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3 Evaluating Properties 91
3.1 Getting Started 92
3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 92
3.1.2 Fixing the State 92
Evaluating Properties:
General Considerations 93
3.2 p–y–T Relation 93
3.2.1 p–y–T Surface 94
3.2.2 Projections of the p–y–T Surface
3.3 Studying Phase Change 97
3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic
Properties 100
3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume,
and Temperature 100
3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 100
3.5.2 Saturation Tables 103
3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and
Enthalpy 106
3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 106
3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 107
3.6.3 Reference States and Reference
Values 108
3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer
Software 109
3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using
Property Tables and Software 110
3.8.1 Using Property Tables 112
3.8.2 Using Software 115
3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cy
and cp 117
3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and
Solids 118
3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using
Saturated Liquid Data 118
3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model
3.11 Generalized Compressibility
Chart 122
3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 122
3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 122
3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data,
Z Chart 123
3.11.4 Equations of State 126
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Evaluating Properties Using
the Ideal Gas Model 127
3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas
Model 127
3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 127
3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 128
3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 130
3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific
Heats of Ideal Gases 130
96 3.13.1 Du, Dh, cy, and cp Relations 130
3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 132
3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal
Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and
Software 133
3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 133
3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 135
3.14.3 Using Computer Software 137
3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 141
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 143
4 Control Volume Analysis
Using Energy 163
4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control
Volume 164
4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate
Balance 164
4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow
Rate 165
4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 166
4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate
Balance 166
4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate
Balance 167
4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate
Balance 167
4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate
119 Balance 168
4.3.1 Steady-State Application 168
4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient)
169
Application
4.4 Conservation of Energy for a
Control Volume 172
4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a
Control Volume 172