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Contents xi

4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control

Volume 173 5 The Second Law
of Thermodynamics 235
4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control
Volume Energy Rate Balance 173 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 236
4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 236
174
Rate Balance 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing
4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Work 238
Steady State 175 238
5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law
4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 239
Rate Balances 175 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second
4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Law 239
Volumes at Steady State 176 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the
4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 Second Law 239
4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second
Considerations 178 Law 241
4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 178 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 242
4.7 Turbines 180 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible
4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Processes 242
Considerations 182 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 242
4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 182 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 244
4.8 Compressors and Pumps 184 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 245
4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 246
Considerations 184
5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck
4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a
Statement 247
Pump System 184
4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy 5.5 Applying the Second Law to
188
Storage Thermodynamic Cycles 248
4.9 Heat Exchangers 189 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power
4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Cycles Interacting with Two
Considerations 190 Reservoirs 249
4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 249
and Computer Cooling 190 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power
4.10 Throttling Devices 194 Cycles 249
4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and
Considerations 194 Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two
4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Reservoirs 251
195
Determine Quality 5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 251
4.11 System Integration 196 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for
4.12 Transient Analysis 199 Refrigeration and Heat Pump
4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Cycles 252
Analysis 199 5.8 The Kelvin and International
4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Temperature Scales 253
Analysis 200 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 253
4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 201 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 255
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 209 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 256