftheobjectundertest.

▪ Rationale:

Construction:
The megger is an instrument used for the measurement of
highresistanceandinsulationresistance.Themeggerinstrumentconsists
ofahanddrivendcgeneratorandadirectreadingohmmeter. Permanent
magnet provide field for both the generatorand the ohm-meter. The
moving element of the megger consist
ofthethreecoilknownascurrentcoil(deflectingcoil),pressurecoil(control
coil) and compensating coil, which aremounted rigidlyto a pivoted
central shaft and which are rotate over a stationary C-shaped Iron
core. The coils are connected to the circuit by means offlexible leads
(ligaments) that exert no restoring torque on
themovingelement.Hencethemovingelementmaytakeupanypositiono
verthescalewhenthegeneratorhandle isstationary.
 180150109111

The current coil is connected in series with the resistance R

betweenone generator terminal and the test terminal marked “L”.
The seriesresistance R protects the current coil and also controls the
range ofthe instrument. The pressure coil in series with
compensating
coilandprotectionresistanceRisconnectedacrossthegeneratorterminal
s. Compensating coil is provided to make the instrument astatic.

Operation:

When the current from the generator flows through the pressurecoil,
the coil tends to set itself at right angles to the field of thepermanent
magnet. The pressurecoil thus governs themotion ofthe moving
element, causing it to its extreme counter clock wiseposition. The
point on the scale indicated by the pointer under thisconditionis
infiniteresistance.

Current coil is wound to produce clockwise torque on the

movingelement. With the test terminal marked L and E short circuited
tozero external resistance, the current flowing through current coil
islarge enough to produce enough torque to overcome the
counterclock wise torque of the pressure coil. This moves the pointer
to itsextreme clockwise position. The point on the scale indicated by
thepointerunderthisconditionismarkedzero resistance.

Whentheresistanceundertestisconnectedbetweenthetestterminals L
and E, the opposing torque of the coils balance eachother so by that
the pointer comes to rest at some intermediatepoint on the scale. The
guard ring is provided to shunt the leakagecurrent over the test
terminals or within the tester itself to –Veterminal of the generator
without passing through the current coil
oftheinstrumentandthuseliminateserror duetothat.

▪ Conclusion:
After studying the experiment, one should be able to know about
Construction and operation of megger How to measure the in sulation
resistanceofthe object under test