Atoms,

2 Molecules,
and Ions
Visualizing Concepts
2.1 (a) Like charges repel and opposite charges attract, so the sign of the electrical charge
on the particle is negative.

(b) The greater the magnitude of the charges, the greater the electrostatic repulsion
or attraction. As the charge on the plates is increased, the bending will increase.

(c) As the mass of the particle increases and speed stays the same, linear momentum
(mv) of the particle increases and bending decreases. (See A Closer Look: The
Mass Spectrometer.)

# ofm ass num ber particles

2.2 (a) % abundance   100
totalnum ber ofparticles

12 red 293Nv particles

8 blue 295Nv particles

20 total particles

12
% abundance 293 N v   100  60%
20

8
% abundance 295 N v   100  40%
20

(b) Atomic weight (AW) is the same as average atomic mass.

Atomic weight (average atomic mass) =  fractional abundance  mass of isotope

AW of Nv = 0.60(293.15) + 0.40(295.15) = 293.95 amu

(Because % abundance was calculated by counting exact numbers of particles,

assume % abundance is an exact number. Then, the number of significant figures
in the AW is determined by the number of sig figs in the masses of the isotopes.)

2.3 In general, metals occupy the left side of the chart, and nonmetals the right side.

metals: red and green nonmetals: blue and yellow

alkaline earth metal: red noble gas: yellow

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.4 Because the number of electrons (negatively charged particles) does not equal the
number of protons (positively charged particles), the particle is an ion. The charge on
the ion is 2–.

Atomic number = number of protons = 16. The element is S, sulfur.

Mass number = protons + neutrons = 32

32 2 
16 S

2.5 In a solid, particles are close together and their relative positions are fixed. In a liquid,
particles are close but moving relative to each other. In a gas, particles are far apart and
moving. Most ionic compounds are solids because of the strong forces among charged
particles. Molecular compounds can exist in any state: solid, liquid, or gas.
Because the molecules in ii are far apart, ii must be a molecular compound. The
particles in i are near each other and exist in a regular, ordered arrangement, so i is
likely to be an ionic compound.

2.6 Formula: IF 5 Name: iodine pentafluoride

Because the compound is composed of elements that are all nonmetals, it is molecular.

2.7 See Figure 2.17. yellow box: 1+ (group 1A); blue box: 2+ (group 2A)

black box: 3+ (a metal in Group 3A); red box: 2– (a nonmetal in group 6A);

green box: 1– (a nonmetal in group 7A)

2.8 Cations (red spheres) have positive charges; anions (blue spheres) have negative
charges. There are twice as many anions as cations, so the formula has the general form
CA 2 . Only Ca(NO 3 ) 2 , calcium nitrate, is consistent with the diagram.

2.9 These two compounds are isomers. They have the same chemical formula, C4H9Cl, but
different arrangements of atoms. That is, they have different chemical structures. In the
first isomer, the Cl atom is bound to the second C atom from the left. In the second
isomer, the Cl atom is bound to the right-most C atom.

2.10 (a) In the absence of an electric field, there is no electrostatic interaction between the
oil drops and the apparatus, so the rate of fall of the oil drops is determined
solely by the force of gravity. In the presence of an electric field, there is
electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged oil drops and the
positively charged plate, as well as electrostatic repulsion between the negatively
charged oil drops and the negative plate. These electrostatic forces oppose the
force of gravity and change the rate of fall of the drops.

(b) Each individual drop has a different number of electrons associated with it. The
greater the accumulated negative charge on the drop, the greater the electrostatic
forces between the oil drop and the plates. If the combined electrostatic forces are
greater than the force of gravity, the drop moves up.

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
The Atomic Theory of Matter and the Discovery of Atomic Structure
(Sections 2.1 and 2.2)
0.727 g O
2.11 (a) ratio ofm asses   2.663  2.66
0.273 g C
0.571 g O
(b) ratio of m asses  1.331  1.33
0.429 g C

(c) The two mass ratios are related by a factor of 2. In the first compound, CO 2 , twice
as much O is bound to one gram of C as in the second compound. The empirical
formula of the second compound is then CO.

2.12 (a) 1:2 is the mass ratios of oxygen in sodium oxide and sodium peroxide.
(b) Multiple proportions.

17.60 g oxygen 0.5711 g O

2.13 (a)  ; 0.5711/0.5711  1.0
30.82 g nitrogen 1gN
35.20 g oxygen 1.142 g O
 ; 1.142/0.5711  2.0
30.82 g nitrogen 1gN
70.40 g oxygen 2.284 g O
 ; 2.284/0.5711  4.0
30.82 g nitrogen 1g N
88.00 g oxygen 2.855 g O
 ; 2.855/0.5711  5.0
30.82 g nitrogen 1g N

(b) These masses of oxygen per one gram nitrogen are in the ratio of 1:2:4:5 and thus
obey the law of multiple proportions. Multiple proportions arise because atoms are
the indivisible entities combining, as stated in Dalton’s theory. Because atoms are
indivisible, they must combine in ratios of small whole numbers.

3.56 g fluorine
2.14 (a) 1:  0.749 g fluorine/1 g iodine
4.75 g iodine
3.43 g fluorine
2:  0.449 g fluorine/1 g iodine
7.64 g iodine
9.86 g fluorine
3:  1.05 g fluorine/1 g iodine
9.41 g iodine

(b) To look for integer relationships among these values, divide each one by the
smallest. If the quotients aren’t all integers, multiply by a common factor to obtain
all integers.
1: 0.749/0.449 = 1.67; 1.67  3 = 5
2: 0.449/0.449 = 1.00; 1.00  3 = 3
3: 1.05/0.449 = 2.34; 2.34  3 = 7
The ratio of g fluorine to g iodine in the three compounds is 5:3:7. These are in the
ratio of small whole numbers and, therefore, obey the law of multiple proportions.
This integer ratio indicates that the combining fluorine “units” (atoms) are
indivisible entities.

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.15 Neutrons were the most difficult to be discovered because they do not carry any charge.

2.16 (a) Beta rays have the mass and charge of an electron. If the unknown particle is a
proton, it will be deflected in the opposite direction as a beta ray because protons
and beta rays have opposite electrical charges.
(b) In an electric field, lighter particles are deflected by a greater amount than
heavier ones. Protons have larger mass than beta rays (electrons) so they would
be deflected by a smaller amount.

2.17 Analyze. We are given the diameters of a gold atom and its nucleus, and a gold foil that
is two atoms thick. What fraction of alpha particles in Rutherford’s experiment are
deflected at large angles?
Plan. In order to be deflected at a large angle, an alpha particle must directly strike a
gold nucleus. Assume that the gold atoms in a single row touch. Consider the cross-
sectional area of the gold foil exposed to the beam of alpha particles. Calculate the
percentage of this area occupied by the nucleus. But, there are two rows of gold
particles, offset relative to one another (Figure 2.9). Assume each alpha particle has two
chances to hit a gold nucleus, so the fraction deflected at large angles is twice the ratio
of areas. [This approach ignores empty space in the arrangement of gold atoms, which
is about 9% of the total cross-sectional area.]
Solve.
area of A u nucleus
fraction of alpha particles deflected atlarge angles  2
area of A u atom
The cross-sectional area of a spherical atom is a circle. Area = r 2
 [r(nucleus)]2
fraction deflected at large angles= 2
 [r(atom )]2
(1.0  102 pm) 2
fraction deflected at large angles  2
 2  2.7  109
(270 pm )
That is, 1 out of approximately 365 million alpha particles is deflected at a large angle.

2.18 (a) The droplets carry different total charges because there may be 1, 2, 3, or more
electrons on the droplet.
(b) The electronic charge is likely to be the lowest common factor in all the observed
charges.
(c) Assuming this is so, we calculate the apparent electronic charge from each drop
as follows:
A: 1.60  10 – 19 / 1 = 1.60  10 – 19 C
B: 3.15  10 – 19 / 2 = 1.58  10 – 19 C
C: 4.81  10 – 19 / 3 = 1.60  10 – 19 C
D: 6.31  10 – 19 / 4 = 1.58  10 – 19 C
The reported value is the average of these four values. Because each calculated
charge has three significant figures, the average will also have three significant
figures.
(1.60  10–19 C + 1.58  10–19 C + 1.60  10–19 C + 1.58  10–19 C) / 4 = 1.59  10–19 C

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
The Modern View of Atomic Structure; Atomic Weights (Sections 2.3 and 2.4)
2.19 (a) 0.21nm, 2.10  102 pm

(b) Aligned W atoms have diameters touching. d  =  2r  =  2.10    10–10  m    2  
= 4.20  10–10 m

1 103 m 1 W atom
2.0 mm    4.76  106 W atoms
1 mm 4.20  1010

(c) V = 4/3  r 3 ; r = 2.10  10–10 m 

V = (4/3)[((2.10  10–10)3] m3 = 3.88  10–29 m3 

1 103 m 1Å
2.20 (a) 1.4  107 mm, 1.4 107 mm    1.4 Å
1 mm 1 1010 m

(b) Aligned Cu atoms have diameters touching. d = 2r = 140  10 – 12 m  2 = 2.80 

10 – 10 m

1 103 m 1 Cu atom
5.0 mm   10
 1.79 107 Cu atoms
1 mm 2.80  10

(c) V = 4/3  r 3 ; r = 2.80  10 – 10 m

V = (4/3)[((1.40  10 – 10) 3 ] m 3 = 1.15  10 – 29 m 3 = 1.15  10 – 23 cm 3

2.21 (a) proton, neutron, electron

(b) proton = +1, neutron = 0, electron = –1

(c) The neutron is most massive. (The neutron and proton have very similar masses.)
(d) The electron is least massive.

2.22 (a) False. The nucleus has most of the mass but occupies very little of the volume of
an atom.
(b) True.
(c) False. The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of
protons in the atom.
(d) True.

2.23 (a) 15 protons, 15 electrons, 17 neutrons.

(b) 32S

(c) 33P

(d) Yes, 33P.

2.24 (a) 28 protons, 28 electrons, 30 neutrons.

(b) [58Ni]2+

(c) 61Ni

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.25 (a) Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Mass number is
the total number of nuclear particles, protons plus neutrons, in an atom.

(b) The mass number can vary without changing the identity of the atom, but the
atomic number of every atom of a given element is the same.

106
2.26 (a) 46 Xand 107
46 X are isotopes of the same element, because they have identical
atomic numbers.

(b) These are isotopes of the element Palladium, Pd, atomic number = 46.

2.27 p = protons, n = neutrons, e = electrons

(a) 84Kr; 36p, 48n, 36e (b) 200Hg; 80p, 120n, 80e

(c) 59Co; 27p, 32n, 27e (d) 55Mn; 25p, 30n, 25e

(e) 239U; 92p, 147n, 92e (f) 181Ta; 73p, 108n, 73e

2.28 (a) samarium-153 has 62p, 91n (b) lutetium-177 has 71p, 106n

(c) bismuth-213 has 83p, 130n (d) molybdenum-99 has 42p, 57n

(e) lead-212 has 82p, 130 n (f) caesium-131 has 55p, 76n

2.29
Symbol  159  Tb  63 Cu  95 Mo  79 Se  85 Rb 

Protons  65  29  42  34  37 

Neutrons  94  34  53  45  48 
Electrons  65  29  42  34  37 

Mass no.   159  63  95  79  85 

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.30
Symbol  89 Y  195  Pt  204 Tl  119  Sn  227 Ac 

Protons  39  78  81  50  89 

Neutrons  50  117  123  69  138 
Electrons  39  78  81  50  89 

Mass no.   89  195  204  119  227 

178 201 187 40

2.31 (a) 72 Hf (b) 80 Hg (c) 75 Re (d) 20 Ca

2.32 Because the two nuclides are atoms of the same element, by definition they have the
same number of protons, 54. They differ in mass number (and mass) because they have
different numbers of neutrons. 129 Xe has 75 neutrons and 130 Xe has 76 neutrons.

2.33 (a) C

(b) Atomic weights are really average atomic masses, the sum of the mass of each
naturally occurring isotope of an element times its fractional abundance. Each B
atom will have the mass of one of the naturally occurring isotopes, whereas the
“atomic weight” is an average value. The naturally occurring isotopes of B, their
atomic masses, and relative abundances are:
1 0 B, 10.012937, 19.9 %; 1 1 B, 11.009305, 80.1 %.

2.34 (a) 12 amu

(b) The atomic weight of carbon reported on the front-inside cover of the text is the
abundance-weighted average of the atomic masses of the two naturally occurring
isotopes of carbon, 1 2C and 1 3C. The mass of a 1 2C atom is exactly 12 amu, but the
atomic weight of 12.011 takes into account the presence of some 1 3C atoms in
every natural sample of the element.

2.35 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) =  fractional abundance  mass of isotope
Atomic weight = (5.85 × 53.9396 + 91.75 × 55.9349 + 2.12 × 56.9354) / 99.72 = 55.84 u

2.36 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) =  fractional abundance  mass of isotope
Atomic weight = 0.5069(78.9183) + 0.4931(80.9163) = 79.9035 = 79.90 u
(The result has 2 decimal places and 4 sig figs because each term in the sum has 4 sig
figs and 2 decimal places.)

2.37 (a) In Thomson’s cathode ray tube, the charged particles are electrons. In a mass
spectrometer, the charged particles are positively charged ions (cations).
(b) The x-axis label (independent variable) is atomic mass (or particle mass) and the
y-axis label (dependent variable) is signal intensity.
(c) The Cl2 + ion will be deflected more. The greater the charge on the positive ion,
the larger its interaction with the electric and magnetic fields. (For this reason, the
x-axis label of a mass spectrum is usually mass-to-charge ratio of the particles.)

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.38 (a) True.
(b) False. The height of each peak in the mass spectrum is directly proportional to the
relative abundance of the isotope.
(c) True.

2.39 (a) Average atomic mass = 0.014(203.9730) + 0.241(205.9744) + 0.221(206.9759) +

0.524(207.9766) = 207.2169 = 207.22 u
(b)

2.40 (a) Three peaks: 1 H – 1 H, 1 H – 2 H, 2 H – 2 H

1
(b) H – 1 H = 2(1.00783) = 2.01566 amu
1
H – 2 H = 1.00783 + 2.01410 = 3.02193 amu
2
H – 2 H = 2(2.01410) = 4.02820 amu
The mass ratios are 1 : 1.49923 : 1.99845 or 1 : 1.5 : 2.
1
(c) H – 1 H is largest, because there is the greatest chance that two atoms of the more
abundant isotope will combine.
2
H – 2 H is the smallest, because there is the least chance that two atoms of the
less abundant isotope will combine.

The Periodic Table, Molecules and Molecular Compounds, and Ions and
Ionic Compounds (Sections 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7)
2.41 (a) Rn, 86 (nonmetal) (b) Te, 52 (metalloid) (c) Cd, 48 (metal)
(d) Cr, 24 (metal) (e) Ba, 56 (metal) (f) Se, 34, (nonmetal)
(g) S, 16, (nonmetal)

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.42 (a) mercury, 80 (metal) (b) Astatine, 85 (nonmetal)
(c) molybdenum, 42 (metal) (d) tungsten, 74 (metal)
(e) tin, 50 (metal) (f) vanadium, 23 (metal)
(g) potassium, 19 (metal)

2.43 (a) Po, chalcogens (metal) (b) Sr, alkaline earth metals (metal)
(c) Ne, noble gases (nonmetal) (d) Rb, alkaline metals (metal)
(e) Br, halogens (nonmetal)

2.44 C, carbon, nonmetal; Si, silicon, metalloid; Ge, germanium, metalloid; Sn, tin, metal;
Pb, lead, metal
2.45 (a) C 4 H 10 is the molecular formula for both compounds. For the molecular formula,
count the total number of each kind of atom in the structural formula.
(b) C 2 H 5 . Starting with the molecular formula, divide subscripts by any common
factors to determine the simplest ratio of atom types in the molecule. In this
example the common factor for both molecules is 2.
(c) Structural. In this example, the molecules are structural isomers and only the
structural formulas allow us to determine that the molecules are different.

2.46 (a) Benzene, C 6 H 6 ; acetylene, C 2 H 2 . For the molecular formula, count the total
number of each kind of atom in the ball and stick representations.
(b) Benzene, CH; acetylene, CH. Starting with the molecular formula, divide
subscripts by any common factors to determine the simplest ratio of atom types
in the molecule. In this example the common factor for benzene is 6 and for
acetylene is 2.

2.47 From left to right, the molecular and empirical formulas are: N 2 H 4 , N H 2 ; N 2 H 2 , NH;
N H 3 , NH 3

2.48 No. Two substances with the same molecular and empirical formulas can be isomers.
They are not necessarily the same compound.

2.49 (a) AlBr 3 (b) C 4 H 5 (c) C 2 H 4 O

(d) P2O5 (e) C 3 H 2 Cl (f) BNH 2
2.50 A molecular formula contains all atoms in a molecule. An empirical formula shows the
simplest ratio of atoms in a molecule or elements in a compound.

(a) molecular formula: C 6 H 6 ; empirical formula: CH

(b) molecular formula: SiCl 4 ; empirical formula: SiCl 4 (1:4 is the simplest ratio)
(c) molecular: B 2 H 6 ; empirical: BH 3
(d) molecular: C 6 H 1 2O 6 ; empirical: CH 2 O

2.51 (a) 6 (b) 10 (c) 12

2.52 (a) 6 (b) 6 (c) 9

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2.53 (a) C 2H 6O (b) C 2H 6O

(c) C H 4O (d) PF3

2.54 (a) C 2H 5Br (b) C 2H 7N

(c) C H 2C l2 (d) N H 2O H

2.55

Symbol  58Fe2+  118Sn4+  130 Te2–  90Zr2+ 

Protons  26  50  52  40 

Neutrons  32  68  78  50 
Electrons  24  46  54  38 
Net charge  2+  4+  2−  2+ 

2.56

Symbol  133Cs+  81 Br–  31P3–  55Mn5+ 

Protons  55  35  15  25 

Neutrons  78  46  16  30 
Electrons  54  36  18  20 
Net charge  1+  1−  3−  5+ 

2.57 (a) Be2+ (b) Rb+ (c) As 3– (d) ln3+ (e) A t –

2.58 (a) Li+ (b) Ba2+ (c) P o 2– (d) I – (e) Sb 3–

2.59 (a) GaF 3 , gallium(III) fluoride (b) LiH, lithium hydride

(c) AlI 3 , aluminum iodide (d) K 2 S, potassium sulfide
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2.60 (a) BaSe (b) Li2 Se (c) Al2Se3

2.61 (a) Fe(OH) 3 (b) CsNO 3 (c) V(CH 3 COO) 2 (d) Li 3 PO 4 (e) In 2 O 3

2.62 (a) Cr(CN) 3 (b) Mn(ClO 4 ) 2 (c) Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 (d) CdCO 3 (e) TiO 2
2.63

Ion K+ N H 4+ M g 2+ F e 3+

Cl – KCl NH 4 Cl MgCl 2 FeCl 3

OH – KOH NH 4 OH * Mg(OH) 2 Fe(OH) 3
CO 3 2– K 2 CO 3 (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 MgCO 3 Fe 2 (CO 3 ) 3

PO 4 3– K 3 PO 4 (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 FePO 4

*Equivalent to NH 3 (aq).
2.64
Ion Na + Ca 2+ Fe 2+ Al 3+

O 2– Na 2 O CaO FeO Al 2 O 3
NO 3 – NaNO 3 Ca(NO 3 ) 2 Fe(NO 3 ) 2 Al(NO 3 ) 3

SO 4 2– Na 2 SO 4 CaSO 4 FeSO 4 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3

AsO 4 3– Na 3 AsO 4 Ca 3 (AsO 4 ) 2 Fe 3 (AsO 4 ) 2 AlAsO 4

2.65 Molecular:
(a) HClO4 (b) CH3OCH3 (d) H2S (g) PCl5 (h) P(OH)3

Ionic:
(c) Mg(NO3)2 (e) TiCl4 (f) K2O2
2.66 Molecular:

(a) BI3 (b) N(CH3)3 (d) N2H4 (f) H2SO4 (h) IOH
Ionic:
(c) Zr(NO3)2 (e) OsCO3 (g) HgS

Naming Inorganic Compounds; Some Simple Organic Compounds

(Sections 2.8 and 2.9)
2.67 (a) CrO42− (b) Br – (c) NO 2 – (d) SO 3 2 – (e) MnO 4 –

2.68 (a) selenate (b) selenide (c) hydrogen selenide (biselenide)

(d) hydrogen selenite (biselenite)

2.69 (a) calcium, 2+; oxide, 2 (b) sodium, 1+; sulfate, 2

(c) potassium, 1+; perchlorate, 1 (d) iron, 2+; nitrate, 1

(e) chromium, 3+; hydroxide, 1

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2.70 (a) copper, 2+; sulfide, 2 (b) silver, 1+; sulfate, 2
(c) aluminum, 3+; chlorate, 1 (d) cobalt, 2+; hydroxide, 1
(e) lead, 2+; carbonate, 2

2.71 (a) lithium oxide (b) iron(III) chloride (ferric chloride)

(c) sodium hypochlorite (d) calcium sulfite
(e) copper(II) hydroxide (cupric hydroxide) (f) iron(II) nitrate (ferrous nitrate)
(g) calcium acetate (h) chromium(III) carbonate (chromic carbonate)
(i) potassium chromate (j) ammonium sulfate

2.72 (a) potassium cyanide (b) sodium bromite

(c) strontium hydroxide (d) cobalt(II) telluride (cobaltous telluride)
(e) iron(III) carbonate (ferric carbonate)
(f) chromium(III) nitrate (chromic nitrate)
(g) ammonium sulfite (h) sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(i) potassium permanganate (j) silver dichromate

2.73 (a) Al(OH) 3 (b) K 2 SO 4 (c) Cu 2 O (d) Zn(NO 3 ) 2

(e) HgBr 2 (f) Fe 2 (CO 3 ) 3 (g) NaBrO

2.74 (a) Na 3 PO 4 (b) Zn(NO 3 ) 2 (c) Ba(BrO 3 ) 2 (d) Fe(ClO 4 ) 2

(e) Co(HCO 3 ) 2 (f) Cr(CH3COO)3 (g) K 2 Cr 2 O 7

2.75 (a) bromic acid (b) hydrobromic acid (c) phosphoric acid
(d) HClO (e) HIO 3 (f) H 2 SO 3

2.76 (a) HI (b) HClO 3 (c) HNO 2

(d) carbonic acid (e) perchloric acid (f) acetic acid

2.77 (a) sulfur hexafluoride (b) iodine pentafluoride (c) xenon trioxide
(d) N2O4 (e) HCN (f) P 4 S 6

2.78 (a) dinitrogen monoxide (b) nitrogen monoxide (c) nitrogen dioxide
(d) dinitrogen pentoxide (e) dinitrogen tetroxide

2.79 (a) ZnCO 3 , ZnO, CO 2 (b) HF, SiO 2 , SiF 4 , H 2 O (c) SO 2 , H 2 O, H 2 SO 3

( d) PH3 (e) HClO 4 , Cd, Cd(ClO 4 ) 2 (f) VBr 3

2.80 (a) NaHCO 3 (b) Ca(ClO) 2 (c) HCN

(d) Mg(OH) 2 (e) SnF 2 (f) CdS, H 2 SO 4 , H 2 S

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2.81 (a) A hydrocarbon is a compound composed of the elements hydrogen and carbon
only.

(b)

molecular and empirical formulas: C 5 H 1 2

2.82 (a) Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulas. Isomers have the same number and kinds of atoms, but these atoms are
arranged in different ways.

(b) Butane and pentane are both capable of existing in isomeric forms. There is more
than one way to arrange the four C atoms and ten H atoms of butane, and more
than one way to arrange the five C atoms and twelve H atoms of pentane. There
is only one way to arrange the two C atoms and six H atoms of ethane and only
one way to arrange the three C atoms and eight H atoms of propane.

2.83 (a) A functional group is a group of specific atoms that are constant (arranged the
same way) from one molecule to the next.

(b) The characteristic alcohol functional group is an –OH. Another way to say this is
that whenever a molecule is called an alcohol, it contains the –OH group.

(c)

2.84 (a) ethylmethylether, propanone

(b) ethylethanoate, propanone

2.85 (a)

(b) 1-chloropropane 2-chloropropane

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2.86

Additional Exercises
2.87 (a) Droplet D would fall most slowly. It carries the most negative charge, so it would
be most strongly attracted to the upper (+) plate and most strongly repelled by
the lower (–) plate. These electrostatic forces would provide the greatest
opposition to gravity.
(b) Calculate the lowest common factor.
A: 3.84  10 – 8 / 2.88  10 – 8 = 1.33; 1.33  3 = 4

B: 4.80  10 – 8 / 2.88  10 – 8 = 1.67; 1.67  3 = 5

C: 2.88  10 – 8 / 2.88  10 – 8 = 1.00; 1.00  3 = 3
D: 8.64  10 – 8 / 2.88  10 – 8 = 3.00; 3.00  3 = 9

The total charge on the drops is in the ratio of 4:5:3:9. Divide the total charge on
each drop by the appropriate integer and average the four values to get the
charge of an electron in warmombs.

A: 3.84  10 – 8 / 4 = 9.60  10 – 9 wa
B: 4.80  10 – 8 / 5 = 9.60  10 – 9 wa
C: 2.88  10 – 8 / 3 = 9.60  10 – 9 wa

D: 8.64  10 – 8 / 9 = 9.60  10 – 9 wa
The charge on an electron is 9.60  10 – 9 wa
(c) The number of electrons on each drop are the integers calculated in part (b). A
has 4 e – , B has 5 e – , C has 3 e – and D has 9 e – .

9.60 109 w a 1e

(d)   6.00 107 w a/C
1e 1.60 1016 C

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3
2.88 (a) He has 2 protons, 1 neutron, and 2 electrons.
3
(b) H has 1 proton, 2 neutrons, and 1 electron.
3
He: 2(1.672621673  10 – 24 g) + 1.674927211  10 – 24 g + 2(9.10938215  10 – 28 g)
= 5.021992  10 – 24 g
3
H: 1.672621673  10 – 24 g + 2(1.674927211  10 – 24 g) + 9.10938215  10 – 28 g
= 5.023387  10 – 24 g
Tritium, 3 H, is more massive.

(c) The masses of the two particles differ by 0.0014  10 – 24 g. Each particle loses
1 electron to form the +1 ion, so the difference in the masses of the ions is still
1.4  10 – 27. A mass spectrometer would need precision to 1  10 – 27 g to
differentiate 3 He + and 3 H.

2.89 (a) Calculate the mass of a single gold atom, then divide the mass of the cube by the
mass of the gold atom.

197.0 am u 1g
  3.2713 1022  3.271 1022 g/gold atom
gold atom 6.022 1023 am u
19.3 g 1gold atom
  5.90 1022 A u atom s in the cube
cube 3.271 1022 g

(b) The shape of atoms is spherical; spheres cannot be arranged into a cube so that
there is no empty space. The question is, how much empty space is there? We can
calculate the two limiting cases, no empty space and maximum empty space. The
true diameter will be somewhere in this range.

No empty space: volume cube/number of atoms = volume of one atom

V = 4/3 r 3 ; r = (3 V/4 )1/3; d = 2r
3
1.0 cm
volum e of cube  (1.0 1.0 1.0)=  1.695 1023
5.90 10 A u atom s
22

 1.7  1023 cm 3

r = [3 (1.695  10 –23 cm 3)/4 ] 1/3 = 1.6  10 –8 cm; d = 2r = 3.2  10 –8 cm

Maximum empty space: Assume atoms are arranged in rows in all three
directions so they are touching across their diameters. That is, each atom
occupies the volume of a cube, with the atomic diameter as the length of the side
of the cube. The number of atoms along one edge of the gold cube is then
(5.90  10 2 2) 1 /3 = 3.893  10 7 = 3.89  10 7 atoms/1.0 cm.
The diameter of a single atom is 1.0 cm/3.89  10 7 atoms = 2.569  10 – 8
= 2.6  10 – 8 cm.
The diameter of a gold atom is between 2.6  10 – 8 cm and 3.2  10 – 8 cm
(2.6 – 3.2 Å).

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
(c) Some atomic arrangement must be assumed, because none is specified. The solid
state is characterized by an orderly arrangement of particles, so it isn’t surprising
that atomic arrangement is required to calculate the density of a solid. A more
detailed discussion of solid-state structure and density appears in Chapter 11.

2.90 (a) In arrangement A, the number of atoms in 1 cm 2 is just the square of the number
that fit linearly in 1 cm.
1 atom 1 1012 pm 1m
1.0 cm     2.02  107  2.0  107 atoms/cm
495 pm 1m 100 cm

1.0 cm 2 = (2.02  10 7 ) 2 = 4.081  10 1 4 = 4.1  10 1 4 atoms/cm 2

(b) In arrangement B, the atoms in the horizontal rows are touching along their
diameters, as in arrangement A. The number of Rb atoms in a 1.0 cm row is then
2.0  10 7 Rb atoms. Relative to arrangement A, the vertical rows are offset by 1/2
of an atom. Atoms in a “column” are no longer touching along their vertical
diameter. We must calculate the vertical distance occupied by a row of atoms,
which is now less than the diameter of one Rb atom.
Consider the triangle shown below. This is an isosceles triangle (equal side
lengths, equal interior angles) with a side-length of 2d and an angle of 60. Drop a
bisector to the uppermost angle so that it bisects the opposite side.

The result is a right triangle with two known side lengths. The length of the
unknown side (the angle bisector) is 2h, two times the vertical distance occupied
by a row of atoms. Solve for h, the “height” of one row of atoms.
(2h) 2 + d 2 = (2d) 2 ; 4h 2 = 4d 2 – d 2 = 3d 2 ; h 2 = 3d 2 /4
h = (3d 2 /4) 1 /2 = 3 (1/2)  (1/2)  495 pm = 429 pm
The number of rows of atoms in 1 cm is then
1 row 1 1012 pm 1m
1.0 cm     2.333  107  2.3  107
428.68 pm 1m 100 cm
The number of atoms in a 1.0 cm 2 square area is then
2.020 107 atom s
 2.333 107 row s  4.713 1014  4.7  1014 atom s
1row
Note that we have ignored the loss of “1/2” atom at the end of each horizontal
row. Out of 2.0  10 7 atoms per row, one atom is not significant.
(c) The ratio of atoms in arrangement B to arrangement A is then 4.713  10 1 4
atoms/4.081  10 1 4 = 1.155 = 1.2:1. Clearly, arrangement B results in less empty
space per unit area or volume. If extended to three dimensions, arrangement B
would lead to a greater density for Rb metal.

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.91 (a) diameter of nucleus = 1  10 – 4 Å; diameter of atom = 1 Å
V = 4/3  r 3 ; r = d/2; r n = 0.5  10 – 4 Å; r a = 0.5 Å
volume of nucleus = 4/3  (0.5  10 – 4) 3 Å 3
volume of atom = 4/3  (0.5) 3 Å 3
volum e of nucleus 4/3 (0.5 104 )3 Å 3
volum e fraction of nucleus    1 1012
volum e of atom 4/3 (0.5)3 Å 3

diameter of atom = 5 Å, r a = 2.5 Å

4/3 (0.5 104 )3 Å 3
volum e fraction of nucleus   8 1015
4/3 (2.5)3 Å 3
Depending on the radius of the atom, the volume fraction of the nucleus is
between 1  10 – 12 and 8  10 – 15, that is, between 1 part in 10 1 2 and 8 parts in 10 1 5.
(b) mass of proton = 1.0073 amu

1.0073 amu  1.66054  10 – 24 g/amu = 1.6727  10 – 24 g

100 cm
diam eter  1.0 1015 m ,radius  0.50 1015 m   5.0 1014 cm
1m

Assuming a proton is a sphere, V = 4/3  r 3.

g 1.6727  1024
density    3.2 1015 g/cm 3
cm 3
4/3 (5.0 1014 )3 cm 3

2.92 The integer on the lower left of a nuclide is the atomic number; it is the number of
protons in any atom of the element and gives the element’s identity. The number of
neutrons is the mass number (upper left) minus atomic number.
(a) B, 5 protons and 6 neutrons
(b) As, 33 protons and 42 neutrons
(c) Kr, 36 protons and 50 neutrons
(d) Zn, 30 protons and 37 neutrons
6
2.93 (a) Li, 3 protons, 3 neutrons; 7Li, 3 protons, 4 neutrons

(b) Average atomic weight of sample =  fractional abundance  mass of isotope

Av. atomic weight = 0.01442(6.015122) + 0.98558(7.016004) = 7.001571 = 7.002 amu
36 38 40
2.94 (a) 18 Ar 18 Ar 18 Ar

(b) All isotopes are atoms of the same element, argon, with the same atomic number,
18 protons in the nucleus and 18 electrons. We expect their electron arrangements
to be the same and their chemical properties to be very similar. Each has a
different number of neutrons, a different mass number, and a different atomic
mass.

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.95 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) =  fractional abundance  mass of isotope
Atomic weight = 0.043(49.9460) + 0.838(51.9405) + 0.095(52.9407) + 0.024(53.9389)
= 51.9977 = 52.00 u

2.96 (a) The 62.9296 u isotope has a mass number of 63, with 29 protons, 34 neutrons and
the 63
29 Cu symbol The 64.9278 u isotope has a mass number of 65, 29 protons, 36
65
neutrons, and 29 Cu symbol (All Cu atoms have 29 protons.)
(b) The average mass of a Cu atom is 63.55 u. Let x = abundance of the lighter
isotope, 1 – x = abundance of the heavier isotope. Then x  62.9296 + (1 – x) 
64.9278 = 63.55; x  (64.9278 − 62.9296) = 64.9278 − 63.55; x = 0.6895 = 0.690; 63
29 Cu :
69.0 %, 65
29 Cu : 31.0 %.

51 74
2.97 (a) There are 24 known isotopes of Ni, from Ni to Ni.

(b,c) The five most abundant isotopes (b) and their natural abundances (c) are
58
Ni, 57.935346 amu, 68.077%
60
Ni, 59.930788 amu, 26.223%
62
Ni, 61.928346 amu, 3.634%
61
Ni, 60.931058 amu, 1.140%
64
Ni, 63.927968 amu, 0.926%
Data from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 74th edition [Data may differ
slightly in other editions.]

2.98 (a) A Br 2 molecule could consist of two atoms of the same isotope or one atom of
each of the two different isotopes. This second possibility is twice as likely as the
first. Therefore, the second peak (twice as large as peaks 1 and 3) represents a Br 2
molecule containing different isotopes. The mass numbers of the two isotopes are
determined from the masses of the two smaller peaks. Because 157.836  158, the
first peak represents a 7 9Br— 7 9Br molecule. Peak 3, 161.832  162, represents a
81
Br— 8 1Br molecule. Peak 2 then contains one atom of each isotope, 7 9Br— 8 1Br,
with an approximate mass of 160 amu.

(b) The mass of the lighter isotope is 157.836 amu/2 atoms, or 78.918 amu/atom. For
the heavier one, 161.832 amu/2 atoms = 80.916 amu/atom.

(c) The relative size of the three peaks in the mass spectrum of Br 2 indicates their
relative abundance. The average mass of a Br 2 molecule is

0.2569(157.836) + 0.4999(159.834) + 0.2431(161.832) = 159.79 amu.

(Each product has four significant figures and two decimal places, so the answer
has two decimal places.)

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2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
159.79 am u 1Br2 m olecule
(d)   79.895 am u
avg.Br2 m olecule 2 Bratom s

(e) Let x = the abundance of 7 9Br, 1 – x = abundance of 8 1Br. From (b), the masses of
the two isotopes are 78.918 amu and 80.916 amu, respectively. From (d), the mass
of an average Br atom is 79.895 amu.
x(78.918) + (1 – x)(80.916) = 79.895, x = 0.5110
79 81
Br = 51.10%, Br = 48.90%

2.99 (a) Five significant figures. 1 H + is a bare proton with mass 1.0073 amu. 1 H is a
hydrogen atom, with 1 proton and 1 electron. The mass of the electron is
5.486  10 – 4 or 0.0005486 amu. Thus the mass of the electron is significant in the
fourth decimal place or fifth significant figure in the mass of 1 H.
(b) Mass of 1 H = 1.0073 amu (proton)
0.0005486 amu (electron)
1.0078 amu (We have not rounded up to 1.0079 because
49 < 50 in the final sum.)
m ass of e 5.486 104 am u
M ass % of electron=  100   100  0.05444%
m ass of 1H 1.0078 am u

2.100 (a) an alkali metal: Li (b) an alkaline earth metal: Mg (c) a noble gas: Xe
(d) a halogen: Cl (e) a metalloid in group 14: Si
(f) a non-metal listed in group: 14C
(g) a metal that forms a 3+ ion: Tl (h) a nonmetal that forms a 2− ion: Se
(i) an element that is used as radiation shielding: Pb

2.101 (a) 266

106 Sg has 106 protons, 160 neutrons and 106 electrons

(b) Sg is in Group 6B (or 6) and immediately below tungsten, W. We expect the

chemical properties of Sg to most closely resemble those of W.

2.102 Strontium is an alkaline earth metal, similar in chemical properties to calcium and
magnesium. Calcium is ubiquitous in biological organisms, humans included. It is a
vital nutrient required for formation and maintenance of healthy bones and teeth. As
such, there are efficient pathways for calcium uptake and distribution in the body,
pathways that are also available to chemically similar strontium. Harmful strontium
imitates calcium and then behaves badly when the body tries to use it as it uses calcium.

2.103 Calculate the volume of the penny, use density to calculate mass and price to calculate
the value of copper in the penny.
V =  r 2h; d = 19 mm, r = d/2 = 9.5 mm; h = 1.5 mm
3
1cm
V    (9.5 m m )2  1.5 m m   0.4253  0.43 cm 3
(10)3 m m 3

8.9 g 1lb $2.40

0.4253 cm 3  3
   $0.02003  $0.020
cm 453.6 g lb

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That is, the copper in each penny is worth two pennies!

2.104 Calculate the volume of the coin, use density to calculate mass and price to calculate the
value of silver in the coin.
V =  r 2h ; d = 41 mm, r = d/2 = 20.5 mm; h = 2.5 mm
3
1cm
V   (20.5 m m )2  2.5 m m   3.3006  3.3 cm 3
(10)3 m m 3

10.5 g $0.51
3.3006 cm 3    $17.675  $18
cm 3 g

Wow! The silver in each Silver Eagle dollar coin is worth $18.

2.105 (a) chlorine gas, Cl2: ii (b) propane, C3H8: v (c) nitrate ion, NO 3– : i
(d) sulfur trioxide, SO3: iii (e) methylchloride, CH3Cl: iv

2.106 (a) Silver (I) chloride, 1+ (b) Titanium (IV) chloride, 4+

(c) Iridium (III) chlrodie, 3+ (d) Lithium chloride, 1+

2.107
Cation  Anion  Formula  Name 

Na+  CO32−  Na2CO3  Sodium carbonate 

Ni2+  CH3COO−  Ni(CH3COO)2  Nickel (II) acetate 
Cu2+  ClO4−  Cu(ClO4)2  Copper (II) perchlorate 
Ca2+  F−  CaF2  Calcium fluoride 
K+  MnO4−  KMnO4  Potassium permanganate 
Zn2+  S2−  ZnS  Zinc sulfide 
Mg2+  N3−  Mg3N2  Magnesium nitride 

2.108 (a) Empirical formula, CH 3

The empirical and molecular formulas of propane are C 3 H 8 . Propane has two
more H atoms than cyclopropane, so the empirical and molecular formulas are
different.
(b) The solid wedges indicate bonds from C atoms to H atoms that are above the
plane of the page; the dashed wedges show bonds from C atoms to H atoms that
are behind the plane of the page.
(c) To illustrate chlorocyclopropane, replace any one of the H atoms on cyclopropane
with a Cl atom. There are no isomers of chlorocyclopropane, because a structure
with a Cl atom at any one of the six positions can be rotated into the original
structure.

2.109 (a) perbromate ion (b) selenite ion

(c) AsO 4 3– (d) HTeO 4 –

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2.110 Carbonic acid: H 2 CO 3 ; the cation is H + because it is an acid; the anion is carbonate
because the acid reacts with lithium hydroxide to form lithium carbonate.
Lithium hydroxide: LiOH; lithium carbonate: Li 2 CO 3

2.111 (a) sodium chloride (b) sodium bicarbonate (or sodium hydrogen carbonate)
(c) sodium hypochlorite (d) sodium hydroxide
(e) ammonium carbonate (f) calcium sulfate

2.112 (a) potassium nitrate (b) sodium carbonate (c) calcium oxide
(d) hydrochloric acid (e) magnesium sulfate (f) magnesium hydroxide

2.113 (a) Na 2 CO 3 , NaHCO 3 (b) K 2 O 2 , K 2 O (c) CaS, CaSO 4

(d) MnO; Mn 2 O 3 (e) H−, OH− (f) Mg3N2, Mg(NO2)2
(g) AgNO3, AgNO2 (h) Cu2O, CuO
2.114 In the nucleus. The strong force holds the protons together against the repulsive
electrostatic force.

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