Super conductivity:

The resistivity of pure silver decreases gradually to a low but measurable value of the ≈
10-11 ohm.m at temperatures close to 0K. the resistivity of mercury, tin, etc., on the other
hand fall abruptly at about 4K to a value below the measurable limit of 10-20 ohm.m.
Thus such materials which show immeasurably low value of resistance below a certain
temperature Tc are termed as superconductors and the temperature Tc at which the
material becomes a superconductor is termed as the characteristic superconducting
transition temperature. This phenomenon was first observed by H. Kammerlingh ones in
the 1911 when he cooled Hg below 4.2 K. there are at least 24 other superconducting
elements and a much larger number of superconducting alloys and compounds with a
critical temperature Tc ranging from about 1K to 9K.
Resistivity

Tc T(K)

General characteristics of superconductors

1. When cooled below their critical temperature Tc the electrical resistivity of
superconductors becomes zero or a value approaching zero.
2. a superconductor at a temperature below Tc excludes all magnetic flux. Thus a
superconductor is a perfect diamagnet. (Meissner effect).
3. when the applied Magnetic field is greater than a particular critical value Hc the
material becomes a normal conducting Material
4. Similarly when the current carried by the superconductor increased beyond a
critical current density of Jc again the superconductivity is found to be destroyed.
5. Both critical magnetic field Hc and critical current density Jc are temperature
dependent.
6. Superconducting elements occupy the central part of the periodic table. Alkali
metals, alkaline earth metals, rare earth metals, ferromagnetic elements in the
transition series and most importantly Ca, Ag, Au, etc, are not superconductors.
7. Generally, superconducting materials are not very good conductors at room
temperature, at the same time, materials and metals which are very good
conductors even at close to 0K.
8. for a given elements the critical transition temperature Tc decreases with
increasing isotopic mass as given by Tc=AM^(- α) where A is a constant and α
 while is a constant very close to 0.5 and M refers to atomic weight of the
superconducting elements. This dependence of Tc on atomic mass is called
isotope effect.
9. When cooled to Tc there is an abrupt change in the value of the specific heat,
electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, etc. but mechanical properties and
structural properties of the materials remains the same.
10. Entropy of a semiconductor in its superconducting state is lower than that when it
is in a normal state at the same temperature. This indicates some kind of ordering
in the superconducting state which will decrease entropy.
11. Materials having a single sharp Hc values are called type I superconductor while
those have two critical values for Hc are called Type II superconductors.
Generally Type II superconductors can withstand a high critical current density.
Type II materials which can carry a very large super current without destroying
superconductivity are called ‘hard’ while the others are called ‘soft’. Type II, hard
superconductor finds a number of application.
12. Modern superconductors are ceramic compounds that a very high value of Tc
when compared to metals and Alloys. Nb3Ge alloy has a Tc of 23.2K.La2CuO4
has a Tc of 30K; YBaCuO has a Tc of 90K. The discovery of superconductivity in
ceramic compounds has revolutionized the study of superconductivity.
13. In general superconductivity is destroyed when the temperature of the specimen is
a raised about its Tc or if a sufficiently strong magnetic field (H≥HC) is applied
or if know the superconductor is made to carry a current of Current density equal
or greater than the critical current Density Jc.
Magnetic effects On superconductors: Meissner effect:

When a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field of intensity H equal

to or greater than a magnetic field Hc, its superconductivity is destroyed that is it
becomes a Normal Conductor. However when a magnetic field which is weaker than Hc
is applied it is found that magnetic flux is completely excluded from the material i.e., in a
superconductor magnetic induction B=0.as, B=(µ0H+µ0M) whereµ0 is the permittivity of
free space and M is the intensity of magnetization, B=0 means that µ0(H+M)=0 i.e.,
µ0(1+M/H)=0 or M/H=-1 i.e., χ =-1 where χ =M/H is the magnetic susceptibility. Thus a
superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic material (as χ=-1) therefore no magnetic field
can exist them.

The complete expulsion of magnetic flux by a superconductor (when H<Hc) is called

‘Meissner Effect’
Reason for ‘Meissner Effect’:
On the presence of a magnetic field H (H<Hc), super currents appear on the surface
of the superconductor whose effect is to expel the magnetic field from the interior of the
superconductor.
 H H<Hc H≥Hc

S.C
S.C
B>0 S.C B>0

T>Tc
T<Tc T<Tc
(Superconductor s.c in
(S.C in super Super conductivity
the normal state)
conducting state) destroyed By H>Hc)

Further the presence of a magnetic field causes the critical temperature of type I
superconductor to decrease as shown in figure below. In other words the amount of
critical field Hc to destroy superconductivity in a material depends on the Temperature

Hco
Ordinary
conductor.

(0,0)
T

T
T. It is given by, Hc=Hco(1-T2/Tc2)
Where, HcÆcritical magnetic field at a given temperature T.
HcoÆ critical magnetic field at 0K.
TcÆ critical transition temperature.
Thus at 0K, the critical magnetic field required to destroy superconductivity, Hco,is the
maximum and it is Zero at T=Tc.

Type I and Type II superconductors:

 A superconductor (Resistivity ρ=0) is also a perfect diamagnet (i.e, magnetic
susceptibility χ=M/H=-1) the. However superconductivity will disappear when the
external magnetic field is> than a critical value Hc.
Superconductors characterized by a single critical magnetic field Hc all called
type I superconductors while those characterized by two critical magnetic fields(Hc1 and
Hc2) are called type II superconductors.
Thus the superconductors are classified as type I and type II superconductors
depending on their behavior in the presence of an external magnetic field.

Type I superconductor:
A type I superconductor in the presence of a magnetic field is found to exist only
in two states, normal and superconducting. When The Applied maybe not as a magnetic
field H is less than the critical magnetic field the material is the
superconductor(ρ=0,B=0), provided it’s temperature T<Tc but when the applied magnetic
field is increased to Hc, suddenly the material becomes a normal conductor (ρ>0) and
loses its perfect diamagnetic property (i.e B>0).
This behavior is explained in the diagram. As χ=M/H=-1 for a diamagnet, M=-H
the . Therefore in a super conductor the magnetization M changes the linearly is equal to
negative of H when H<Hc. But when H becomes equal to Hc. It looses its special
magnetic property as well as superconductivity.

-M

M=-H

(0,0) Hc
H

Superconductor Normal
conductor

Type II superconductor
A type II superconductor is found to have two critical magnetic fields; Hc1 called
‘lower critical field ‘and Hc2 the ‘upper critical magnetic field. Hc2 > Hc1.
A type II superconductor is a perfect superconductor like a type I superconductor
(i.e., ρ=0,B=0) When the applied magnetic field Hc1(H< Hc1). It becomes an ordinary
conductor when the applied magnetic field is increased to or beyond the upper critical
magnetic field Hc2. (i.e., ρ>0,B>0). However in applied fields between Hc1 and Hc2 , a
type II superconductor is in a mixed state in which it contains some magnetic flux(i.e.,
B>0, and hence not a perfect diamagnet) but it is in a super conducting state .(i.e. ρ=0)
this implies that when H<Hc2. the magnetic flux penetrates the superconductor partly yet
the material is superconductor(ρ=0).When the magnetic field is increased gradually from
Hc1, more and more flux penetrates the material (i.e., B increases gradually from 0 inside
the material).at Hc2, it penetrates completely and material becomes ordinary conductor.

-M Type II

Type I

M=-H

Hc1 Hc Hc2 H

Perfect Mixed state of Normal

Superconductor Superconductor conductor
(ρ=0,B=0) (ρ=0, but B>0) (ρ>0,B>0)

A type II superconductor has layer like regions called filaments of normal states and
superconductivity matter mixed together. Through these filaments, magnetic flux passes
while flux is excluded in the superconducting regions.
On general it is found that Hc2 of type II materials are greater than the critical
field Hc of type I materials. Hence Type II materials are able to carry a much larger super
currents without destroying superconductivity. Therefore type II superconductors used to
make high field magnets for particle acceleration, fusion reactors, magnetic resonance
imagery (MRI), Maglers (Magnetic Levitation) trains, etc.
All elements superconductors (eg: Hg, Sn, Nb, V, etc).type I superconductors
while the alloys of metals and all ceramic oxide superconductors(e.g.:
Nb3Sn,Nb3Ge,V3Ge,…..,YBa2Cu3O7,….,etc)are type II superconductors.

H
Superconducting
region (B=0)

Critical currents: B>0

B>0
 We know that in the presence of a magnetic field H>=Hc, the critical magnetic
field , a superconductor looses its superconductivity. Similarly when the current passing
through a superconductor is made greater than a critical value Ic (called ‘critical
current’),again the superconductivity in the material is destroyed.
If a wire of radius ‘r’ of a type I superconductor carries a current I, there is a
surface magnetic field HI becomes a normal conductor.
Thus if HI≥Hc for I≥Ic, the material changes into an ordinary conductor.
Thus the minimum current that can be passed in a superconducting material
without destroying its superconductor is called “critical current Ic”.
In the absence of any external magnetic field, the critical current is given by Ic =
2Πr (Hc). In the presence of an external magnetic field H, Ic is found to
Ic = 2Πr (Hc-2H). Thus the critical current Ic decreases Linearly with increasing applied
field H=Hc/2.

BCS Theory:
The theory for superconductivity proposed by Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer
is known as ‘BCS Theory’. Superconductivity is due to a cooperative behavior of
conduction electrons in a metal. In BCS theory it was shown that such a co-operation or
coherence would result if there are a large number of particles in a single quantum state.
The conduction electrons interacting with the lattice in a particular way lead to such a
state.
Normally electrons repel each other due to coulomb interaction. Cooper
showed that two electrons in a superconductor could form a bound state via the lattice
interaction. When the attractive force resulting in the bound state is more than the
repulsive force between the individual electrons, conductor electrons in a
superconducting material will form such bound electrons pairs called ‘Cooper pairs’. The
formation of cooper pair of electrons is explained as follows:
The lattice is slightly deformed as an electron moves through the lattice.
This results in the displacement of the positive ions towards it. Therefore in that region,
there will be more positive charge for sometime. Another electron moving through this
region will be attracted by the greater concentration of positive charge there. When this
attraction is stronger that the repulsion between the electrons, they are effectively coupled
into a ‘cooper pair’.

Thus, the first electron moving with a momentum k1, when interaction
with lattice ions, gets its momentum reduced to k1-q while, the remainder momentum q
appears in the form of lattice vibration (due to the displacement of positive ions). If the
second of momentum k2 enters through region of lattice vibration (Region of more
positive charge), due to momentum transfer between the lattice vibration and the second
electron, its momentum is changed to (k2+q). The process as a whole leaves the lattice
completely uncharged and yet momentum has been transferred between the two
electrons.
This exchange of momentum between the electrons through the lattice
vibration results in an attractive force. The interaction is strongly attractive when the two
electrons have equal and opposite momentum and opposite spins, i.e.,k1=k2. The
correlation between the two electrons of a cooper pair exist over a length of 10 −6 m. The
binding energy (2E) of a cooper pair is nearly 10 −3 eV. Superconductivity is a low
temperature phenomenon because of the very low binding energy. At high temperatures,
the thermal energy will break the bound cooper pairs.
[Normally free electrons in metals are spin ½ particles obeying Pauli’s
exclusion principle and hence they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. Not more than one
particle can occupy a given quantum state. Such particles are called ‘Fermions’.
The two electrons in a cooper pair form a single entity of mass 2m e ,
charge (-2e). As the two electrons have opposite spins, the spin of the cooper pair is zero.
The particles with zero spin obey the Bose-Einstein Statistics and are called ‘Bosons’.
Any number of Bosons can be found in a quantum state]
Therefore when a cooper pair is formed by lowering the energies of the
two electrons of the cooper pair, other electrons combine themselves into cooper pairs
and all of them are found in the same low energy state.
In the superconducting state, the electrical current is due to the motion of
several or more number of cooper pairs in the same direction with the same velocity. As
there is no mechanism exists in the lattice to scatter the cooper pairs, the electrical
resistance is zero in the superconducting state.
The idea of formation of cooper pairs due to the interaction of electrons
with lattice vibration is supported by the ‘isotope effect’ since both T c and lattice
vibrations are inversely proportional to square root of the isotopic mass of an element.
Metals like Cu, Au, and Ag are good conductors at room temperature but
they do not become superconductors even at 0K. Why?
A material with large amplitude of lattice vibration may only be a fair
conductor at ordinary temperatures. But the same lattice vibration at low temperatures,
mean more strongly bound cooper pairs. Therefore such materials are more likely to
become super conductors.
However, Good conductors such as Copper, Gold, and Silver have small
lattice vibration even at ordinary (high) temperatures. Therefore their lattices are unable
to mediate the formation of cooper pairs at low temperatures and so they do not become
superconducting. Hg, Sn, Pb etc. metals have large lattice vibration at ordinary
temperatures and so are poorer conductors than Cu, Ag, Au. But they are
superconductors at low temperatures.

Josephson effect.
Suppose two superconductors are connected by a thin layer of insulating
material (10-50 A o U thick) sandwiched between THEM. This thickness of insulating
layer is sufficient to inhibit the flow of electrons between normal metal as it presents a
potential energy barrier to the normal electrons in them. But as electrons are quantum
mechanical objects, Josephson predicted that, cooper pairs of electrons from one super
conductor can tunnel through this weak insulating link to the other current and hence a
current, though small can flow across the junction. This is known as ‘Josephson
tunneling’ or ‘Josephson effect’.
 On a glass plate, a film of a superconducting material is formed by evaporation.
On this a thin strip of insulating layer of thickness of about 20 A o U (usually a metal
oxide) is evaporated and then another film of the superconducting material over this.
Thus, a junction is formed by evaporating superconducting metals separated from each
other by a thin insulating film.

D-C JOSEPHSON EFFECT.

When a constant current source and a voltmeter are connected across the
junction as shown, it is found that there is a current flow even though the potential
difference across the junction is zero.

[If both the super conducting strips SC1 and SC2 are made of the same
material, concentration of cooper pairs will be the same in both. Hence the amplitude of
the wave function will be the same on the two sides of the junction. But the junction
barrier introduces a change of phase across the junction. As the junction layer is thin, the
wave functions of the cooper pair electrons on each side of the junction penetrate the
insulating layer with exponential decreasing amplitudes. Since the thickness of the
junction is very small, the wave function overlaps sufficiently to become coupled
together. Hence the junction. This is because, a non zero values for the square amplitude
wave function at any point represents the presence of particles of these wave functions is
that place.]
When there is no potential difference across the junction a d.c. current
flows whose magnitude is

I = I max Sin (ϕ1 − ϕ 2 )

where,

ϕ1 and ϕ 2 ---Æphases of the wave functions of the cooper pairs across the function
and
I max ---Æ is the maximum super current can be supported by the junction with zero
potential difference I max depends on the thickness and other characteristics if the
insulating layer.
The value of I max is Nb-Nbo-Nb Josephson junction is between 1 µA
and 1 mA depending on the thickness of the oxide film.
The above effect is called ‘d.c. Jospehson effect’.
A.C. JOSEPHSON EFFECT.

When the current I exceeds I max ., a potential difference Vo suddenly

appears. The phase difference ( ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ) changes with time. As a result, the current I
varies sinusoidal with time. This is known as ‘A.C. Josephson effect’
Instead of a constant current, if a voltage source is connected such that a
potential difference is applied across the junction but I is maintained at a value less
that I max . The super current in this case is found to oscillate.

I = I max . Sin [( ϕ 1 − ϕ 2 ) − 2 eVt ]

=

where, V is the potential difference across the junction eqn(2) is of

the form
I = I max . Sin [( ϕ 1 − ϕ 2 ) − ω t ]

where ω0 = 2eV =

Thus, the super current is now sinusoidal with an angular frequency of ω 0 = 2eV =
(or) =ω0 = 2eV
If a potential at left is V volts above that at the right side, then the energy
of a cooper pair on the left is lower than the energy of the one on the right by 2eV. This

results in the emission of radiation of photon energy =ω = 2eV

For a d.c. potential difference of V=1 µ v, this produces a frequency of
483.5979 MHz.
Since both V and ω0 can be measured very accurately, the ratio of
= can be measured accurately which is related to the quantum of magnetic flux.
2e
Using the Josephson effect, the standard volt is defined as the potential difference across
a Josephson junction that produces an oscillation at a frequency of 483.5979 THz i.e.,
483.5979 × 10 6 MHz.

SQUID.
The phase difference across a junction is altered in the presence of a
magnetic field. This is used in a two junction device called ‘Super Conducting quantum
interference Device’. It consists of two Josephson junctions in parallel. It consists of a
super conducting material with two side arms P and Q separated by two week insulating
links X and Y. The external current flows in through P. The super current branches out
(Ja and Jb) into the two arms at P and is gathered in at Q. A magnetic field is applied
normal to the plane of the ring. This is done with a straight solenoid normal to the plane
of the circuit and lying inside the circuit.
If ϕ is the magnetic flux through the circuit, the phase difference at the
two junction x and Y will be,

2e
(δ a −δb) = ϕ
=
[Obviously, when there is no magnetic field through the circuit, the phase difference
between the junctions will be zero]
Here, δ a , δ b are the changes of phase at function x and y respectively. The
total current through the junction is found to be,

e
J = (2 J 0 sin ϕ0 ). cos( ϕ )
=
where, J 0 , ϕ 0 are constants, = = h .
2π
J 0 -Æmaximum super current supported by either junction.
According to this equation (1) the current J is an oscillating function of the
eϕ
magnetic flux through the loop. Its magnitude is a maximum whenever is a multiple
=
π=
of π or i.e., the magnetic flux is a multiple of . The oscillations come from
e
interference of the two currents variation of the magnetic flux changes their relative
phases and hence their sum.

Devices based on such two function loops are called Squids. One such device is a
magnetometer used to measure magnetic fields. An applied magnetic field is measured by
monitoring the current as the flux increases from zero and counting the numbers of
π=
maxima. Flux can be measured with a precision much smaller that ( ), so a squid is
e
extremely sensitive to very small fields. If loop area is 1cm 2 , for example, magnetic
induction fields less that 10 −11 T can be measured easily.
Applications:
1. superconducting materials:
The principal application of superconductors is the production of high magnetic
fields(H>105 A/m). Their ability to pass large currents without Joule heating means that
only small power supplies are needed. Solenoids capable of exceeding 2.2x106
A/m(≈30,000 K Gauss) are available commercially following the development of type II
Nb3Sn,NbTi,Nb-Si,etc, superconducting materials. Even though the superconducting
magnets have the disadvantage of having to cool them below Liquid Helium Temperature
(LHeT), their installation cost is ten times the conventional methods of producing such
fields. Conventional methods require 2MW power and 5m3/s of water flow for cooling as
well as considerable space for auxiliary equipment. A superconducting solenoid in
contrast, occupies little space, has no steady-state power consumption and uses relatively
little liquid He coolant. Though Hc2 is lower, NbTi(44% Ti)alloy is used to produce
fields of the order of 7x105 A/m as it is easier to work them mechanically.Nb3Sn is hard
and brittle and hence not easy to work in wire drawing, instead it is made as a thin ribbon
by vapour deposition of Nb3Sn onto stainless steel or by passing niobium tape through
molten tin to form a diffused layer of Nb3Sn. These wires and tapes are wound over the
solenoids and when heavy currents are passed they are capable of producing such large
fields.
These magnets are useful for researches in the laboratories, NMR (nuclear
magnetic resonance), NMRI (nuclear magnetic resonance imaging), etc. Superconducting
solenoid may some day prove useful in magneto hydrodynamic power conversion and in
other engineering areas.

2. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI):

Most NMR spectrometers use a superconducting magnet. NMR is

a very powerful technique for the identification and the structure determination of
complex molecules. With the use of superconducting magnets in NMR techniques, an
NMR imaging (NMRI) techniques has developed. This NMRI technique is better than the
CATSCAN used in the medical diagnostics of whole body scanning. A superconducting
magnet of high field 2T with homogeneity of 100 ppm over length of 100 mm provides
much higher resolution

3. Magnetic levitation and magnetically levitated trains (Maglev):

A superconductor is a perfect diamagnet and hence repels the

magnetic flux. Hence a small magnet placed on a superconductor (or a superconducting
material placed on a magnet) will float in air. This is called magnetic levitation.
A high speed magnetically levitating train known as a ‘maglev’
with average speeds of 550 Km/Hr making use of conventional liquid He superconductor
materials has been tested in Japan. Japan expects to have a levitating train between Osaka
and Tokyo before the end of the century. Superconducting ship population systems with
liquid He superconductors have been successfully tested in Japan. In Magler’s Train
magnetic forces provide both propulsion and frictionless support.

4. superconducting power transmission:

As there is no I2R loss in a superconductor, power can be
transmitted through superconducting cables without loss. The economic viabilities of
superconducting transmission lines are at present under steady. The cost of a 10GW
power transmission line operating at a 150KV dc using hard niobium tubes compares
favorably with the cost of modern high Tc superconductors with the liquid N2
environment; the economics of such transmission has become more favorable for
absorption. However as these materials are hard and brittle, they cannot be drawn into be
wires for transmission. This poses the main obstacle for such a transmission.

JOSEPHSON JUNCTION DEVICES

A Josephson junction consists of a thin layer of insulating material between two
superconducting solids. The unique current voltage characteristics associated with the
Josephson junction are suitable for computer memory elements with a switching time of
the order of 10-11s.New voltage standards have been setup based on a.c. Josephson effect .
The d.c Josephson Effect has been used to fabricate sensitive magnetometers with an
accuracy of 10-11 Gauss. Efficient radiation detectors in the frequency range from radio to
IR frequencies have been set up using a.c. Josephson effects.

Devices based on two junction loops called ‘Superconducting Quantum

Interference Devices’ (SQUID) is one such devices for measuring low magnetic fields
and radiation detection. SQUIDS find medical applications in the detection of magnetic
fields produced by currents in the nervous system and brains. SQUIDS can also be used
as sensitive voltmeter and ammeter. In addition they are used in geological studies and
radio astronomy.

Particle Accelators
In high energy particle accelerators very high magnetic fields are required to
confine high energy particle to travel in a circular path. Superconducting magnets
producing fields of 5 to 8T are used for this purpose. In such accelerators, the
circumference of the path high energy particle will be about 100 Km.

Fusion Reactor
In a fusion reactor plasma of a mixture of the isotopes of hydrogen is to be
confined in a small fusing volume and heated to a temperature of the order of a million
degrees. A steady circular magnetic field of very high strength is produced by using
superconducting magnets. A changing magnetic field perpendicular to this circular field
induces a current in the plasma to heat it up. Alternatively, heating may be affected by
using high power lasers focused at the fusing volume. For confining the plasma, six large
superconducting coils are constructed. Each coil is capable of producing a field of 8T and
stores energy of 500 M Joules. The weight of each coil is around 40 Tons.

Computer memory devices

 When a magnetic field H≥Hc is applied a superconductor becomes normal. When
the field is removed it becomes superconductor again. Such a two state device can be
used as the basis of a logic system and various superconducting computer memory
elements have been developed. One such element called ‘crystron’ is as follows.

This consists of a tantalum wire around which is wound a niobium wire. Ta with a
Tc of 4.5K is the gate and Nb with Tc =9.5K the control. When they are cooled to 4.2K
(LHet) both are superconducting and the gate is open. If the current through the niobium
control winding is made large enough to produce a magnetic field sufficient to drive the
tantalum normal, the gate is closed. Removal of the control current through the Nb wire
reopens the gate as Ta becomes superconducting again. The switching time in the
improved memory devices is of the order of 10-7 s.

Flux trapping and magnetic energy storage.

When a type II superconductor is cooled in a magnetic flux.