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4.1 The Role of Energy Conversion
Shahid Islam, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada and King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Ibrahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4.1.1 Introduction 2
4.1.2 Background 4
4.1.3 Systems and Applications 7
4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat 7
4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel 7
4.1.3.2 Thermal Efficiency of Energy Conversions 8
4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State 9
4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors 10
4.1.4.2 Heat Engines 14
4.1.4.3 Thermal Efficiency 15
4.1.4.4 Refrigerators 16
4.1.4.4.1 Coefficient of performance 17
4.1.4.5 Heat Pump 18
4.1.4.6 Absorption Chillers 19
4.1.4.7 The Carnot Heat Engine 20
4.1.5 Renewable Energy Conversions 21
4.1.5.1 Biomass Energy Conversion 21
4.1.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion 22
4.1.5.3 Ocean Current Energy 24
4.1.5.4 Solar Thermal Energy Conversions 25
4.1.5.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion 28
4.1.6 Case Studies 29
4.1.6.1 Case Study 1 30
4.1.6.1.1 Thermodynamic assessment 30
4.1.6.1.2 Results and discussion 33
4.1.6.2 Case Study 2 34
4.1.6.2.1 Thermodynamic assessment 34
4.1.6.2.2 Results and discussion 35
4.1.7 Future Directions 36
4.1.8 Concluding Remarks 37
References 37
Further Reading 38
Relevant Websites 39
Nomenclature m_ Mass flow rate (kg/s)

A Area (m) n Number of moles
C Compressor P Pressure (kPa)
_
Ex Exergy rate (kW) Q_ Heat rate (kW)
ex Specific exergy (kJ/kg) r Radius (m)
g Gravity (m/s2) R Refrigerant
GHV Gross heating value (kJ/kg) S_ gen Entropy generation (kW/K)
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) s Specific entropy (kJ/kg K)
H Total enthalpy of the flow T Temperature (K)
HHV High heating value (kJ/kg) v Specific volume (m3/kg)
K Thermal conductivity (W/m2 K) V Velocity (m/s)
L Length of semiconductor (m) W _ Work rate (kW)
LHV Lower heating value (kJ/kg) Z Figure of merit
Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00401-6 1

2 The Role of Energy Conversion
Greek Symbols y Total energy of flowing fluid

D Change c Exergy efficiency
r Density (kg/m3) o Humidity ratio (kgwater/kgair)
Z Energy efficiency
Subscripts H High
a Charging water inlet state HE Heat exchanger
abs Absorber hp Heat pump
act Actual i Inlet state
avail Available L Low
avg Average n n type semiconductor
b Charging water exit state p p type semiconductor
c Cold P Pump
c Discharging water inlet state prod Products
chrg Charging rev Reversible
cond Condenser s Source
cool Cooling effect of absorption chiller st Storing
d Discharging water exit state t Turbine
dest Destruction th Thermal
dis Discharging TEC Thermoelectric cooler
E exit state TEG Thermoelectric generator
en Energy u Utilization
eva Evaporator vap Vaporize
gen Generator 0 Reference environment
h Hot 1, 2,….67 State number
Acronyms HTF Heat transfer fluid

AFUE Annual fuel utilization efficiency LiBr–H2O Lithium bromide–water
CHP Combined heat and power multigen Multigeneration
COP Coefficient of performance MBE Mass balance equation
EBE Energy balance equation ORC Organic Rankine cycle
EES Engineering equation solver PTSC Parabolic trough solar collector
EnBE Entropy balance equation TEC Thermoelectric cooler
ExBE Exergy balance equation TEG Thermoelectric generator
HAWT Horizontal axis wind turbine TES Thermal energy storage
HEX Heat exchanger VAWT Vertical axis wind turbine
4.1.1 Introduction
A huge number of energy conversion processes occur naturally. Humans have invented a large number of additional energy
conversion methods throughout history. Energy conversion devices can be classified according to chemical and physical principles,
and the different forms of energy at the inlet and exit states of the device. In this chapter, different types of energy conversion
fundamentals including renewable energy will be discussed and explained. The simplified process of changing energy from one
form to another is referred to as energy conversion as represented in Fig. 1.
The term “heat-power engineering” was commonly used for “energy conversion engineering” before World War II. The energy
of available sources like the sun, fossil fuels, and nuclear fuels can be transformed into useful energy such as electricity, rotation,
propulsion, cooling, and heating through energy conversion engineering [1]. Energy conversion engineers face the biggest chal-
lenges, like selection of the appropriate method, minimizing losses, reducing pollution, and reducing overall cost of the developed
systems, respectively.
Energy conversion
Energy source Useful energy
technology
Fig. 1 Conversion of energy sources to useful outputs.

The Role of Energy Conversion 3
45
Energy consumption (1000 TJ)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
Petroleum products Hydro
Natural gas Coal
Liquid biofuels Other renewable energy
Fig. 2 Global energy consumption and projection. Data from Energy Information Administration US. Annual energy outlook report. Available:
https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/0383(2017).pdf; 2017 [accessed 20.03.17].
Electricity generation capacity (GW)
40 History Projections
Additions
30 Solar
20 Wind
10 Oil and gas
0 Nuclear
10 Coal
Retirements
20
30
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
Fig. 3 Additions and retirements of annual electricity generating capacity in gigawatts. Reproduced from Energy Information Administration US.
Annual energy outlook report. Available: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/0383(2017).pdf; 2017 [accessed 20.03.17].
The demand for energy is estimated to increase at a much faster rate in the near future. Fig. 2 provides an overview of the energy
consumption through previous years and an estimate of the future energy consumption, based on different energy sources [2].
Renewable energy sources (except hydropower) continue to offer more potential than actual energy production.
The demand of energy is increasing worldwide due to growing population and higher living standards. The combustion of
fossil fuels, mainly coal, natural gas, and petroleum, supply most of the energy demand of the world. The utilization of fossil fuels
through combustion to meet the increasing energy demand results in fast depletion of fossil fuel reserves and environmental
degradation like acid rain, smog formation, global warming, ozone depletion, and health hazards. The energy conservation and
search for alternative sources of energy are crucial to encounter with energy crisis and pollution. In the past, various investigations
have been done on the conservation of energy in fossil fueled power generation systems. It is important to exploit alternative
sources of energy to mitigate environmental concerns and global warming.
Conservation and energy efficiency have exhibited compelling results over the past three decades. In addition to this, energy
efficient processes offer potential to relieve some of the dependence on the import of petroleum products and compensate
increased electric power demand to some extent [3]. Fig. 3 represents the additions and retirements of the annual electricity
generating capacity in gigawatts from different energy sources according to the US Energy Information Administration annual
energy outlook report [2].
The projections show that the use of coal to generate electricity is going to end by 2040, whereas the use of solar, oil, and gas
energy sources will increase considerably. The environmental concerns and the limitations of the resources available on Earth are
the deriving factors to increase the conversion of solar energy into electricity. The use of new concepts and alternatives to convert
renewable energy are gaining acceptance due to strict environmental legislations.
Currently the focus on the renewables is short term as compared to the long term objectives due to limited research and budget
constraints. Nevertheless, open attitudes are established as new and previously discarded ideas are now being implemented. Some
Table 1 Illustrations of energy conversion processes corresponding to the initial form of the available energy and converted form of energy
Initial energy Converted energy (form)

(form)
Heat Mechanical Electrical Radiant Chemical
Heat Convector, radiator, Thermodynamic Thermionic and – –

heat pipe engines thermoelectric
generators
Mechanical Friction churning Turbines Electric generator, – –
MHDa
Electrical Resistance, heat pump Electric motor – Lamp, laser Electrolysis, battery
charging
Radiant Absorber – Photovoltaic cell – Photolysis
Chemical Burner, boiler – Fuel cell, battery – –
discharge
Nuclear Reactor – – – –
a
Magneto-hydrodynamic generators.
Source: Modified from Sorensen B. Renewable energy conversion, transmission and storage. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press.
System
Energy in Process
Energy out
Surroundings
Loss
Fig. 4 Layout of energy conversion process with loss to surroundings.
of the examples are combined gas and steam turbine cycles, solar and wind energy-based farms, rotary combustion engines,
multigeneration, solar concentrators, photovoltaic (PV) solar power, waste driven devices, turbocharged engines, fluidized-bed
combustors, and coal- and biomass-based integrated gasification combined cycle power plants. The modification in the old
technologies and the continuous development of new ones are necessary to meet the rapidly growing energy demand of the world.
Hence, energy conversion engineering is an exceedingly appealing, complicated, and feasible field at present due to increased
environmental concerns [1].
The conversion of one form of energy to another form depends on the process, requirements, and the quality of the available
initial form of the energy. The process and the connections between the different forms of available energies are tabulated in
Table 1.
The most usable form of energy in a substance is usually in the form of extremely structured chemical bonds such as gasoline
and sugar. It is possible to convert all other forms of energy to heat completely but the complete conversion of the heat to other
energy forms is not possible because of factors like heat loss, friction, and other constraints. Therefore, the thermal efficiencies (Zth)
of the energy conversion are considerably less than 100%. Typical steam power converts about 35%–40% of the heat to electricity
whereas typical automobile engines based on gasoline operate at about 25% efficiency. Some amount of thermal energy is lost
when it is converted to other forms of energy as represented in Fig. 4. In some cases it is very difficult to conserve the waste energy,
for instance, 90% of the electrical power/energy is wasted in the form of heat in a light bulb while only 10% is converted to
electricity. This clearly indicates that energy conversion efficiency has some distinct limits. Hence, a low temperature thermal
reservoir is required as a sink to convert energy to useful work [4–7].
4.1.2 Background
The study of the history of science and engineering presented in Table 2 shows some of the key ideas and inventions along with the
names of inventors. Some of these inventions are the landmarks for the energy conversion engineers. The significant inventions are
tabulated in Table 2 as it is not possible to present the complete history associated with energy conversion. Most of these
milestones were the achievements of teams of recognized individuals whose talents were essential part toward success. Table 2 also
portrays how these ideas, events, and scientific and technological advancements are linked with each other and their dependence
on their predecessor [8].
Table 2 Significant developments of techniques in energy conversion
Name of scientist/company Year Development/invention
Giovanni Branca 1629 Proposal of impulse steam turbine

James Watt 1765 The idea of separate steam condenser
James Watt 1775 First Boulton and Watt condensing steam engine
John Barber 1791 Ideas and patent of gas turbine
Benjamin Thompson 1798 Mechanical energy conversion (Count Rumford) to heat observed in boring
process of cannon
Robert Fulton 1807 First commercial steamboat
Robert Stirling 1816 Stirling engine
N. L. Sadi Carnot 1824 Fundamentals of an ideal heat engine (foundation of thermodynamics)
Michael Faraday 1831 First generator (electric current)
Robert Mayer 1842 Heat and work equivalence
James Joule 1847 1st Law of Thermodynamics (basic ideas developed)
James Joule 1849 Mechanical equivalent of heat measured
Rudolph Clausius 1850 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) 1851 Alternate of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Etienne Lenoir 1860 Internal combustion (IC) engine with no mechanical compression
A. Beau de Rochas 1862 4-stroke cycle (IC engine )
James C. Maxwell 1865 Mathematical principles linked with electromagnetics
Niklaus Otto 1876 Four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine
Charles Parsons 1884 Steam turbine with multistage and axial-flow reaction
C.G.P. de Laval 1889 Convergent-divergent nozzle used in impulse steam turbine
Rudolph Diesel 1892 Diesel engine with mechanical compression
– 1895 1st Hydroelectric power (Niagara Falls)
Albert Einstein 1905 Equivalence mass/energy
Ernst 1926 Schrodinger mechanics of quantum wave
Frank Whittle 1930 Patent application for turbojet engine
Frank Whittle 1937 Static test of 1st jet engine
Otto Hahn 1938 Nuclear fission discovered
Hans von 1939 1st turbojet engine flight (Ohain)
J. Ackeret, C. Keller 1939 Gas turbine (GT) electric power generation in a closed-cycle
Enrico Fermi 1942 University of Chicago demonstrated nuclear fission
– 1957 Electricity produced through nuclear fission at Shippingport, Pennsylvania
NASA 1969 Man landed on moon with vehicle powered by rocket
Electricité de France 1986 Fast breeder reactor with a capacity of 1200 MW at Superphénix, 1st grid power
Junghans, Germany 1990 Radio-controlled clocks quartz clocks and watches
Linus Torvalds 1991 Collaboratively written first version of computer operating system (Linux)
iRobot Corporation 2002 First version of vacuum cleaning robot (Roomba) was introduced
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov 2004 Graphene discovered
Nicholas Negroponte 2005 Low-cost laptop called OLPC launched by MIT
Apple 2007 Touchscreen cellphone called the iPhone was introduced
Apple 2010 Touchscreen tablet computer, the iPad, came to market
Elon Musk 2013 A giant, pneumatic tube transport system (Hyperloop) was developed
Jean-Pierre Sauvage, J. Fraser Stoddart, 2016 Miniature machines out of molecules were built
and Bernard Feringa
Source: Modified from Sorensen B. Renewable energy conversion, transmission and storage. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press and Woodford C, Technology timeline.
Available: http://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html; 2017 [accessed 25.10.17].
The capacity to perform work is called energy. The different forms of available energy are heat, gravitational, electrical,
chemical, light, and nuclear. The summation of all forms of energy such as internal, kinetic energy, and potential energy in a
system is the total energy possessed by the system. The sum of chemical, nuclear, sensible, and latent energies is the internal energy
associated with a system. The rotation and vibration effects of atoms and molecules are the main cause of sensible internal energy.
The combination of latent and sensible forms of internal energy is the thermal energy of a system. The natural sciences have placed
boundaries on the classification of different forms of energy, such as interactions between neutrons and protons in the nucleus are
atomic energy and energy of chemical bonds is chemical energy. The energy due to the molecular structure of a substance is
independent of reference conditions [9].
The energy resources available in nature are connected to the energy services through energy systems. An extensive array of
energy harnessing technologies is used to transform primary energy resources into useful commodities. The advanced technologies
have also been developed to move energy to the location where energy service is required. For example, human travel is service, the
car is service technology, and gasoline is energy commodity produced in a refinery through crude oil. Therefore, crude oil can be
categorized as a primary energy resource [10].
The shares of several primary sources available in a country are referred to as an energy mix. The main factors that define the
structure of an energy mix are availability of the resources, geopolitical and environmental context, and the development of
specific technologies to extract a particular energy resource in the context of political interest [10].
The stored potential energy in hydrogen can be released through fusion as in the sun. Sunlight is among the one of the
converted energies as result of fusion in sun. Furthermore, this sunlight is converted into gravitational potential as it helps water to
evaporate, then this water rains on the elevated areas of the earth. This rain water is stored in dams, which produce electricity with
the help of turbines due to the potential energy of the rain water. Solar energy is also responsible for weather conditions like
hurricanes, rain, wind, snow etc. Plants capture and convert water and carbon dioxide into proteins and carbohydrates through a
chemical process called photosynthesis. This potential of chemical energy is the cause of the development and growth of biological
cells [9].
The energy extracted from the environment is called primary energy and can be categorized in three groups:
1. renewable energy (e.g., solar energy, wind, biomass, ocean, hydropower, and geothermal energy)
2. nonrenewable energy (e.g., crude oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear fuel)
3. waste
Primary energy can be transformed to a useful form of secondary energy through the transformation process depicted in Fig. 5, [11].
Primary energy from nonrenewable energy sources like oil, natural gas, and coal provide 85% of the total demand of the world
[7,12]. The projections of the world energy show that fossil fuels will still be dominating by 2035. According to the principle of
supply and demand, the increase in the price of fossil fuels due to depletion will in turn make it economical to exploit renewable
energy sources such as wind, solar, and biomass [7,12]. In most of the cases electrical energy is the final useful form of energy. The
type of final energy form required sets a limit between the energy consumption and production [13,14].
The transformation of other forms of energy to electrical is based on the seven fundamental approaches [9]:
1. Static electricity is generated from the transport of charge and physical separation. The mechanical separation and transpor-
tation of the charge increase the difference between positive ( þ ve) and negative ( ve) charges, which results in static
electricity. The lightning phenomenon is the best natural illustration of static discharge.
2. Electromagnetic induction is a process in which kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy through three main devices:
an electrical generator, an alternator, and a dynamo. This is the most widely used commercial process of electricity generation
that uses the mechanical energy to drive a generator. The mechanical energy can be produced through different modes like
hydro, tidal, wind, and heat engines.
3. Electrochemistry is a method of transforming chemical energy into electricity, such as, fuel cells and batteries.
4. Thermoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon of conversion of temperature differences at low and high temperature junctions
of the device to electricity. Thermocouples, thermionics, and thermopiles are the best examples of the thermoelectric effect.
5. Photoelectric effect is a process in which light is transformed into electricity, like solar cells.
6. Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electricity as a result of mechanical strain induced in electrically anisotropic crystals.
7. Nuclear transformation is the generation and acceleration of the charged particles. It is possible to directly convert nuclear
energy to electrical energy through beta decay in small scale projects.
Some most commonly used devices or the processes to convert one form of energy to another form are tabulated in Table 3.
The output energy in the form of electrical and mechanical are in high demand from energy sources as these forms can be
converted to any other useful form easily.
Secondary energy
Primary energy
Petroleum products,
Crude oil, coal, derived solid fuels
Transformation
natural gas, nuclear and gases

To consumption
Waste Electricity and heat
Solar, biomass, wind, Bio fuels

hydro, geothermal
Fig. 5 Transformation of primary form of energy to secondary form of energy. Modified from Schobert HH. Energy and society. New York, NY:
Taylor & Francis; 2002.
Table 3 Conversion of one form of energy to other through some devices/processes
Process Input/available form of Energy Useful form of energy
Steam engine Heat Mechanical

Hydroelectric dams Potential/gravitational Electrical
Photosynthesis Solar Chemical
Diesel/petrol engine Chemical Mechanical
Windmills Mechanical Electrical
Electric motor Electricity Mechanical
Fuel cells Chemical Electrical
Generator/electric Mechanical Electrical
Bulb/electric Electricity Light and heat
Battery Chemical Electrical
Ocean thermal Heat Electrical
Resistance heater Electricity Heat
Nerve impulse Chemical Electrical
Bioluminescence Chemical Light
Muscular activity Chemical Mechanical
Wave power Mechanical Electrical
Geothermal power Heat Electrical
Thermoelectric Heat Electrical
Friction Kinetic Heat
Piezoelectric Strain Electrical
Source: Modified from Wu C. Thermodynamic cycles: computer-aided design and optimization. New York,
NY: Dekker; 2004 and Granet I, Bluestein M. Thermodynamics and heat power. 6th ed Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall; 2000.
Energy conversion technology blossomed after the establishment of thermodynamic fundamentals and electromagnetism,
prior to which the technological advancement was significantly slow. The development and advancement in the nuclear tech-
nology is a result of theoretical and experimental research performed in the first half of the 20th century.
The geothermal production of heat and power depends on the depth of reservoirs. Hydrothermal systems with temperatures
more than 453K are found near the boundaries of plate tectonics. Intermediate temperatures with range 373–453K and low
temperatures below 373K geothermal systems are also present in continental settings with/without hydrothermal resources. On
the basis of the temperature, geothermal energy sources can be categorized as low temperatures below 363K, moderate tem-
peratures between 363 and 423K, and high temperatures above 423K [15].
4.1.3 Systems and Applications
Some important energy conversion systems with their applications are discussed in this section.
4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat

The chemical energy contents of a fuel can be converted to heat through direct combustion. The heat is released as a result of
combustion as this reaction is exothermic. The heat of reaction for a combustion is the same as the heat released as a result of
combustion. The standard heat of combustion of a chemical can be calculated using standard heat of formation of the species in
the product of chemical reactions. For example, combustion reaction of one mole of propane (C3H8) can be represented as
C3 H8 ðgÞ þ 5O2 ðgÞ-3CO2 ðgÞ þ 4H2 OðgÞ þ Heat ð1Þ
Considering the ideal gas state at standard pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 25ºC, the standard heat of chemical reaction
can be written as
X
DHro ¼ v DHfio ¼ vCO2 DHfCO
i i
o
2
þ vfH2 O D þ vC3 H3 DHfC
o
3 H3
ð2Þ
where, vi represents the stoichiometric coefficient of species i, which is negative for reactants and positive for products. In the above
example these coefficients are 3, 4, and 1 for carbon dioxide, water, and propane, respectively.
4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel

The total amount of heat rejected during the process of combustion is called heating value of the fuel [16]. The heating value is
usually measured in units of energy per unit mass of the substance, for example, kJ/kg, kcal/kg, or Btu/m3. The three ways to
express the heating values or calorific values of fuels are the lower heating value (LHV), higher heating value (HHV), and gross
heating value (GHV). HHV is obtained by reversing all the products taking part in combustion to the original precombustion
temperature as well as condensing the water vapor as a result of combustion. The hydrocarbon-based fuels are combusted in the
presence of air, which can be expressed as

½C þ H ðFuelÞ þ ½O2 þ N2 ðAirÞ-CO2 þ H2 O ðLiquidÞ þ N2 þ Heat ðHHVÞ ð3Þ
½C þ H ðFuelÞ þ ½O2 þ N2 ðAirÞ-CO2 þ H2 O ðVaporÞ þ N2 þ Heat ðLHVÞ ð4Þ
where, C, H, O, and N represent carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, respectively. The GHV in combustion reaction includes
the heat required to vaporize water and the amount of liquid water present in fuel before burning. This GHV value is extremely
significant for fuels like wood and coal as these substances contain some amount of water before burning.
Net calorific value or LHV is obtained from the difference between HHV and the heat of vaporization (water vapor). The HHV
is commonly correlated to the LHV as

nH2 O;out MW H2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV ðDHvap Þ ð5Þ
nfuel;in MW fuel;in
or

mH2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV ðDHvap Þ ð6Þ
mfuel;in
where, DHvap, nH2 O;out , nfuel,in, MW H2 O , and MWfuel represent heat required to vaporize the water in kJ/kg, number of moles of
vaporized water, moles of fuel combusted, molecular weight of water, and molecular weight of fuel, respectively.
Illustrative Example 1: The HHV of methane (CH4) at room temperature (21ºC) is measured as 55,533 kJ/kg. Convert this HHV
to LHV for a given heat of vaporization of water; DHvap,water ¼ 2454 kJ/kg at 21ºC.
Solution:
Assumption: Combustion of methane is complete, no unburnt methane in products.
The equation of chemical reaction of the combustion process can be defined as
CH4 þ 3=2O2 -CO2 þ H2 O
HHV of methane ¼ 55;533 kJ=kg

From periodic table
MW H2 O ¼ H2 þ1=2O2 ¼ 2 þ 16 ¼ 18 kg=kmol
MW CH4 ¼ C þ 4H ¼ 12 þ 4 ¼ 16 kg=kmol
nCH4 ¼ 1 kmol and nH2 O ¼ 2 kmol
n
Therefore, nHCH2 O ¼ 2=1
4
Heat of vaporization: DHvap,water ¼ 2454 kJ/kg at 21ºC
Hence, using Eq. (5)

nH2 O;out MWH2 O;out
LHV ¼ HHV ðDHvap Þ
nfuel;in MWfuel;in
LHV ¼ 55;533 kJ=kg ð2454 kJ=kgÞ ð2=1Þ ð18=16Þ
LHV ¼ 50;010 kJ=kg
4.1.3.2 Thermal Efficiency of Energy Conversions

The percentage of the thermal energy converted to other forms of useful energy is called thermal efficiency and it is denoted by
“Zth.” Thermal efficiency for devices like furnaces or boilers is the ratio of measure of useful energy to the input energy. In general,
it is not possible to achieve 100% efficiency. Thermal efficiency for steam power plants and other such systems is low. For instance,
the efficiency of most light emitting bulbs ranges between 5% and 10% because of the losses to the environment in the form of
heat. The thermal efficiency of a heater based on electric resistance is close to 100%, whereas, the efficiency of the natural gas-based
furnace is about 80%. The selection of better heating unit is based on efficiency as well as other factors like economic analysis for
the cost-effective selection [11,17–19].
Thermal efficiency associated with the chemical fuels is generally an evaluation of the chemical energy and the useful form of
energy recovered as kinetic energy. The efficiency depends upon the type of heating value of fuel used as input energy because
efficiency is obtained by the ratio of the useful energy extracted and released input energy.
The production of saturated water in boilers involves the sum of latent heat of vaporization and increase in its sensible heat.
The rate of heat gained by the water can be written as
q_ ¼ mðC
_ p;av DT þ DHvap Þ ð7Þ
_ m;
where, q; _ Cp ; DT, and DHvap represents rate of heat gain, mass flow rate, temperature difference at inlet and outlet states, and heat
of vaporization, respectively. Heat is gained in the vaporization process whereas, heat is released in the condensation process as
Vaporization: H2 O ðliquidÞ þ DHvap -H2 O ðvapor Þ ð8Þ
Condensation: H2 O ðvapor Þ-H2 OðliquidÞ þ DHcond ð9Þ

The heat of vaporization at the constant temperature and pressure is the same as heat of condensation.
At constant temperature and pressure: DHvap ¼ DHcond ð10Þ
The LHV is actual magnitude of the heat that a boiler can produce because some of the combustion heat is required to
evaporate water that is lost with the flue gases. The precise amount of the air supply is important for the efficiency of the boilers.
The excess amount of air will result in loss of heat through the furnace. Conversely, less air will result in incomplete combustion
and unburnt fuel. The water vapors are released to the stack during the combustion process so the net calorific value of the fuel
does not include this portion of energy.
The manufacturers of the furnaces often state the thermal efficiency in steady state but annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE)
should also be considered before selection, which provides better estimate of energy effectiveness for a year.
4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State
Many engineering devices like engines, compressors, and turbines are classified as steady-flow devices once they start operating
under steady state for long hours after completing their transient start-up duration. Under steady state operation the fluid flow
across the control volume is steady so such devices are called steady-flow processes. This means that the properties of fluid may
change while flowing through a control volume but these remain constant during the entire process. The amount of mass energy
and volume at inlet state of a steady-flow system must be equal to the exit state as shown in Fig. 6.
The mass balance at inlet and exit states can be written as
X X
_ ¼
m _
m ðkg=sÞ ð11Þ
in in oui out
The fluid properties may change over a cross section between inlet and exit but the rate of change remains constant at inlet and/
or exit. The interactions of heat and work between surroundings and steady-flow system remain unchanged with time. Hence, in a
steady-flow process heat transfer rate and power obtained to or from the system remain constant. Fig. 7 represents the balance of
mass flow rate and enthalpy when a stream is split in two streams at the exit.
The enthalpy is considered in systems with ideal fluid flow instead of internal energy and the work (PV) performed by fluid
flow is included within enthalpy. The mass balance of the above system can be written as
m _2þm
_1 ¼m _3 ð12Þ
The energy balance equation (EBE) can be written as
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð13Þ
The general equation of all forms of energy (mass, heat, and work) balance across a control volume can be expressed as
E_ in ¼ E_ out ðkW Þ ð14Þ
Mass in
Control
volume
mCV = Constant
ECV = Constant Mass

out
Fig. 6 Mass and energy balance in a control volume.
.
m1 .
m2
h1
Control h2
volume .
m3
h3
Fig. 7 Mass flow rate and enthalpy in a control volume.

Heat loss . Electric

Qout .
Hot water heating Win
out element
. .
m2 = m1
Control
volume .
m1
Hot water tank Cold
water in
Fig. 8 Water heater operating in steady state.
Fig. 9 Industrial steam turbine with capacity from 2 to 250 MW. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://www.energy.
siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
A water heater in a steady state operation is represented in Fig. 8. Mass of cold water m _ 1 enters the tank with heat Q _ in , where
electric heating element performs work W_ in and heats up the water. The heat lost to the environment is Q _ out . The energy balance in
the form of heat, work, and mass can be written as
X X
Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ ¼Q
my _ out þ W
_ out þ _
my ð15Þ
in out
The unit mass of the fluid flowing possesses the summation of enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.
V2
y¼hþ þ gz
2
By substituting the value of “y” in above equation
X V2
X
V2

Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ hþ
m þ gz ¼ _ out þ W
Q _ out þ _ hþ
m þ gz ð16Þ
in 2 out 2
The energy balance relation is easy to use in the case when the amount and the direction of transfer of heat and work are well
known. Conversely, when both of these parameters are unknown then direction for work or heat interactions are assumed. The
general form of energy balance or the first law associated with a steady-flow system can be represented as
X X
_ W _ ¼ V2 V2
Q _ hþ
m þ gz _ hþ
m þ gz ð17Þ
out 2 in 2
_ or W
The negative value of Q _ shows that the assumption of heat or work transfer was made in the wrong direction and needs to
be reversed. The above expression can be simplified for a single stream as

_ W _ ¼m V 2 V12
Q _ h2 h1 þ 2 þ g ðz2 z1 Þ ð18Þ
2
4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors

Turbines drive electric generators in steam, hydro, or gas-based power plants. The turbine blades are fixed to a shaft, which rotates
due to the force of the working fluid on the blades. The rotating shaft is coupled with the generator, which converts mechanical
energy into electricity. Fig. 9 represents the blades of an industrial steam turbine.
Fig. 10 An oil-free SST-600 steam turbine including active magnetic bearing. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://
www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
Fig. 10 shows an oil-free steam turbine (SST-600), which includes an active magnetic bearing for efficient operation. Pumps,
fans, and compressors work opposite to the turbine as they increase the pressure of the working fluid. These devices are driven
through mechanical energy, which rotates the shaft so the work input is required to drive them. The function of these three devices
is similar but there is a difference in the tasks.
• Compressors: Intake low pressure gas and compress it to a very high pressure.
• Fans: Mobilize gas while there is slight increase in the pressure as well.
• Pumps: Perform work similar to the compressors except that they handle liquids unlike gas in the compressors.

_
The turbines are very well insulated so heat transfer is approximately equal to zero QE0 . The heat transfer for compressors is
also assumed zero as except for the cases where inlet cooling is provided. It is also important to note that fans, pumps, and
compressors require work input to drive whereas, turbines produce work output. The change in the potential energies associated
with these devices is negligible therefore it is assumed zero (Dpe E 0). The change in the velocities in these devices is also too low
to cause any major change so the kinetic energies of these devices are also taken as zero (Dke E 0). In turbines, the fluctuation in
the fluid velocities are often too high, which results in substantial change in the kinetic energy but this change is minor as
compared to change in the enthalpy, therefore, kinetic energy is evaded from the analysis [6,20].
Recent developments have successfully produced highly efficient and sustainable compressors for numerous applications
within process industries as presented in Fig. 11. A wide range of turbocompressors are available to suit specific needs.
Illustrative Example 2: The intake of an air compressor receives air at 101.325 kPa and 290K and compresses it to 607.95 kPa and
450K. The air flows at a rate of 0.025 kg/sec. The heat loss during the compression process is 20 kJ/kg. Calculate the power required
to drive the compressor assuming that net change in kinetic and potential energies is zero (Figs. 12 and 13).
Solution: Compression process is steady and power input is required.
Assumptions:
1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Ideal properties of air are taken from Engineering Equation Solver (EES).
3. Negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies (Dke ¼0 and Dpe ¼0).
Analysis: Compressor is assumed as a system with control volume. Work is supplied and heat is lost. Mass crosses the system
boundary so m_1¼m
_2¼m _
dEsystem
E_ in E_ out ¼ ¼ 0 ðSteady stateÞ
dt
E_ in ¼ E_ out
_ in þ mh
W _ out þ mh
_ 1 ¼Q _ 2 ðDke ¼ 0 and Dpe ¼ 0Þ
W _ in ¼ mq_ out þ mðh
_ 2 h1 Þ
Fig. 11 Single-stage turbocompressor. Adapted from A unique portfolio of turbocompressors for all industries. Available from: https://www.
energy.siemens.com/hq/en/compression-expansion/product-lines/; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
qout = 20 kJ/kg
P2 = 607.95 kPa
T2 = 450K
Air
m = 0.025 kg/s
.
Win =?
P1 = 101.325 kPa
T1 = 290K
Fig. 12 Layout of compressor with inlet and exit parameters.
P1 = 3 MPa
T1 = 673K
V1 = 60 m/s
z1 = 12m
Steam turbine
Wout = 6 MW
P2 = 15 kPa
x2 = 90%
V2 = 190 m/s
z2 = 5m
Fig. 13 Layout of turbine with inlet and exit parameters.
Using EES to find the values of ideal air at specified temperatures

h1 ¼ h@290K ¼ 290:4 kJ=kg
h2 ¼ h@450K ¼ 452:1 kJ=kg
Substituting the values in above equation

_ in ¼ ð0:25 kg=sÞ ð20 kJ=sÞ þ ð0:25 kg=sÞ ð452:1 290:4ÞkJ=kg
W
_ in ¼ 4:54 kW
W
Illustrative Example 3: Steam enters an adiabatic steam turbine at 3 MPa and 773K, and leaves at 15 kPa with 90% quality of
steam. Turbine produces 6 MW power. The velocities and the heights at inlet and exit are 190 m/s and 12 m, and 60 m/s and 5 m,
respectively.
1. Calculate change in enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

2. Calculate work done per kg of the steam.
3. Determine rate of mass flow of steam.
Solution: The inlet and exit temperature, pressure, velocity, and quality of the steam are given as shown in Fig. 8. Calculations
of changes in kinetic and potential energies, work done per unit mass, and mass flow rate have to be performed.
Assumptions:
1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Real fluid properties of steam are taken from EES.
3. Turbine is adiabatic.
Analysis:
The turbine is considered as a system with control volume. Mass crosses the system boundary so m _2¼m
_1 ¼m _
1. Using EES to find the value of enthalpy h1 as

P1 ¼ 3 MPa
T1 ¼ 773K
h1 ¼ 3456 kJ=kg
The fluid is a mixture of liquid and vapor at the outlet of turbine so

h2 ¼ hf þ x2 hfg
h2 ¼ 2361 kJ=kg
Dh ¼ h2 h1 ¼ ð2361 3456Þ kJ=kg
Dh ¼ 1095 kJ=kg

V22 V12 ð190 m=sÞ2 ð60 m=sÞ2 1 kJ=kg
Dke ¼ ¼
2 2 1000 m2 =s2
Dke ¼ 16:25 kJ=kg

1 kJ=kg
Dpe ¼ g ðz2 z1 Þ ¼ ½ 9:8 m=s2 ð12 5Þm
1000 m2 =s2
Dpe ¼ 0:068 kJ=kg

2. E_ in E_ out ¼
dEsystem
dt ¼ 0 ðSteady stateÞ

V 2 V12
wout ¼ ðh2 h1 Þ þ 2 þ g ðz2 z1 Þ ¼ ðDh þ Dke þ DpeÞ
2
wout ¼ ½1095 þ 16:25 0:068 kJ=kg ¼ 1078 kJ=kg
3. Mass flow rate needed to produce 6 MW of power

_ out
W 6000 kJ=s
_ ¼
m ¼ ¼ 5:57 kg=s
wout 1078 kJ=kg
Discussion: It is important to note that the magnitude of potential energy is too low while the magnitude of kinetic energy is
negligible as compared to the enthalpy. Therefore, for the calculation of most of the engineering problems both of these energies
are usually omitted as inclusion will not make any significant difference.
4.1.4.2 Heat Engines

It is easy to convert work to energy but the conversion of energy to work is not easy. For example, if a shaft rotates in a container of
water the work will be converted to heat up water but if we heat up water with a shaft in it then the shaft will not rotate. This
means that conversion of heat to work is possible with some mechanical device called a heat engine. Heat engines:
1. Use high temperature source like furnace, solar energy, nuclear reactor, etc. to provide heat.
2. Convert partial amount of heat to work.
3. Reject waste heat to sink (low temperature reservoirs like rivers, etc.).
4. Operate based on a complete cycle.
A simple heat engine that absorbs heat from a high temperature source and rejects it to the sink is shown in Fig. 14.
The devices that operate in a closed loop or cycle including heat engines use a fluid that absorbs heat from the source and
rejects it to a sink; this fluid is called a working fluid. The wider sense of heat engine includes internal combustion engines, which
burn hydrocarbon line gasoline, and this fluid does not complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The definition of heat engine is best suited to the external combustion engine such as the steam turbine or steam power plant.
Steam is generated by heating the water through an external source, which runs the turbine, and then working fluid is cooled close
to the atmospheric conditions in a condenser and then is pumped back to the boiler with the help of a pump. The simplified
schematic of a power plant is shown in Fig. 15.
Heat source
high temperature
Qin
Heat
engine Wnet, out
Qout
Heat sink
low temperature
Fig. 14 Schematic of a heat engine operating between heat source and sink.
Energy source
Qin
Boiler
Pump Wout
Turbine
Win
Condenser
Energy sink Qout
Fig. 15 Layout of a power plant with steam as a working fluid.

The different quantities represented in Fig. 15 may be explained as
Qin ¼Heat addition in boiler from high temperature source to the steam
Win ¼Work output delivered by the turbine
Qout ¼ Heat rejection in condenser to atmosphere or any other low temperature sink
Wout ¼Work input required to pump the water back to the boiler
The net amount of the work obtained through this power plant is the difference between the total work output and total work
input as
Wnet;out ¼ Win Wout ðkJÞ ð19Þ
The net change in the internal energy of a closed system operating in a cycle is zero. There are four components connected with
each other through pipes in the above steam power plant and the same working fluid is flowing through them; hence this can be
treated as closed loop. Therefore, the net amount of work output can also be calculated from the difference between the heat
supplied and heat rejected as
Wnet;out ¼ Qin Qout ðkJÞ ð20Þ
4.1.4.3 Thermal Efficiency

The amount of heat rejected from the system cannot be zero, therefore, the net amount of the work obtained from a heat engine is
always less than the heat supplied to it. The fraction of the heat input converted to the useful work output is called the thermal
efficiency Zth. The thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be written as
Net amount of work output
Thermal efficiency ¼
Total amount of heat input
Wnet;out
Zth ¼ ð21Þ
Qin
where, Wnet,out ¼ Qin Qout therefore,
Qout
Zth ¼ 1 ð22Þ
Qin
Illustrative Example 4: Two heat engines are operating at the same heat source of 250 kJ. The heat sink of engine 1 and engine 2
are 187.5 and 175 kJ, respectively. Find net amount of work done and thermal efficiencies of both engines.
Solution:
1. Heat engine 1 with sink 187.5 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ
Qin ¼ 187:5 kJ
Eq. (20) can be used to calculate the net amount of work output.
Wnet;out ¼ Qin Qout
Wnet;out ¼ 250 187:5 ¼ 62:5 kJ
Thermal efficiency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Qout
Zth ¼ 1
Qin
187:5
Zth ¼ 1 ¼ 25%
250
2. Heat engine 2 with sink 175 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ
Qin ¼ 175 kJ
W net,out = 60 kW
Fuel in m fuel
Qin
Qout
Exhaust out
Fig. 16 Schematic of an internal combustion engine.
Eq. (20) can be used to calculate net amount of work output.

Wnet;out ¼ Qin Qout
Wnet;out ¼ 250 175 ¼ 75 kJ
Thermal efficiency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Qout
Zth ¼ 1
Qin
175
Zth ¼ 1 ¼ 30%
250
Illustrative Example 5: An engine of a car delivers 60 kW of power while working with 27% of thermal efficiency. The car is
burning liquid propane whose heating value is 46,340 kJ/kg. Calculate rate of fuel consumption.
Solution: The rate of fuel consumption or the mass flow rate of fuel is to be calculated while power output and thermal
efficiency are given.
Assumptions: The engine of the car provides constant power (Fig. 16).
Analysis: The car engines convert chemical energy of the fuel to mechanical. In this case, 27% of the total energy of fuel is being
converted to power. According to the thermal efficiency amount of energy required to produce 60 kW power can be found as
_
_ in ¼ W net;out ¼ 60 kW ¼ 222:2 kW
Q
Zth 0:27
which means 222.2 kW thermal energy should be supplied to the engine to get 60 kW output for a 27% efficient engine. Hence
mass flow rate can be determined as
222:2 kW
_ ¼
m ¼ 0:0048 kg=s ¼ 17:28 kg=h
46;340 kJ=kg
Discussion: The fuel consumption depends on efficiency of the engine, which means engines with high efficiency consume less
fuel as compared to the engines with less efficiency.
4.1.4.4 Refrigerators
The heat transfer from high temperature source to low temperature sink occurs naturally in the universe and there is no need for a
special device for this purpose. However, the reverse process is not possible without some special device called a refrigerator. The
refrigerators transfer the heat from low temperature space to high temperature region.
The operation of refrigerators is also cyclic just like heat engines. The refrigerant is a working fluid, which circulates in a closed
loop in refrigerators. The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is most widely used, and is based on four main components:
• Compressor: Compresses refrigerant from vapor phase to liquid phase and condenser pressure.
• Condenser: The high temperature compressed refrigerant condenses after rejecting its heat through the condenser to the
surrounding medium.
• Expansion Valve: The temperature and pressure of the refrigerant is dropped remarkably because of the throttling effect as it
passes through the capillary tube.
• Evaporator: The low temperature refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator as it absorbs the heat of the refrigerated area/space.
Then working fluid is directed back to the compressor and the loop is completed.
A schematic of the refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 17. The symbols Wnet,in, QL, and QH represent the net amount of work
input, heat gained from the refrigerated space at TL, and heat rejected to the high temperature region at TH, respectively.
Surroundings
QH
Condenser
Compressor
W net,in
Expansion
valve
Evaporator
Refrigerated QL
space
Fig. 17 Schematic of a refrigeration cycle.
Warm heated
space
TH >TL
QH
Compressor
Wnet,in
Expansion
valve
Cold outside QL
air
Fig. 18 Schematic of a heat pump device.
4.1.4.4.1 Coefficient of performance

The efficiency of the refrigerators is represented as coefficient of performance (COP) and denoted by COPR. The COP of the
refrigerator is the ratio of desired output and work input as (Fig. 18)
Desired output QL
COPR ¼ ¼ ð23Þ
Required work input Wnet;in
The ratio of the above equation can also be written in the form of rate for both output and input. The amount of work input in
this case for the closed loop can be expressed as
Wnet;in ¼ QH QL ð24Þ
Then, Eq. (23) can be rewritten as

QL 1
COPR ¼ ¼ QH
ð25Þ
QH QL QL 1
It is important to note that the COPR can be more than one, which means that the amount of heat removed from the
refrigerated space can be more than the work input whereas, thermal efficiencies are always less than one. This is why the
efficiencies of the refrigerators are expressed as COP to avoid any confusion.
Illustrative Example 6: The heat is rejected from a refrigerator at the rate of 480 kJ/min. The power required to drive the
compressor is 3.2 kW. Find out
1. Coefficient of performance.
2. The rate at which heat is rejected to the surroundings.
Solution: The power required to drive the compressor is provided whereas, COP and rate at which heat is rejected are to be
calculated.
Assumption: Refrigerator operates in steady state.
Analysis:
(1) The COP can be determined as

_L
Q 480 kJ=min 1 kW
COPR ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:5
_ net;in
W 3:2 kW 60 kJ=min
This means that each kJ of the work input removes 2.5 kJ of heat.
(2) The rate of heat rejection can be calculated as

_H¼Q
Q _ net;in ¼ 480 þ 3:2 kW 60 kJ=min ¼ 672 kJ=min
_L þW
1 kW
Discussion: The amount of energy removed from the refrigerator is transferred to the room, which shows that energy can be
converted to another form but cannot be destroyed.
4.1.4.5 Heat Pump

A device that transfers the heat from low temperature region to high temperature medium is called a heat pump. The objective of
the heat pump is to maintain heat in a high temperature medium, which is done by absorbing heat from the low temperature
medium. The household heat pumps usually absorb heat from ambient air and supply it to the inside of the house and thus
maintain high temperature. The performance of the heat pump is also expressed as COP of heat pump.
Desired output QH
COPHP ¼ ¼ ð26Þ
Required work input Wnet;in
whereas, Wnet,in ¼ QH QL so the above expression can be written as
QH 1
COPHP ¼ ¼ ð27Þ
QH QL 1 QL =QH
Heat pumps driven by heat source instead of electricity are called absorption heat pumps. The heat source can be propane,
water, natural gas, or heat transfer fluid (HTF) heated up by solar/geothermal source. Natural gas operated heat pumps are known
as gas-fired heat pumps. Gas-fired coolers are also available but these cannot be reversed to be used as heat source [21].
A heat pump driven by R410a is shown in Fig. 19, which can provide a green way of heating/cooling to the buildings with a COP
of 1.5 [22].
Illustrative Example 7: A house has to be maintained at 23ºC by a heat pump device. The amount of heat lost from the house is
90,000 kJ/h when ambient temperature is 3ºC. If the COP of the heat pump is 3, then calculate
1. Power input required to operate heat pump.

2. The rate at which heat is absorbed from ambient air.
Solution: The COP of the heat pump is known whereas, the power required to drive heat pump and rate of heat absorbed from
ambient are to be calculated.
6
3 2
7
Condenser
Evaporator
Space
heating Heat source
8 5 4 1
Compressor
Fig. 19 Schematic of an R410a driven heat pump.
Assumption: Heat pump operates in steady state.

Analysis:
1. Power consumed by the heat pump can be calculated using the definition of COP as
Q_H 90; 000 kJ kJ 1h
_ net;in ¼
W ¼ ¼ 30;000 or 30;000 ¼ 8:33 kW
COPHP 3 h h 3600 s
2. The rate at which the house is rejecting heat is 90,000 kJ/h to maintain 23ºC so the heat must be supplied at the same rate by
the heat pump.
Q_L ¼Q_HW _ net;in ¼ 90;000 30;000 ¼ 60;000 kJ=h
Discussion: It is important to note that 2/3 of the heat requirement of the house is extracted from the ambient air. Conversely,
if an electric heater is used the total amount of heat 90,000 kJ/h will be delivered by electric power input, which is why heat pump
devices are preferable even though initial investment is high.
4.1.4.6 Absorption Chillers

Absorption chillers are generally classified on the basis of refrigerant and the combination of absorber. Most of the absorption
chillers either use the combination of lithium bromide/water or ammonia/water as refrigerant [23]. For space cooling applications,
lithium bromide/water chillers are preferred. The absorption cycle represented in Fig. 20 consists of six major components, namely
generator, condenser, expansion vale, evaporator, absorber, and solution pump [24].
The cost of absorption refrigeration system is high as compared to the vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Moreover,
these are more complex, low in efficiency, require more space, and large cooling towers. The absorption refrigeration systems
should only be adopted when thermal energy is available at an inexpensive rate. These systems are more suitable for industrial and
commercial applications due to the cost and space needed for the installation. The COP of the absorption system can be defined as
Desired output QL QL
COPabsorption ¼ ¼ D ð28Þ
Required input Qgen þ Wpump;in Qgen
The amount of work input required to drive the pump of the system is neglected due to its lower magnitude. When the whole
absorption refrigeration cycle is considered as reversible then the amount of COP is maximum. The COP of a reversible absorption
refrigeration system can be written as

QL T0 TL
COPrev;absorption ¼ ¼ Zth;rev COP ¼ 1 ð29Þ
Qgen Ts T0 TL
where, T0, TL, and TS are the temperatures of environment, refrigerated space, and heat source, respectively.
Illustrative Example 8: The evaporator of an absorption chiller is producing 2200 kJ of cooling effect. The amount of heat
generated in the generator is 1470 kJ. Calculate the COP of the absorption chiller.
Solution: The amount of heat at the generator and the cooling produced in the evaporator are known whereas, COP is to be
calculated.
Assumption: Absorption refrigeration system is reversible.
Analysis: The COP of the reversible absorption refrigeration can be calculated using Eq. (28) as
QL ¼ 2200 kJ
Qgen ¼ 1470 kJ
Heat source 1
3 Pump 2 7
8
Generator HE 5 Absorber
4 5 6
Absorption refrigeration system
12
13
9
Condenser Evaporator Cooling
10 11
14
Cooling
15
water
16
Fig. 20 Schematic of absorption refrigeration chiller.

QL 2200
COPrev;absorption ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:5
Qgen 1470
Discussion: It can be observed that 1.5 kJ of cooling can be produced for each kJ of heat supplied at the generator of the
absorption chiller.
4.1.4.7 The Carnot Heat Engine

A theoretical heat engine based on reversible Carnot cycle is known as a “Carnot heat engine.” Thermal efficiency associated with
the heat engine whether reversible or irreversible can be written as
QL
Zth ¼ 1 ð30Þ
QH
where, QH and QL are the ratio of the heat supplied and heat rejected at the high temperature source TH and low temperature sink
TL, respectively. Moreover, this ratio of heat transfer is same as the ratio of the absolute temperatures of heat source and sink for all
reversible heat engines [6]. Therefore, the Carnot efficiency of a reversible heat engine can also be described as
TL
Zth ¼ 1 ð31Þ
TH
Now the comparison of Eq. (30) and Eq. (31) yields

QL TL
¼ ð32Þ
QH rev TH
The above relation yields the highest possible efficiency for reversible engines operating between temperatures TH and TL and it
is known as “Carnot efficiency.” It is impossible for a power cycle to yield 100% efficiency as there are irreversibilities associated
with the actual cycle [25]. It is obvious from Eq. (31) that the efficiency can be increased either by increasing the temperature of the
source reservoir or reducing the temperature of the sink. Both of these temperatures have constraints such as the high temperature
supplied to a power cycle is limited by the material of the device and low temperature is restricted by the temperature of the sink
like ambient, lakes, or rivers.
The thermal efficiencies of most of the actual heat engines are under or around 40%, which seems to be very low as compared
with 100%. As a matter of fact, the efficiencies of the actual heat engines should be correlated or compared to the efficiency of the
reversible one under identical operating conditions as this is the factual theoretical limit for comparison.
Fig. 21 represents the efficiencies of the reversible, irreversible, and impossible heat engines while operating between identical
heat source and sink at 1000 and 300K, respectively. The thermal efficiency of the reversible heat engine is determined 70% using
Eq. (31). Therefore, it is obvious that it is impossible to achieve the magnitude of thermal efficiency more than the efficiency of a
reversible heat engine.
There are two corollaries associated with the maximum possible theoretical efficiency of a Carnot cycle operating between high
and low temperature reservoirs. These Carnot corollaries are:
Corollary 1: When two power cycles, an irreversible and a reversible, operate between identical temperature reservoirs then the
maximum thermal efficiency of the irreversible power cycle is always less than the reversible one.
Corollary 2: The thermal efficiencies of reversible power cycles are the same when these operate at identical high and low
temperature reservoirs.
High-temperature source
TH = 1000K
Rev. Irrev. Impossible

HE HE HE
th = 70% th = 45% th = 80%
Low-temperature sink at
TL = 300K
Fig. 21 Schematic of the efficiencies of the reversible, irreversible, and impossible heat engines (HE). Reproduced from Cengel YA, Boles MA.
Thermodynamics an engineering approach. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.
The comparison of the thermal efficiencies associated with reversible and the actual heat engines while operating between
identical temperature reservoirs is as follows:
8
> oZth;rev irreversible heat engine
<
Zth ¼ Zth;rev reversible heat engine ð33Þ
>
: 4Z
th;rev impossible heat engine
Illustrative Example 9: A Carnot heat engine operates between high and low temperature reservoirs at 705 and 29ºC, respectively.
The engine extracts 600 kJ of heat from the source in a cycle. Calculate
1. Thermal efficiency of the engine.
2. Heat lost to sink during each cycle.
Solution: The temperatures of heat source and sink, and heat extracted are known Carnot efficiency and heat lost to sink are to
be calculated.
Assumption: Heat engine is reversible.
Analysis:
(1) The thermal efficiency of a reversible Carnot heat engine can be calculated using Eq. (31) as
TL ð273 þ 29Þ
Zth;C ¼ 1 ¼1 ¼ 0:69 ¼ 69%
TH ð273 þ 705Þ
(2) Now by using Eq. (33), the heat rejected to the sink can be calculated as
TL ð273 þ 29ÞK
QL;rev ¼ QH ¼ ð600 kJÞ ¼ 185:3 kJ
TH ð273 þ 705ÞK
Discussion: It can be observed that 31% loss in the efficiency is because this percentage of the heat supplied is lost to the sink.
4.1.5 Renewable Energy Conversions
The natural sources of energy like sunlight, wind, geothermal, biomass, rain, and tides are treated as renewable energy resources,
which are replenished naturally after use. The energy from the sun is considered as a sustainable and a renewable source. In
addition to this, solar thermal systems can provide power indirectly. Some of the important renewable energy sources are
discussed below.
4.1.5.1 Biomass Energy Conversion

Biomass is a biological material that is largely extracted from living or dead matter available on the earth [26]. The biomass
resources can be converted biofuel, heat, and power [27]. There are four technologies available to convert biomass into useful
energy depending upon the types of biomass and specific energy product [28].
1. Thermal conversion: Biomass feedstock is heated with or without oxygen and converted to other forms of energy. Direct
combustion, torrefaction, and pyrolysis are the main processes involved in thermal conversion.
2. Thermochemical conversion: The combination of heat and chemical processes is applied to biomass to convert it into other
forms of energy products. Gasification is one of the most important thermochemical conversion processes.
3. Biochemical conversion: The biomass is broken down into liquid-based fuels through bacteria, enzymes, or microorganisms
which involves fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
4. Chemical conversion: Biomass is converted into liquid fuels by using chemical agents.
The generation of electricity from biomass is considered as an inefficient use of biomass as the efficiency of such plants is only
25%. Efficiency levels of up to 80%–90% can be achieved through cogeneration technologies, whereas biopower efficiencies are
25%. The waste heat at the exit of the steam turbine is used to produce heat in combined heat and power (CHP) plants.
The steam exiting the turbine loses a portion of the heat contents in it. This heat at the exit of the turbine is usually wasted to
the atmosphere. The fuel gases also contain significant amount of thermal energy, which is vented to the outside air. The efficient
recovery and utilization of the waste heat is the main focus of CHP systems. The production of heat along with the electricity
generation yields higher overall energy and exergy efficiencies, reduced cost, and less CO2 emissions. The ideal application of these
kind of systems is in pulp and paper mills as the demand of both heat and electricity is high in such industries. The high cost
associated with the waste heat recovery unit can only be justified when the demand of heat is high. The district heating plants in
Europe are successfully operating based on CHP technology with proven efficiency.
Many researchers have studied biomass energy-based cogeneration systems for numerous industries like palm oil, rice, wood,
sugar, and paper [29]. The technoeconomical overview of the variety of biomass samples has yielded competitive results for
almond shell and olive stone [30]. The variety of biomass gasification processes are feasible energetically and exergetically for the
production of hydrogen and power [31]. The study of ignition and combustion characteristics of small particles of biomass and
biomass energy-based multigeneration have yielded imperative results [31–34]. A biomass feedstock-based CHP plant is displayed
in Fig. 22.
4.1.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion

Wind energy conversion machines have been developed by the mankind over the past 2000 years. In the early stages of the
development this process was mostly based on hit and miss trial method. There are two major classifications of the windmills
1. Horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a horizontally placed shaft.
2. Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a vertically placed shaft.
Both types of wind turbines are displayed in Fig. 23 along with their main features. The whole drivetrain mechanism is located
on the tower in HAWT. The major two disadvantages of this type of windmill are gravity causes cyclic stresses on the blades so
these should be oriented in the direction of the wind, and servicing is difficult as the driving mechanism is mounted on the tower.
The advantage of this type of wind mill is that it can access stronger winds available at high altitudes by placing the rotor at a tall
tower. Conversely, the drivetrain of VAWT is located on the ground. Hence, there are no gravitational stresses on the rotor as well
as no problem with the orientation of the blades. However, in VAWT, it is not possible to install the blades at high altitudes to
Combustion gases
Flue gas Chimney
cleaning
Heat
exchanger
Combustion
chamber Generator
Biomass
feedstock HP
steam
Feed
water
Boiler Residual heat Electricity
Heat
Fig. 22 Biomass-based combined heat and power power plant. Modified from Biomass Innovation Centre: fueling rowth through clean
technology. Available from: http://www.biomassinnovation.ca/CombinedHeatAndPower.html; 2017 [accessed 28.10.17].
Rotor diameter
Rotor
blade
Generator
Rotor Gear box
diameter Rotor
tower
Wind direction Wind direction

for an upward for a donward
rotor Hub rotor
Tower Fixed pitched
height
rotor blade
Equator height
Rotor Generator
base
Gear box
Fig. 23 A schematic of horizontal-axis wind turbine and vertical-axis wind turbine. Modified from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca
Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
extract more useful work available due to strong winds. In addition to this, the blades of VAWTs experience severe fluctuating
aerodynamic load arising as a result of rotation.
The propeller-type HAWT are generally classified as
1. Rotor orientation: Upwind of the tower or downwind of the tower.

2. Blade articulation: Rigid or teetering.
3. Number of blades: Usually composed of two or three blades.
The most common types of modern VAWT have curved blades that are fixed in pitch. A massive 722 ft (220 m) wind turbine
located at Maade, Denmark is considerably taller than the London Eye. It is the biggest and most powerful in the world with a
production capacity of 260,000 kWh. The power produced by this wind turbine in 24 h can meet the electricity requirement of
hundreds of homes for a month [35]. The harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blade development is possible using
the PC computer with the CATIA designing system and the Gerber Garment cutter system. The blade fabricated from composite
laminated materials yields better results. The contour of the airfoil can be formed by a continuous structural pocket and a fiberglass
skin [36].
The kinetic energy of the wind is converting into rotational kinetic energy in the turbine. This rotational energy is converted to
electrical energy with the help of a generator coupled with wind turbine and then this electrical energy can be supplied to domestic
or industrial users through the national grid. The speed of the wind and the swept area of the turbine are the two main factors that
define the conversion of available energy. It is important to calculate the economic viability by making initial estimates of output
power and energy output of each turbine before planning or establishing a new wind form. In 1919, German physicist Albert Betz
concluded that it is impossible to convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a
rotor. This statement is known as the Betz limit or Betz’s law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind
turbine is 0.59, which means that maximum energy extracted by any windmill is no more than 59% of the wind energy. This is
known as the “power coefficient” and is defined as
CP;max ¼ 0:59
Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and is a function of
wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine – strength
and durability in particular – the real world limit is well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35–0.45 common even in the best
designed wind turbines. In general, when all the losses associated with gear box, bearings, and generator are considered then
about 10%–30% of the wind energy is transformed to electricity. Therefore, the power that can be extracted from the wind is
represented as
1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP ð34Þ
2
where, r, A, and v3 represent density of air, swept area, and wind speed respectively. The swept area depends upon the length of the
turbine blades. Fig. 24 represents direct drive type 2 MW wind turbine with adaptronic blades.
Illustrative Example 10: A windmill has length of the blades 48 m and power coefficient is 0.4. The wind is flowing at the speed
of 15 m/s. Calculate the power produced by the wind turbine. Take the density of the air as 1.23 kg/m3.
Fig. 24 Schematic of direct drive type wind turbine of 2 MW with adaptronic blade. Reproduced from Rasuo B, Dinulovic M, Veg A, Grbovic A,
Bengin A. Harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blades development process: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;39:874–82.
Solution: Length of blade, wind speed air density, and power coefficient are given while power produced by the wind turbine
needs to be calculated.
Assumption: Wind is flowing at constant speed.
The swept area of the turbine can be calculated as
A ¼ pr 2
A ¼ 3:14 482
A ¼ 7234:6 m2
The power produced by the turbine can be calculated using Eq. (34)
1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP
2
1
Pavail ¼ 1:23 7234:6 153 0:4
2
Pavail ¼ 6 MW
Discussion: The wind turbine can produce 6 MW of power. It is important to check the behavior of the turbine at different
wind speeds because smooth operation of the wind turbine is more important. In actuality, a design with high power output at
high wind speeds requires more maintenance.
4.1.5.3 Ocean Current Energy

The continuous directed movement of seawater generated by the forces like solar heating, wind, salinity differences, breaking
waves, wind, salinity and temperature differences, and the gravitational pull of the sun and moon causes ocean current energy. The
direction and strength of the current depend heavily on the depth of contours, configurations of shoreline, and the interactions
with other currents. Primarily, the ocean currents are horizontal water movements and can flow for miles and create a global chain.
The ocean currents’ influence on the temperature of the regions also plays an important role in forecasting the climate of many
regions on the earth. The kinetic energy of the movement of the tides can be harnessed by underwater turbines, which are similar
to small wind turbines. The ocean current turbines are usually installed on the seabed experiencing high velocities of ocean
currents. The electricity is generated through the rotation of the tidal turbine blades due to the movement of the water. The
conversion of wind energy is an aerodynamic process whereas, the conversion of water movement is hydrodynamic process. Ocean
current turbines can convert the water velocities of as low as 1 m/s to generate electrical power [37].
An ocean current turbine is represented in Fig. 25, where the ocean current is seen to rotate the blade of the turbine, converting
the kinetic energy of the current to electrical power. An ocean current turbine can produce the same power as a wind turbine with a
larger rotor size due to the large density difference between seawater and air (water is typically 800 times denser than air). It has
been determined that for the same size turbine, a water speed of around one-tenth of the speed of the wind can generate the same
electrical power [37].
The power density in flowing water such as an ocean current can be expressed as follows:
1 3
Pa ¼ rV ð35Þ
2
For a turbine having Zelec as the conversion efficiency for ocean current energy to electricity, the electrical power density
generated is found as
Pe ¼ Zelec Pa ð36Þ
Ocean level
Ocean current
Ocean current
turbine
Ocean floor
Fig. 25 Schematic illustration of the working of ocean current turbine.

Oil prices greatly influence efforts to harness ocean energy, with activity increasing when oil prices are high and vice versa.
Recent concerns about increasing global CO2 emissions and other environmental issues have increased efforts to derive energy
from oceans.
Illustrative Example 11: A turbine of radius 6 m is generating electricity driven through an ocean current moving with a speed of
3.7 m/s. Calculate the electrical power density and the total electrical power generation. Assume that 37% of the ocean current can
be converted to the electrical power. The density of ocean water is 1028 kg/m3.
Solution:
Assumptions: Conversion of ocean current to electricity is assumed to be 37%.
The power density in the ocean current can be calculated by using Eq. (35), as
1 3
Pa ¼ rV ¼ 0:5 1028 3:73 ¼ 26; 036 W=m2
2
Now Eq. (36) can be used to get the electrical power density generated using ocean current
Pe ¼ 0:35 Pa ¼ 0:35 26; 036 ¼ 7713 W=m2 ¼ 9:113 kW=m2
The total electrical power generated can be evaluated as
Ptotal;e ¼ Pe A ¼ 7:713 p 62 ¼ 1030 kW
Discussion: The total electrical power generated by the ocean current plant is 1.03 MW. The power produced is directly
proportional to the radius and cube of velocity of the ocean current.
4.1.5.4 Solar Thermal Energy Conversions

Solar thermal energy has been used for space and water heating in the past. Additional solar thermal applications have been
developed, which include refrigeration, air conditioning, crop drying, process heat for industries, and electric power generation.
Solar collectors are divided in many categories depending on the geometry [38]. Solar thermal collector consists of an absorber,
insulation, a trap, and a heat transfer medium.
1. Absorber: An absorber is made out of a thermally conducting dark surface.
2. Insulation: Insulation reduces heat loss where it is placed.
3. Trap: Trap allows to pass radiation with short wavelength while it blocks radiation with long wavelength.
4. Heat transfer medium: Mediums like air, water, or oil transfer the solar heat to useful work.
The solar radiation is concentrated on the absorber with the help of reflectors. The advanced solar collectors are able to provide
temperatures in the range of 10001C or even higher. The desired temperature and economics of the solar thermal application
depend upon the design and the selection of working. Some types of solar thermal collectors are tabulated in Table 4 on the basis
of their temperature range.
Illustrative Example 12: The mass flow rate of isobutane in the closed PTSC cycle is 25 kg/s as shown in Fig. 26. Therminol VP-1
exits parabolic solar trough collectors at 202, then enters the solar heat exchanger at 3201C and leaves at 701C after heating up
isobutane to 239.41C. The water at ambient pressure enters the condenser at 251C and leaves at 42.41C. Isobutane exits ORC
turbine at 351C. The pressures at inlet and exit of the pump are 75 and 2500 kPa, respectively. Determine (1) net rate of work done
by the ORC turbine; (2) the net rate of work done required to drive the pump; and (3) the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
ORC turbine. Take the ambient temperature to be 251C, and the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and pump to be 85%
assuming no pressure drop across the solar heat exchanger.
Solution:
For the schematic of the closed PTSC system (Fig. 26), the rate balance equations can be written.
For the solar heat exchanger the balance equations can be expressed as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass balance equation ðMBEÞ: m _ 2 ðfor Therminol VP 1Þ
Table 4 Types of solar collectors with concentration ratio and typical range of temperature
Type of collector Concentration ratio Typical range of temperature (1C)
Flat plate solar collector 1 Z70

Flat plate collector with high efficiency 1 60–120
Fixed concentrator 2–5 100–150
Parabolic trough solar collector (PTSC) 10–50 150–350
Parabolic dish collector 200–2000 250–700
Solar tower with central receiver 200–2000 400–1000
Source: Reproduced from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
ORC turbine
3 Isobutane
1
Solar
collectors
Solar heat exchanger

Electricity
generator
5
Therminol VP-1 2 Pump Condenser

4 6
7 8
Fig. 26 Schematic of a parabolic trough solar collector power generation cycle.
m _4
_3¼m ðfor isobutaneÞ
EBE: m _ 4 h4 ¼ m
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3
Entropy Balance Equation ðEnBEÞ: m _ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;evap ¼ m

_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3
_ 1 ex1 þ m
Exergy Balance Equation ðExBEÞ: m _ 4 ex 4 ¼ m
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ des;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex
For the condenser, the balance equations can be written as
_5¼m
MBE: m _6 ðfor isobutaneÞ
m _7
_8 ¼m ðwater circulation for coolingÞ
EBE: m _ 7 h7 ¼ m
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 6 h6 þ m
_ 8 h8
EnBE: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;cond ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 6 s6 þ m
_ 8 s8
_ 5 ex 5 þ m
ExBE: m _ 7 ex 7 ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ m _ des;cond
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex
For turbine, the balance equations can be written as
_3¼m
MBE: m _5
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
EBE: m _ act;turb
_ 5 h5 þ W
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;turb ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 5 s5
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
ExBE: m _ act;turb þ Ex
_ 5 ex5 þ W _ des;turb
For pump, the balance equations can be written as

_4¼m
MBE: m _6
EBE: m _ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ W _ 4 h4
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 4 s4
_ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 ex4 þ W
ExBE: m _ des;p
_ 4 ex4 þ Ex
For Therminol VP-1 one can obtain the following properties from EES.
For state 1,
)
T 1 ¼ 251C h1 ¼ 601:4 kJ=kg
P1 ¼ 202 kPa s1 ¼ 1:393 kJ=kg K
Table 5 Input and calculated data for the PTSC system in illustrative example 9
State no. Fluid type P (kPa) m_ (kg/s) T (1C) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg)
0 Water 101.3 – 25 104.8 0.3669 0

0 Isobutane 101.3 – 25 598.9 2.513 0
0 Therminol VP-1 101.3 – 25 20.14 0.06853 0
1 Therminol VP-1 202 35 320 601.4 1.392 325.4
2 Therminol VP-1 202 35 70 93.17 0.296 5.18
3 Isobutane 2500 25 239.4 1034 3.164 241.5
4 Isobutane 2500 25 35 284.9 1.278 54.14
5 Isobutane 75 25 75 689.5 2.837 5.61
6 Isobutane 75 25 35 616.7 2.614 12.25
7 Water 101.3 25 25 104.8 0.3669 0.0038
8 Water 101.3 25 42.4 177 0.602 2.1
Similarly for state 2,

)
T 2 ¼ 701C h2 ¼ 93:17 kJ=kg
P2 ¼ 202 kPa s2 ¼ 0:296 kJ=kg K
For reference state enthalpy and entropy for Therminol VP-1

)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 20:14 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 0:06853 kJ=kg K
Also, for the reference state enthalpy and entropy for isobutane,
)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 598:7 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 2:513 kJ=kg K
For reference state enthalpy and entropy for water

)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 104:8 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 0:3669 kJ=kg K
The specific exergy at state 1 can be calculated as

ex 1 ¼ h1 h0 T 0 ðs1 s0 Þ ¼ 186:7 kJ=kg
Similarly for state 2
ex2 ¼ 5:18 kJ=kg
Table 5 provides the input and calculated process data required for the system in illustrative Example 9.
1. Using the energy rate balance for the turbine, the rate of work done by the turbine can be determined as
_ act;turb ¼ m
W _ 3 ðh3 h5 Þ ¼ ð25 kg=sÞð1034 689:5ÞkJ=kg ¼ 8612:5 kW
2. Similarly, the volume of isobutane at state 6 using EES
v4 ¼ 0:5775 m3 =kg
_ act;pump ¼ v4 ðP4 P6 Þ ¼ 0:5775ð2500 75Þ ¼ 1400 kW

W
So, the net output work rate of the system is

W _ act;turb W
_ net ¼ W _ act;p ¼ 8612:5 1400 ¼ 7212:5 kW
3. The energy efficiency of the turbine can be found as

W_ net 7212:5
Zen;orc ¼ ¼ 0:85 ¼ 34:5%
_ 1 ðh1 h2 Þ
m 35ð601:4 93:17Þ
4. The exergy efficiency of the ORC turbine can be found as
W_ net 7212:5
cen;orc ¼ ¼ 0:85 ¼ 54:7%
_ 1 ðex1 ex 2 Þ
m 35ð325:4 5:18Þ
4.1.5.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion

The word “geothermal” means heat of the earth, as it is adapted from the Greek word “geo” (earth) and “therme” (heat) [39]. The
amount of heat and power that can be produced through geothermal source depends largely on the reservoir depth. More than
453K temperatures are possible to achieve near plate tectonic boundaries. Geothermal energy sources can be classified on the basis
of the temperature as below 363K (low temperatures), between 363 and 423K (moderate temperatures), and above 423K (high
temperatures) [15,40]. Intermediate and low temperatures are present with or without hydrothermal resources in continental
settings [41]. Geothermal fields can be used for both direct utilization of heat or power production depending upon the reservoir
temperature and the requirements.
In binary cycles, hot geothermal fluid is not in direct contact with the turbine; instead it is used to heat up a secondary fluid,
which vaporizes and runs the turbine. There are many technical variations associated with binary plants and Kalina cycles [42]. The
geothermal hot fluid and the ORC working fluid circulate in separate closed loops. The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is feasible
even for the low temperature geothermal resource. The binary geothermal cycle is environmentally friendly as it does not produce
any emissions. The basic layout of a geothermal power plant is depicted in Fig. 27. The utilization efficiency of the geothermal
power plants can be found as
W_ net
Zu ¼ ð37Þ
_ b ½hA h0 T0 ðsA S0 Þ
m
where, W _ net represents the net power obtained through geothermal cycle; m_ b , hA, h0, T0, sA, and s0 represent mass flow rate of brine,
enthalpy of brine at inlet, enthalpy at dead state, dead state temperature, entropy at inlet, and entropy at dead state, respectively.
Geothermal plants with huge capacity have been installed around the world. Geysers Geothermal Complex, installed in
California with a capacity of 1517 MW, is one of the largest geothermal plants in the world, as shown in Fig. 28 [43]. The plant is
actively producing 900 MW power.
Some geothermal power plants in the world on the basis of the installed capacity for power production are tabulated in Table 6.
Illustrative Example 13: Brine enters the heat exchanger at a temperature of 440K. The mass flow rate of brine is 95 kg/s and net
power of the geothermal cycle is 1200 kW. Find the utilization efficiency at dead state temperature 25ºC.
Solution: The mass flow rate of geothermal fluid and net power of the cycle are given while utilization efficiency need to be
calculated.
Assumption: Pressure losses in heat exchangers are negligible.
Analysis: (1) The utilization efficiency of a geothermal cycle can be calculated using Eq. (37) as
W_ net
Zu ¼
_ b ½hA h0 T0 ðsA S0 Þ
m
2 3
Superheater
1
seperator
Flash
ORC
turbine Electricity generator
9
8
10 4
Pump 1
Condenser
14
Mixing
chamber
11
15
Preheater
5
6
12 7
Pump 3
Geotherrmal Pump 2
reservior
13 Reinjection
Fig. 27 Schematic of a basic geothermal power plant. Reproduced from Islam S, Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of
a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
Fig. 28 Geysers Geothermal Complex, California, United States. Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world.
Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].
Table 6 Top 10 geothermal power plants around the world
No. Name Location Installed capacity (MW)
1 Geysers Geothermal Complex California, United States 1517

2 Larderello Geothermal Complex Italy 769
3 Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station Mexico 720
4 Makban Geothermal Complex Philippines 458
5 CalEnergy Generation’s Salton Sea Geothermal Plants United States 340
6 Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant Iceland 303
7 Tiwi Geothermal Complex Philippines 289
8 Darajat Power Station Indonesia 259
9 Malitbog Geothermal Power Station Philippines 232.5
10 Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant Indonesia 227
Source: Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world. Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-
power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].
The enthalpy and entropy values at inlet temperature 440K and dead state 298K are determined using EES as
hA @440K ¼ 705 kJ=kg
sA @440K ¼ 2:009 kJ=kg K
h0 @298K ¼ 103:93 kJ=kg
s0 @298K ¼ 0:36384 kJ=kg K

1250
Zu ¼ ¼ 11:92%
95 110:39
Discussion: Typical geothermal plants have thermal efficiency of about 15% but the utilization efficiency is quite low. This is
because preheat is required to heat up the working fluid and the preheater accounts for large irreversibilities due to high finite
temperature difference.
4.1.6 Case Studies
In this section, there are multiple case studies presented to include the analyses of selected renewable energy-based integrated
systems for multigeneration. Case study 1 presents the advantages of integrating thermoelectric devices in multigeneration systems;
Solar field Heat Heat Organic Electricity

Parabolic trough Solar heat
rankine
solar collectors exchanger
cylce
Heat
Heat Heat
Solar field Photovoltaic Cooling Thermoelectric
panels cooler Absorption Cooling
Heat refrigeration
Electricity Electricity chiller
Thermoelectric
Electrolyzer
generator Heat
Heating Heat Thermal energy Heat

Heat pump Condenser
storage system Heat
Fig. 29 Flow diagram of multigeneration system including thermoelectric generator.
whereas, solar and geothermal-based renewable energy are combined in Case study 2 for improved performance of the multi-
generation system. These studies include the assessment of subsystems as well as overall systems.
4.1.6.1 Case Study 1

The primary objective of this presented case study is to improve the performance of a solar energy-based integrated system through
a unique integration of thermoelectric devices (see Fig. 29). The novel integrated multigeneration system is assessed thermo-
dynamically and an exergy analysis is conducted. The major subsystems of the proposed system are an absorption chiller an ORC,
an electrolyzer, and a heat pump. The presented system generates electricity for off grid areas of countries with abundant amount
of solar radiations like Saudi Arabia. The heat of the PV panels is extracted to run thermoelectric devices, as well as the efficiency of
the PV panels is increased due to decrease in the operating temperature. The absorption chiller delivers the cooling to the cold
store, heat is supplied to industries, and thermal energy storage (TES) system supplies uninterrupted hot water to industrial and
domestic users even in the absence of solar energy (at night), and hydrogen for chemical and petrochemical industries.
Islam et al. [44] made following assumptions in order to investigate the performance of the proposed multigeneration system.
• System operating conditions are steady.

• The dead state temperature and pressure are 298K and 101.325 kPa, respectively.
• Negligible or no changes in kinetic and potential energies.
• R410a and water are treated as actual fluids.
• All pumps and turbines are adiabatic.
• Isobutane is the working fluid used in ORC turbine.
• All pumps and turbines operate with 85% isentropic efficiencies.
• TES system losses 10% of heat while discharging period.
• All pressure losses are neglected.
• The typical evaporator used by Al-Ali and Dincer [45] is used.
• Parabolic solar collectors operate with 80% efficiency.
4.1.6.1.1 Thermodynamic assessment

Here, the energy and exergy efficiencies of all subunits of the multigeneration are presented. The model parameters used for the
thermodynamic analysis of the PV panels are tabulated in Table 7.
The figure of Merit has a great influence on the efficiency of the thermoelectric device and can be written as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DTð 1 þ ZT 1Þ
ZTEG ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð38Þ
Th 1 þ ZT þ Tc =Th
where, ZT represents figure of Merit, Th denotes high temperature junction, and Tc symbolizes low temperature junction of the
thermoelectric. Magnitude of figure of merit is selected as “1” for the calculations.
The COP associated with thermoelectric cooler (TEC) can be calculated as [46]
Qc
COPTEC ¼ ð39Þ
PTEG
where, Qc and PTEG represent the amount of heat absorbed and power input to TEC.
Table 7 Parameters of commercial photovoltaic (PV) cell for the production of

hydrogen
PV module area (Ac) 0.75 m2

No. of PV cells 36 (commercial)
No. of PV modules 530
Wiring losses (Ohm) 2.5%
Standard operating conditions of PV 850 W/m2 and 251C
Source: Compiled from Paola A, Fabrizio Z, Fabio O. Techno-economic optimisation of hydrogen production by
PV – electrolysis: ‘RenHydrogen’ simulation program. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011;36(2):1371–81.
The energetic efficiency of ORC turbine can be found as

W_t
Zt ¼ ð40Þ
_ i hi þ m
m _ e he
The overall energy efficiency of TES can be calculated as
Hd Hc _
Q
ZTES ¼ ¼1 ð41Þ
Ha Hb Ha Hb
The work rate required to drive the compressor of the heat pump can be expressed as
_ c ¼m
W _ e he m
_ i hi ð42Þ
The COP of heat pump can be defined as
m_ e he m_ i hi
COPen;hp ¼ ð43Þ
_ _
W c þ W pump
The COP of the absorption chiller can be found as
m_ eva;out heva;out m _ eva;in heva;in
COPen;chiller ¼ ð44Þ
_ gen;in hgen;in m
m _ gen;out hgen;out
The net amount of work rate obtained by the system can be written as
W _ tþW
_ net ¼ W _ TEG W
_ TEC W
_ P;overall W
_c ð45Þ
The energy efficiency of multigeneration system can be expressed as
_ hp þ Q
_ net þ Q
W _ cool þ Q_ HE þ Q _ cond þ Q
_ TES
Zoverall ¼ ð46Þ
ðEGH þ Q _ solar Þ
where, EGH denotes the electricity generated through PV panels.

The efficient use of energy is possible through developing exergy analysis strategies. Exergy analysis identifies the compo-
nents that are responsible for huge losses, hence it becomes possible to extract a larger amount of useful work. The correlation
between energy, exergy, environment, energy policy making, and ecological development is established by Dincer and Rosen
[47]. Many researchers has widely used exergy analysis for simulation, design and performance evaluation of energy systems
[23,48–51]. The exergy efficiencies of the subsystems and the overall system can be found by assuming no changes in kinetic
and potential energies.
W_t
ct ¼ ð47Þ
_ i ex i þ m
m _ e ex e
The exergetic COP of the heat pump driven by R134a can be found as
_ e ex e m
m _ i exi
COPex;hp ¼ ð48Þ
_ c þW
W _ pump 4
The exergetic COP of the absorption refrigeration chiller can be found as

T0
_ eva;out heva;out m
ðm _ eva;in heva;in Þ Teva 1
COPex;chiller ¼ ð49Þ
_ gen;out hgen;out Þ 1 TT0s
_ gen;in hgen;in m
ðm
Q_ 1 T0
ex 47 ex48 Ts
cTES ¼ ¼1 ð50Þ
ex 46 ex44 ðex46 ex 44 Þ
Table 8 Work rate, efficiency, and coefficient of performances of

subsystems and multigeneration system
Component Values
W_ DORC;excluding TEG 4331 kW

W_ DORC;including TEG 4310 kW
W_ Dhp 1537 kW
W_ DTEG 20.8 kW
W_ DTEC;in 20.8 kW
W_ D TEC;out 19.1 kW
ZPV,excluding TEG 5.6%
cPV,excluding TEG 5.9%
ZPV,including TEG 10.1%
cPV,including TEG 10.7%
ZORC,excluding TEG 16.73%
cORC,excluding TEG 33.2%
ZORC,including TEG 16.7%
cORC,including TEG 33.1%
COPen,chiller 1.5
COPex,chiller 0.71
COPen,hp 3.3
COPex,hp 0.46
Zmultigen,excluding TEG 50.6%
cmultigen,excluding TEG 39.8%
Zmultigen,including TEG 51.3%
cmultigen,including TEG 40.3%
W_ Dcomp 671.8 kW
W_ Dpumps 1630.66 kW
Source: Based on data provided by Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Energetic and exergetic
performance analyses of a solar energy-based integrated system for multigeneration including
thermoelectric generators. Energy 2015;93:1246–58.
Table 9 Significant exergy destruction occurring in subsystems of the

proposed system
Subsystem Rate of exergy destruction ðE x_ D Þ ðkWÞ
Parabolic trough solar collectors 13,032

Absorption refrigeration unit 937
Heat pump 275
Generator of absorption refrigeration unit 247
Compressor of heat pump unit 195
Condenser of ORC 111
Thermal energy storage (TES) unit 26.97
Source: Modified from Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Energetic and exergetic performance analyses of a solar
energy-based integrated system for multigeneration including thermoelectric generators. Energy
2015;93:1246–58.
The exergy efficiency of the overall system can be calculated as
_ net þ Q
W _ cool
_ hp 1 T0 þ Q T0 _ cond 1 T0 þ Q
1 þQ _ HE 4 1 T0 þ Q
_ TES 1 T0
Ts;hp Ts;eva Ts;cond Ts;HE Ts;TES
coverall ¼ ð51Þ
_ solar 1 T0
EGH þ Q Ts;solar
where

_ solar ¼ m
Q _ PTSC;in hPTSC;in m
_ PTSC;out hPTSC;out ð52Þ
Geothermal Geothermal Heat Heat Organic rankine

fluid Super-heater cycle 1
cycle Electricity
Heat
Solar field Heat Heat Organic rankine Electricity

solar collectors exchanger cycle 2
Heat
Fig. 30 Schematic of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for single generation. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol
Energy 2017;147:328–43.

Super-heater
fluid cycle cycle 1 Electricity
Heat

Heat Heat
Absorption Cooling
refrigeration
chiller
Fig. 31 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for cogeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
Geothermal Heat Heat Organic rankine

Geothermal
cycle Electricity
Heat
Solar field Heat Heat

Parabolic trough Solar heat Organic rankine Electricity
Heat Heat
Heating Absorption Cooling

Heat pump Refrigeration
Chiller
Fig. 32 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for trigeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
4.1.6.1.2 Results and discussion

The overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the system presented in Fig. 20 with thermoelectric devices are 51.3% and 40.3%,
respectively. Both efficiencies of the integrated multigeneration system are less excluding thermoelectric devices because of the
reduction in the efficiencies of PV panels as a result of increase in temperature throughout the day. The exclusive integration of TEC
driven PV cooling system enhances the energy and exergy efficiencies of PV panels, which in turn enhances the performance of the
overall system.
The organic Rankine turbine of the system produces 4331 kW excluding thermoelectric generator (TEG) and 4310 kW
including TEG. Despite the fact that the organic Rankine turbine including TEG provides slightly less amount of work done, the
overall system is still more efficient. This is because of the presence of the PV cooling system, which increases the energy and exergy
efficiencies of PV panels in the order of 4.5% and 4.7%, respectively. The COP of the absorption refrigeration chiller and heat
pump are found to be 1.5 and 3.3, respectively. The high magnitude of heat pump reflects how efficiently the waste heat is
conserved in the proposed system and this is another contributing factor for the increased performance of the overall system.
Table 8 tabulates the main findings of this case study.
The significant rate of exergy destruction occurring in major subunits/components of the overall system is tabulated in Table 9.
It is obvious that the major irreversibilities are associated with the solar cycle of the overall system followed by the LiBr driven
absorption refrigeration chiller. Moreover, the significant magnitude of irreversibilities in the heat pump is due to the exergy
destruction occurring in the compressor and the TES system accounts for the least rate of exergy destruction due to less temperature
difference between charging and discharging.
4.1.6.2 Case Study 2

In this case study, an integrated multigeneration system based on solar and geothermal energy is assessed thermodynamically (see
Figs. 21–24). The multigeneration system combines two types of renewable energies and provides heating for domestic users or
industries, space cooling for cold stores, dryer for drying of crop, two TES systems, and electrical energy. Fig. 30 represents a single
generation system that produces electricity through combined geothermal and solar energy.
The proposed system produces electricity and cooling after incorporating the absorption refrigeration chiller with the ORC 2
(see Fig. 31). The waste heat is effectively conserved and it produces cooling for cold storage.
The proposed system produces electricity, cooling, and space heating after incorporating the absorption refrigeration chiller
with the ORC 2 and a heat pump with solar heat exchanger (see Fig. 32). The waste heat rejected by the solar heat exchanger is
utilized to produce space heating through R134a driven heat pump.
The proposed system produces electricity, cooling, space heating, drying system, and TES system after incorporating the
additional subunits dryer and TES system to the trigeneration system to conserve waste heat as depicted in Fig. 33.
4.1.6.2.1 Thermodynamic assessment

The energy efficiencies of the single generation system to multigeneration system can written as
W _ net;singen
Zsingen ¼ ð53Þ
_ i hi þ Q
m _ solar
_ net;cogen þ Q
W _ cool
Zcogen ¼ ð54Þ
ðm _
_ i hi þ Qsolar Þ
Thermal energy
storage system 1
Heat

cycle Electricity
Heat

Heat Heat
Heating Heat Absorption Cooling

Heat pump Crop dryer Refrigeration
chiller
Heat
Thermal energy
storage system 2
Fig. 33 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
_ hp þ Q
_ net;trigen þ Q
W _ cool
Ztrigen ¼ ð55Þ
_ _
ðmi hi þ Qsolar Þ
_ hp þ Q
_ net;multigen þ Q
W _ cool þ Q
_ Dryer þ Q
_ TES
Zmultigen ¼ ð56Þ
ðm _
_ i hi þ Qsolar Þ
The exergy efficiencies of all proposed systems from single generation to multigeneration system can calculated as
W_ net;singen
csingen ¼ ð57Þ
_ i exi þ Q
m _ solar 1 T0
Ts;sun
W _ cool
_ net;cogen þ Q T0
1
Ts;evp
ccogen ¼ ð58Þ
_ solar 1
_ i exi þ Q
m T0
Ts;sun
W _ hp 1 T0 þ Q
_ net;trigen þ Q _ cool T0
1
Ts Ts
ctrigen ¼ ð59Þ
_ solar 1 T0
_ i ex i þ Q
m Ts;sun
The exergy efficiency for the multigeneration or overall system can be found as
_ hp 1 T0 þ Q
_ net;multigen þ Q
W _ cool T0 _ Dryer 1 T0 þ Q
1 þQ _ TES 1 T0
Ts Ts Ts Ts
cmultigen ¼ ð60Þ
_ solar 1 T0
_ i ex i þ Q
m Ts;sun
_ solar ¼ ðm
where Q _ i hi m
_ e he Þ.
4.1.6.2.2 Results and discussion

Islam and Dincer [22] assessed the presented system thermodynamically through energy and exergy methodologies. The energy
and exergy efficiencies of the single generation, cogeneration, trigeneration and multigeneration system are found to be 22% and
54%, 34% and 60%, 44% and 60.4%, and 51% and 62%, respectively as represented in Fig. 34. It is important to note that the
energy efficiency of trigeneration system is higher than the cogeneration system but the exergy efficiencies of the cogeneration and
trigeneration systems are almost same because of the exergy losses in the compressor of the heat pump.
The rate of exergy destruction in each subunit of the proposed system is displayed in Fig. 35. It can be observed that the
magnitude of the rate of exergy destructions occurring in solar cycle is the highest followed by the geothermal cycle. The heat
pump accounts for the third highest rate of exergy destruction mainly because of the exergy losses in the compressor. The generator
of the absorption chiller is found to have the fourth highest exergy destruction because of the increased temperature difference
across its inlet and exit states. The rate of exergy destruction in the generator is possible to reduce either by incorporating an
efficient absorber or by operating it with a low temperature source. The fifth highest rate of exergy destruction is found to be in the
0.7 Energy efficiencies

Exergy efficiencies
0.6
Energy and exergy efficiencies
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Multigeneration Trigeneration Cogeneration Single generation
system system system system
Fig. 34 Graphical representation of efficiencies of single generation, cogeneration, trigeneration, and multigeneration system. Data from Islam S,
Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for
multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
10,000
Exergy destruction rate (kW)

1000
100
10
e
al s
1
2
tp r
r
pr r
3
r
cl
p
p
rh r
ea sso
te
la
er cto
e
S
S
um
tio m
cy
E
C chil
y
ea
TE
TE
H
rp pu
H
Su Dr
e
e
eo coll
n
m
so at
om
pe
e
r
H
H
la
th
So
Ab
G
Fig. 35 The rate of exergy destruction occurring in subsystems of the multigeneration system. Data from Islam S, Dincer I. Development,
analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy
2017;147:328–43.
0.64 Exergy efficiency of

multigeneration system
0.62
Exergy efficiency

trigeneration system
0.58
cogeneration system
0.54
0.52 Exergy efficiency of single
generation system
0.5
297 302 307
Ambient temperature (K)
Fig. 36 Effect of ambient temperature on the exergy efficiencies of proposed system. Data from Islam S, Dincer I. Development, analysis and
performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
compressor of heat pump as it operates at a larger temperature difference. The heat losses in other subunits like TES, heat
exchangers, and dryer are less, therefore, the rate of exergy destruction associated with these is insignificant.
The variation in the reference environment conditions affects the performance of the proposed multigeneration system. Fig. 36
displays the fluctuation in the exergy efficiencies of the single generation, cogeneration, trigeneration, and multigeneration systems
against the variation in the ambient temperature from 298 to 310K. The exergy efficiencies of single generation, cogeneration,
trigeneration, and multigeneration system are enhanced from 54% to 57.6%, 60% to 62.8%, 60.4% to 63%, and 62.2% to 63.5%,
respectively. The exergy efficiencies are enhanced because of less temperature difference as a result of increased ambient
temperature.
The rate of variation in the exergy destructions in subunits of the multigeneration system against the fluctuation in the ambient
temperature from 298 to 310K are graphically represented in Fig. 37. The magnitude of exergy destruction rate decreases with the
increase in the ambient temperature. This is due to the fact that the temperature difference between operating conditions and
ambient conditions is reduced with the increase in ambient temperature.
4.1.7 Future Directions
The exclusive integration of more than one energy conversion method is of great importance to meet the increasing demand of
electricity in upcoming years. Further advancements in the best possible integration of more than one energy resource and waste
energy harness methods will enhance the energy and exergy efficiencies of the conversion methods. The integration of TEG and
their best possible configuration necessitates further research. Moreover, development of improved thermoelectric materials is vital
to achieve increased output from thermoelectric devices.
10,000 Rate of exergy destruction in;
Exergy destruction rate (kW)

Solar cycle
1000 Geothermal cycle
Heat pump
100 Absorption chiller
TES 2
10
TES 1
Dryer
1
297 302 307
Ambient temperature (K)
Fig. 37 Effect of ambient temperature on exergy destruction rate in subunits of the multigeneration system. TES: thermal energy storage. Data
from Islam S, Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system
for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
In addition to this, gasification of the oil and biomass waste integrated with multigeneration system is an attractive option to
convert the waste into useful energy with less emissions. Aspen Plus simulation of the animal waste-based dual gasifier reveals that
CO2 emissions can be reduced by further using the produced CO2 as a gasification agent [52].
Farrukh et al. [53] combined solar and biomass energy sources and optimized multigeneration system. They found the newly
developed hybrid system more efficient and economical as compared to the operation of solar and biomass systems individually.
Recently, Islam et al. [54] developed a novel renewable energy-based multigeneration system and reported overall increase in the
energy and exergy efficiencies. Moreover, the energy and exergy efficiencies associated with the ORC were also increased due to
multigeneration.
Shim et al. [55] proposed an enhanced energy conversion device using ultrafast magnetic cooling effect phenomenon. The
magnetic cooling effect originates from a large change in entropy by the forced magnetization alignment, which has long been
considered to be utilized as an alternative environment-friendly cooling technology compared to conventional refrigeration. Wu
et al. [56] developed a novel energy conversion method based on hydrogel material for self-powered sensor system applications
that can harvest energy from environment vibrations and supply power to sensors without any external power source.
Moreover, the integration of various types of renewable energy systems with thermoelectric devices including the assessment of
their best configuration to reduce pollution is another direction for research. Ali and Yilbas developed an innovative design for an
extended leg TEG with tapering and segmented pin configuration for improved thermal performance [57].
4.1.8 Concluding Remarks
Several energy conversion methods are presented and discussed from energy, exergy, and environmental perspectives. There are
advantages as well as disadvantages associated with each method of energy conversion. The novel integration of two or more
renewable energy conversion methods can help to moderate or swap the usage of fossil fuels for electricity generation. The high
initial investment is one of the major challenges in the expansion and commercialization of the renewable energy-based integrated
multigeneration systems. The profitability of such systems can be achieved through the advances in the technologies to extract
increased amount of useful energy from a source through multigeneration and manufacturing of tough materials that can
withstand increased temperatures. The transportation and effective utilization of the byproducts such as hydrogen and other
chemicals is another challenge associated with such systems. Case studies showed that integrating two renewable energy resources
is advantageous to generate multiple outputs with high efficiency.
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Further Reading
Akrami E, Chitsaz A, Nami H, Mahmoudi SMS. Energetic and exergoeconomic assessment of a multi-generation energy system based on indirect use of geothermal energy.
Energy 2017;124:625–39.
Bejan A, Tsatsaronis G, Moran MJ. Thermal design and optimization. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1996.
Capareda S. Introduction to biomass energy conversions. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2013.
Cengel YA, Boles MA. Thermodynamics an engineering approach. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.
Demirel Y. Nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Transport and Rate Processes in Physical, Chemical and Biological Systems, 2007; 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2007.
Demirel Y. Energy: production, conversion, storage, conservation and coupling. London, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht: Springer; 2012.
Dincer I. Refrigeration systems and applications. 3rd ed. London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2017.
Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy, Environment And Sustainable Development. Oxford: Elsevier; 2013.
Dincer I, Rosen MA, Ahmadi P. Optimization of Energy Systems. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2017.
Goswami Y, Dharendra , Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
Moran MJ, Shapiro HB, Boettner DD, Bailey M. Fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics. 7th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2011.
Relevant Websites
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u2246e/u2246e02.htm
Basic Energy Concepts.
http://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Energy_conversion_technology
Energy Education.
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-60-fundamentals-of-advanced-energy-conversion-spring-2004/
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/types-of-energy-conversions.html
Study.com: Types of Energy Conversions.
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cla_lesson4_forms_states_conversions
Teach Engineering.
4.2 Heat Exchangers
Almıla G Yazıcıoğlu, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Selin Aradağ, Ece Aylı, Gizem Gülben, and Sadık Kakaç, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4.2.1 Introduction 41
4.2.1.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers 41
4.2.1.1.1 Type of interaction 41
4.2.1.1.2 Recuperation/regeneration 41
4.2.1.1.3 Flow configuration 42
4.2.1.1.4 Heat transfer mechanism 42
4.2.1.1.5 Geometry 42
4.2.1.2 Heat Exchanger Selection 45
4.2.1.3 Recent Developments 45
4.2.1.3.1 Microscale heat exchangers 46
4.2.1.3.2 Nanofluids 48
4.2.2 Background/Fundamentals 49
4.2.2.1 Design Methods for Heat Exchangers 49
4.2.2.1.1 Log mean temperature difference method 50
4.2.2.1.2 Effectiveness-number of transfer units method 50
4.2.2.2 Background on Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchangers 51
4.2.3 Specifics of Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchanger Design 55
4.2.4 Experimental Work and Software Development 56
4.2.4.1 Experiments 56
4.2.4.2 Computer Software Development 56
4.2.5 Case Study 58
4.2.6 Validation and Verification 59
4.2.6.1 Validation of the Software Using Experimental Data 59
4.2.6.2 Verification of the Computer Software With Correlations in Literature 60
4.2.7 Future Directions 65
4.2.8 Closing Remarks 67
Acknowledgments 67
References 67
Further Reading 69
Relevant Websites 69
Nomenclature m_ Mass flow rate, kg s1

A Area, m 2
Ncp Number of channels per pass
A1 Actual effective area, m2 Ne Number of plates for heat transfer
A1,p Projected plate area, m2 Np Number of passes
b Mean channel spacing, m Nt Total number of plates
cp Specific heat, J kg1 K1 NTU Number of transfer units
C Heat capacity rate, W K1 Nu Nusselt number
C* Heat capacity rate ratio OS Over surface
Dp Port diameter, mm p Plate pitch, m
De Equivalent diameter, m Pr Prandtl number
Dh Hydraulic diameter, m DP Pressure drop, kPa
f Fanning friction factor Q Heat transfer rate, W
F LMTD correction factor Re Reynolds number
Gc Channel mass velocity, kg m2 s1 R Thermal resistance, m2 K1 W1
h Heat transfer coefficient, W m2 K1 t Thickness, m
k Thermal conductivity, W m1 K1 T Temperature, K
Lh Horizontal port distance, m DTlm Logarithmic mean temperature difference
Lp Length of the plate between the ports, m (LMTD), K
Lv Vertical port distance, m U Overall heat transfer coefficient, W m2 K1
Lw Plate width, m W_p Pump power, kW
40 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00402-8

Heat Exchangers 41
Subscripts f Fouled
1 Inlet h Hot
2 Outlet i Inside
b Bulk o Outside
c Cold w Wall
eff Effective
Greek Symbols m Dynamic viscosity, Pa s1

b Chevron angle,1 r Density, kg m3
HEX effectiveness F Surface enlargement factor
4.2.1 Introduction
Heat exchangers (HEX) are essential components in various industries, including aerospace, chemical, food, electronics, health,
petroleum, power, and transportation, among others. They allow heat transfer between two or more fluids for the purpose of
heating or cooling in processes, such as refrigeration, residential heating, electronics cooling, power production, wastewater
treatment and heat recovery, and combustion. This chapter aims to provide a brief background on the classification, selection, and
design of HEX, and focuses on gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) with a summary of recent developments in literature, including
experimental and numerical work, and the specifics of GPHEX design methodology.
The first objective of this work is to provide the classification and types of HEX (Section 4.2.1.1) and to provide general
information on the HEX selection process, design methods, and methodology (Sections 4.2.1.2 and 4.2.2.1). After providing
general information on the classification and design of HEX, the main focus of the chapter is on GPHEX; specifically, the work
aims to shed light on the design, experiments, computations, and selection of plates for GPHEX. General information on GPHEX
including advantages, utilization, plate geometries, and design is provided. A detailed literature survey on the state of the art is in
Section 4.2.2.2. Section 4.2.3 explains the design procedure of GPHEX in detail. In Section 4.2.4, the details of a GPHEX selection
software coded based on the correlations developed using experimental findings on several types of plates are explained. Sec-
tion 4.2.5 is devoted to a case study of this software. Results are discussed in Section 4.2.6, whereas future directions and closing
remarks are provided in Sections 4.2.7 and 4.2.8.
4.2.1.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers

HEX are classified according to several criteria: type of interaction (direct or indirect contact), recuperation/regeneration,
flow configuration (parallel, counter, cross, or mixed), heat transfer mechanism (single or two-phase convection), and
geometry (tubular, plate, or extended surfaces). These classification criteria are usually based on the application they are
intended for. As a result, the terms boiler, condenser, steam generator, evaporator, heater, cooler, and radiator are often used
in place of the word HEX. Many HEX are unique to a particular application, due to specialized requirements of the
application; thus the designs are proprietary. Regardless, classification of HEX allows for the development of general design
methodologies.
4.2.1.1.1 Type of interaction

In a direct contact HEX, the fluids are allowed to get in contact with each other as heat is transferred from the hot to the cold fluid
at the interface between the two fluids. Mass transfer usually accompanies heat transfer in such a case. The cooling tower of a steam
power plant is a good example for this type of HEX, where a stream of cool air flows over a spray of warm water. In an indirect
contact (or transmural) HEX, the two fluids are separated by a solid wall, generally a tube or a plate, across which heat is
transferred. The fluids are not in contact and mixing does not occur.
4.2.1.1.2 Recuperation/regeneration
Another classification is based on whether recuperation (direct transfer) or regeneration (storage) occurs in the HEX. Direct-transfer
should not be confused with direct contact, explained above. Most conventional HEX, such as double-pipe, shell-and-tube, or
gasketed-plate are recuperators, where the heat is transferred directly (either through contact or through a separating wall) from the
hot fluid to the cold fluid and both flows are continuous. In contrast, in a regenerator, a matrix is utilized to store the thermal
energy as it is first transferred from the hot fluid to the matrix, then from the matrix to the cold fluid, as a result of which the flow is
generally periodic. Regenerators may be fixed matrix, such as air preheaters for furnaces, or rotary – either disk-type or drum-type.
In a rotary regenerator, the matrix alternately flows in and out of the two gas streams as it stores and releases thermal energy; these
are often utilized in steam power plants and gas turbines.
42 Heat Exchangers
Hot fluid Heat transfer Hot fluid

Heat transfer
Cold fluid Cold fluid
(A) (B)
Fluid 1 Fluid 1
(C) Fluid 2 (D) Fluid 2

Fig. 1 Possible flow configurations for two fluids in a heat exchanger (HEX). (A) Parallel-flow; (B) counter-flow; (C) cross-flow, Fluid 1 mixed,
Fluid 2 unmixed; and (D) cross-flow, both fluids unmixed.
4.2.1.1.3 Flow configuration

Flow configuration (or arrangement) refers to the geometric relationship between the fluid streams, relating to the fluid flow paths.
In parallel-flow (Fig. 1(A)) the two streams enter the HEX on the same side, flow parallel to each other, and leave on the other side
of the HEX, while in counter-flow (Fig. 1(B)) the fluids flow in opposite directions. In terms of temperature efficiency, i.e., making
good use of the available temperature difference between the two fluids, counter-flow HEX are superior [1,2], however, parallel-
flow HEX generally have more uniform wall temperatures. In cross-flow (Fig. 1(C) and (D)), the two fluids flow perpendicular to
each other and the flows may each be mixed or unmixed. A mixed flow refers to the fluid being allowed to mix in itself in the
transverse direction (see Fig. 1(C), Fluid 1), whereas unmixed flows refers to the fluid being guided through several individual
channels (plates or tubes) without mixing between the adjacent channels (see Fig. 1(C), Fluid 2 and Fig. 1(D), both fluids).
Depending on the combination, the HEX may be referred to as mixed–unmixed cross-flow, unmixed–unmixed flow cross-flow,
etc. Often the flow configuration is not simple or ideal, as described above, but a combination of these flows occurs due to the use
of multipass arrangements, U-tube junctions, and baffles.
4.2.1.1.4 Heat transfer mechanism

When the heat transfer mechanism is single-phase convection, the fluid stream(s) often encounter a significant amount of
temperature change. In a counter-flow HEX, it is even possible for one of the fluids to leave the HEX at a temperature close to the
inlet temperature of the other fluid, based on their respective heat capacity rates. However, in a parallel-flow HEX, the most that
can occur is the two outlet temperatures being close to each other, since temperature cross-over is not thermodynamically possible.
When there is two-phase convection on one or both sides of the HEX, often the purpose is to boil or condense the fluid(s) with
phase change. Two-phase flow also refers to a case where a mixture of gas and solid particles are utilized for heat transfer, such as a
fluidized bed. When there is phase change, the temperature change in the related stream is small, usually as a result of the small
changes in pressure. Many times, subcooling and superheating sections occur before and after the saturation region in the HEX; in
such a case, design is sometimes performed as if there are three HEX in series.
4.2.1.1.5 Geometry
The final classification is based on the geometry of the HEX design and the major features of the construction, thus the type of
HEX. As new and specialized designs are added to the market each day, the geometry becomes more complex and unique.
Nevertheless, three major categories may be described: tubular, plate, and extended-surface. In a tubular HEX, one fluid flows
inside the tube, while the other flows on the outside, with the number of tubes, flow configuration, and tube diameter, length, and
arrangement being key variables in the design.
The most common tubular HEX are double-pipe (hairpin) and shell-and-tube HEX; while spiral-tube HEX are also utilized. A
simple double-pipe HEX has one pipe placed concentrically inside a larger-diameter pipe, with one fluid flowing inside the inner
tube and the other flowing through the annular space between the two tubes. U-shaped return bends enclosed in a housing are
used to connect inner tubes and the whole structure resembles a hairpin, hence the name. Modular use of these HEX is possible;
individual hairpins may be combined in series of parallel configurations to meet the pressure drop and temperature requirements
in the process. Heat transfer surface areas are generally small, unless multiple inner tubes and/or fins on the surfaces of the inner
tubes are utilized, thus double-pipe HEX are usually more suitable for low heat duty applications. They can withstand high
pressures, especially on the tube side, due to small tube diameters, and cleaning and maintenance are relatively easy, compared to
other types of HEX.
Shell-and-tube HEX are perhaps the most widely used type of tubular HEX due to their versatility in construction and
application. They are formed by placing a large tube bundle inside a shell, with one fluid flowing through the tubes, while the
Heat Exchangers 43
Fig. 2 A shell-and-tube heat exchangers (HEX) with single shell-and-tube side passes. Courtesy of Konuk Isı.
Fig. 3 The U-tube bundle, tube sheet, and baffles of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (HEX). Courtesy of Konuk Isı.
other is on the shell-side, in parallel, counter, cross-flow or a combination of these, depending on the specifics of construction. An
example is shown in Fig. 2. Baffles are often used to guide the shell-side flow across the tubes, enhance the heat transfer coefficient
on the shell-side by promoting turbulence, and support the tube bundle against sagging and vibration. Fig. 3 is an example of the
tube bundle inserted into the shell, with supporting baffles, and the tube sheet at one end of the bundle. It is possible to employ
different tube and shell types or number of passes, tube layouts, baffle types and geometries, based on requirements of design;
such as heat duty, pressure drop, fouling, and cleaning, and maintenance. In general, shell-and-tube HEX designs are more
complex and costly compared to double-pipe HEX, but they have much larger heat transfer surface areas, thus they can accom-
modate larger heat duties. Spiral-tube HEX have coaxial-flow and contain spirally wound coils inside a shell, making benefit of the
increased heat transfer coefficients in the curved tubes compared to straight tubes. These type of HEX are preferred in applications
with clean fluids, since cleaning is nearly impossible.
In plate HEX, instead of tubes, thin plates form the flow channels. Fluid streams flow between the plates, which may have
corrugations or wavy surfaces to promote heat transfer depending on the type of fluid. GPHEX, which are the main focus of this
chapter, are the most widely used type of plate HEX. They were initially used in the food industry due to their ease of cleaning, but
have now come to be preferred as alternatives to shell-and-tube HEX in relatively lower pressure and heat duty liquid-to-liquid
applications. They are composed of a pack of plates as the heat transfer surface with gaskets and the components of the frame,
which includes a fixed plate, a compression (pressure) plate, an upper carrier bar, a guidance bar, a support column, and tightening
bolts and nuts. A sample GPHEX assembly is provided in Fig. 4. The flow pattern for each fluid is through the passages formed by
44 Heat Exchangers
Fig. 4 A gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) assembly showing the plate pack, end plates, bolts, and nuts.
Fig. 5 The plates and gaskets of a gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) demonstrating the alternating flow patterns of each fluid. Courtesy of Alfa Laval
Corporate AB.
alternate plate pairs, as shown in Fig. 5. Plate corrugation design and the specialized gaskets direct the fluids across the plates and
prevent intermixing of the fluids and leakage to the outside. A major advantage is that the heat transfer area (plates) is easily
accessible, which allows for changing the configuration to suit different process requirements by changing the number of plates
and cleaning. In addition, heat transfer coefficients are very high due to small channel sizes and increased turbulence. GPHEX will
be investigated in detail in the following sections. Other types of plate HEX are also available, such as spiral plate and lamella HEX.
Heat Exchangers 45
Fluid 2
Fluid 1 Fluid 2
Fluid 1
(A) (B)
Fig. 6 Common core types of extended surface heat exchangers (HEX). (A) Plate-fin HEX and (B) tube-fin HEX.
Extended-surface HEX make use of fins on the main heat transfer surface area – tube or plate – to enhance heat transfer by both
promoting turbulence and increasing the heat transfer surface area. They are also known as compact HEX since surface area-to-
volume ratios are high (over 700 m2 m3) compared to other types of HEX. As a result, they are widely preferred in applications in
the transportation and aircraft industries, where limited space is available. Plate-fin HEX, generally used for gas-to-gas applications,
and tube-fin HEX, used with the liquid on the tube side and the gas on the finned side, are the major categories, but finned tubes,
such as those used in double-pipe HEX, are also common. In the plate-fin HEX, whose simple core structure is shown in Fig. 6(A),
corrugated fins are sandwiched between flat plates, forming the fluid channels. The fins may be plain, perforated, serrated, or wavy,
but specialized designs are also possible. Good flow distribution in the channels tends to be a problem, therefore manifold design
requires special attention in the construction of the HEX. In addition, pressure drop can be high due to small hydraulic diameters.
Tube-fin HEX are utilized when low heat transfer coefficients are encountered on one side due to gas flow and liquid flow may still
be used inside tubes. The fins are fixed on the outside of an array of tubes, which may be round, flattened, or elliptical. Due to
relative ease of construction, the fins are generally continuous plates, as sketched in Fig. 6(B), attached to the tubes by brazing,
welding, or mechanical fit. Extended surfaces may also be utilized on the inside of tubes, especially for condensing and boiling
applications, through the use of microfins (rough surfaces) and helical wire or twisted tape inserts.
4.2.1.2 Heat Exchanger Selection

Basic design methodology for HEX will be provided in the next section. However, in order to initiate the design, a suitable HEX
type must be selected, considering the classification criteria summarized previously and other aspects that affect the selection
process. Firstly, the HEX must satisfy all the process requirements related to flow rates, stream temperatures, operating pressures,
pressure drop limitations, and size, and it must do so until a predetermined maintenance period. It must tolerate the environ-
mental conditions of the plant where it will function, for instance by resisting corrosion. Another crucial issue is the resistance to
fouling, which is the accumulation or growth of unwanted material on the heat transfer surface, leading to reduced performance,
or even shutdown. Fouling affects initial and operating costs as well as heat transfer performance and pumping power require-
ments. Provisions for fouling must be made in selecting the suitable materials, fans/pumps, and factors that affect the size (heat
transfer surface area), for example, tube length, diameter, and number. Fouling has been cited as the major unresolved problem in
heat transfer [3].
Another issue in the selection process is maintenance. Fluid stream distribution and the HEX configuration must allow for
cleaning and/or replacement of required parts, such as tubes or gaskets, that are affected by fouling, corrosion, erosion, or even
vibration. Suitable space must be allocated around the HEX for maintenance or transportation, should a replacement unit be
necessary. There may be further restrictions affecting selection, such as material/replacement parts availability, or any other plant
requirement. Finally, the HEX must be cost effective in terms of capital, operational, and maintenance costs.
4.2.1.3 Recent Developments

In recent years, traditional materials, both for the working fluids and HEX structure, have started to be replaced by more advanced
materials, such as the use of nanofluids and polymer HEX, in order to provide a more efficient performance or a more durable
structure. Although metals have been the material of choice in the HEX industry since the earliest designs, in some applications,
they give rise to limitations on the operation. This has resulted in the need to develop alternative designs with different materials,
such as polymers. Polymers are generally able to resist fouling and corrosion and they may offer considerable reduction in weight.
Although their thermal conductivities are low, resulting in high thermal resistance as the HEX construction material, using thin
walls and/or polymer composites helps reduce this problem and utilize the benefits of easier machinability and lower main-
tenance costs. For example, in one of the earliest designs, a plastic two-phase HEX was utilized for desalination application [4]. In
addition to alteration of the working fluid or the HEX material, the need for heat removal in smaller-scale applications has
promoted the development of microscale HEX.
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seminagione, il doppio alla messe, oltre gli ordinarj; trecentoventi
bovi con sessantacinque aratri alla coltura; ducencinquanta bovi
sonvi ingrassati: ottocento vacche, cento bufali e duemila pecore
pascolano nel maggese: cento cavalli servono ai sorveglianti e pei
trasporti, oltre ducencinquanta giumenti e i loro piccoli. Eppure non
si affitta che tredici franchi l’ettara.
Il sistema di far rendere senza intervento d’uomini nè spese di
coltura, contentandosi de’ prodotti spontanei, non è dunque generale
nello Stato; e la grande coltura è propria solo delle paludi e della
campagna: ma insalubrità, spopolamento, mancanza di sfoghi sono
reciprocamente cause ed effetti di danno, nè si può riparare ad uno
in particolare; e vuolsi ben altro che decreti, fossero anche ben
consigliati. Clemente XIII vietò di tagliar legnami nei possessi dei
Comuni o della Camera apostolica senza licenza; nel 1789 Pio VI
diede un buon regolamento pei boschi, e fece erigere un nuovo
catasto; colla libera asportazione de’ grani ne sollecitava la
produzione; nel conferire le doti si preferirebbero le figlie
d’agricoltori; si stabilirono premj e pene che non ottennero effetto. La
dominazione francese brevissima non ebbe tempo di spartire fra
operosi proprietarj i latifondi di manomorta che traeva al fisco; e una
commissione istituita nel 1810 per migliorare le paludi Pontine, nulla
trasse a riva. Nel 1819 una società straniera offerse di prendere in
affitto tutto l’Agro romano, retribuendo al fisco un canone annuo, e a
ciascun proprietario un fitto pari a quello che allora godeva; e dopo
cinquant’anni restituirgli i terreni migliorati: intanto la società avrebbe
dissodato il fondo, rasciutte le paludi Pontine e quelle di Macarese
ed Ostia, resi navigabili il Tevere e il Teverone per l’intero loro corso,
aprendo così una uscita ai prodotti della Sabina; costruito villaggi
con chiese, scuole, ospizj, strade; utilizzato le acque minerali e
sulfuree; piantato modelli di podere dove introdurre produzioni
nuove, l’indago, la cannamele ed altri; tutti questi lavori sarebbero
fatti da indigeni, alloggiati in situazioni salubri, congedati ne’ mesi
pestilenziali. Erano forse le solite lustre di speculatori: fatto è che la
proposizione, dal nuovo papa accolta favorevolmente, fu lasciata
cadere forse per opera di chi ne temeva scapito.
Il nuovo papa Pio VIII (Saverio Castiglioni) (1829 31 maggio), uomo
austero e dotto, lodato del far poco, dopo che Leone XII avea fatto
troppo; non arricchì parenti; usò a ministro il cardinale Albani,
impinguatosi con appalti e speculazioni, inclinato all’Austria, nè
troppo sottile in fatto di religione e amante i piaceri tanto più che non
era prete. Di corto il papa moriva (1830 30 9bre), e nell’orazione
solita recitarsi nel conclave de eligendo pontifice il dottissimo
cardinale Maj diceva ai radunati: — Dateci un papa che sia per la
fede Pietro, per costanza Cornelio, per felicità Silvestro, per
eleganza Damaso; abbia di Leone la nitida eloquenza, di Gelasio la
dottrina, di Gregorio la pietà, di Simmaco la fortezza, di Adriano
l’amicizia dei principi; sia per la concordia delle Chiese Eugenio, pel
patrocinio delle lettere Nicolò, per grandezza di consigli Giulio, per
liberalità Leone, per santità Pio, per vigore d’animo Sisto; e per non
ricorrere solo le prische età, dateci un pontefice che non manchino
nè l’erudizione di Benedetto XIV, nè la munificenza del sesto Pio, nè
la forza e benignità del settimo, nè la vigilanza di Leone XII, nè la
rettitudine di Pio VIII».
Campione della religione e dell’autorità era Francesco IV di Modena,
carattere robusto, mente estesa, operante per fredda ragione e col
profondo convincimento nelle idee patriarcali che il popolo fosse
roba del principe e da questo dovesse aspettare il bene, e il principe
fosse obbligato a farglielo. Ricchissimo di patrimonio, e più dopo che
Beatrice d’Este sua madre gli lasciò 50 milioni di lire e la signoria di
Massa e Carrara, fu il solo principe che alleggerisse le imposte; nella
fame del 1816 tirò grano dall’Ungheria e lo rivendette a basso
prezzo, oltre dar minestre gratuite; in quella del 1829 distribuì
centomila pesi di canapa da filare, duemila e cento pesi di farina per
mano de’ parroci, e cenventimila lire fra limosine e lavori straordinarj;
istituì monti frumentarj per sovvenire i piccoli possidenti e gli agricoli.
I nobili si amicò, dei perduti diritti feudali compensandoli con carte
pubbliche: ripristinò gli Ordini religiosi, e risarcì in parte la Chiesa dei
beni confiscatile. Nelle leggi mitigava i rigori della giustizia punitiva,
tutelava gl’interessi domestici, migliorava il regime delle ipoteche,
accolse la società scientifica dei Quaranta; manteneva alle
accademie forestiere giovani che si raffinassero nell’arti e nelle
scienze; raccolse libri, quadri, medagliere, museo ricchissimo.
Dotato di gran memoria, notava moltissimo; scriveva lunghe
dissertazioni, che in parte si hanno, come migliaja di suoi rescritti a
petizioni [196].
Viene il tremuoto? imperversa il cholera? esso gli annunzia come
castighi di Dio contro i riottosi; tutti i proprj atti motiva dal meglio del
popolo; ma vuole che il popolo obbedisca; e perchè la Rivoluzione
scassinò la docilità, adopera ogni mezzo per ottenerla a forza.
Tutt’occhi a vigilare gl’interessi de’ principi, per lui l’Austria venne
informata delle trame de’ Carbonari. Al congresso di Verona offrì un
lungo scritto contro le costituzioni, suggerendo come mezzi a
impedirle il favorire la religione, rialzare la nobiltà, interessandola
negli affari pubblici e alla conservazione dell’ordine; ampliare
l’esercizio dell’autorità paterna, correggere la legislazione quanto al
crimenlese, e semplificare la procedura in modo che i negativi non
isfuggano al rigore delle leggi; migliorare il sistema dell’educazione,
adattandola alle condizioni, e restringendo il numero di quelli che
applicano agli studj; s’invigilasse la stampa; insieme le imposte
fossero fisse e non vessatorie, e libera la circolazione delle derrate.
In fatti nel suo paese era gelosissima la censura, di cent’occhi la
Polizia, potenti i devoti, tollerati quei soli scrittori che si facessero
appoggio a quella che diceasi causa dei troni e degli altari. Orribil
fama avanza dei processi fatti dopo il 1821; e Giulio Besini, ministro
della Polizia che pareva inasprirli, cadde scannato (1822 17 8bre) da
un giovinetto Morandi. Il duca ne restò esacerbato, e sopra quaranta
inquisiti e sette contumaci alcuno lasciò andare a morte, fra cui il
prete Andreoli di Correggio. Altri processi tesseronsi di tempo in
tempo, e un colonnello Cavedoni se ne sottrasse uccidendosi.
Per verità l’azione delle società secrete non erasi mai rallentata; e i
vanti che se ne menarono dopo la riuscita, accertano che la
rivoluzione di Parigi nel 1830 non fu spontanea rivolta contro
ordinanze incostituzionali, ma lunga preparazione delle combriccole.
Queste aveano fila anche in Italia, onde nel 1829 il papa le colpì di
scomunica, e istituì una commissione che processò ventisei
Carbonari. Châteaubriand, allora ambasciadore a Roma, scriveva al
conte Portalis ministro a Parigi: — Leggete con cautela ciò che vi
scriveranno da Napoli e d’altrove. Si reputa cospirazione il
malcontento universale, il frutto de’ tempi, la lotta dell’antica colla
nuova società, delle istituzioni decrepite contro le giovani
generazioni, il confronto che ciascuno fa di ciò che è con ciò che
potrebb’essere. I Governi rappresentativi con Governi assoluti non
potranno durar insieme. Confini doganali possono oramai dividere la
libertà dalla schiavitù? nè un uomo essere impiccato di qua d’un
ruscello per principj che al di là sono reputati sacri? Questa, e
questa sola è la cospirazione in Italia; ma dal dì che entrerà nel
godimento de’ diritti portati dai tempi, sarà tranquilla e puramente
italiana. Non sono oscuri Carbonari che faranno sollevare questo
paese. Queste sono le condizioni dell’Italia; ma ciascuno Stato, oltre
i dolori comuni, è tormentato da qualche malattia sua particolare. Il
Piemonte in balìa d’una fazione fanatica; il Milanese divorato dagli
Austriaci; i dominj del santo padre rovinati dalla cattiva
amministrazione delle finanze, poichè l’imposta si eleva a quasi
cinquanta milioni, e non lascia al proprietario l’un per cento delle sue
rendite; le dogane non danno quasi niente, e il contrabbando è
generale. Il principe di Modena stabilì nel suo ducato (luogo di
franchigia per tutti gli antichi abusi) magazzini di merci proibite, che
nottetempo fa entrare nella legazione di Bologna. Il Governo delle
Due Sicilie è caduto nell’ultimo disprezzo: il vivere della Corte in
mezzo alle sue guardie, non offrendo altri spettacoli che cacce
ruinose e forche, rende vituperevole la monarchia agli sguardi del
popolo. La mancanza di virtù militare prolungherà l’agonia dell’Italia.
Buonaparte non ebbe il tempo di far rivivere questa virtù; le abitudini
d’una vita oziosa e i prestigi del clima contribuiscono a togliere
agl’Italiani del mezzogiorno il desiderio di agitarsi per migliorare. Le
antipatie nate dalle divisioni territoriali accrescono le difficoltà
degl’interni moti; ma se qualche impulso venisse di fuori, o se
qualche principe fra l’Alpi concedesse uno statuto a’ suoi sudditi,
avrebbe luogo una rivoluzione, a cui tutto è maturo. Di noi più felici e
della nostra esperienza istruiti, questi popoli saranno parchi de’ delitti
di cui noi femmo scialacquo».
Così, da alto ingegno e da occhio sperimentato giudicavasi la
condizione della patria nostra. Così ministri e ambasciadori possono
ingannare ed aizzare, peggio che non facciano libellisti scalmanati.
Diceasi che Sanfedisti e Concistoriali volessero anche essi
l’indipendenza, ma coll’appoggiarsi a principi nazionali, e un nuovo
riparto dell’Italia, ove al papa si attribuisse porzione della Toscana e
il Polesine di Rovigo, in compenso delle Marche, le quali coll’isola
d’Elba andrebbero al re di Napoli; al duca di Modena, parte della
Lombardia, Parma, Piacenza, il Veneto col titolo di re; il resto della
Lombardia, il Tirolo italiano, Massa, Carrara, Lucca al Piemonte.
Queste potean essere aspirazioni, e si disse che qualche capo
liberale facesse proposizioni in tal senso al duca di Modena; egli
denaroso e potente, egli avveduto e ambizioso, qualora desse mano
ad una rivolta potrebbe farsi re di tutta Italia, se non altro, del
Piemonte. Se la proposta fu fatta, se egli vi ascoltò, del che
mancano prove, fu un intrigo ignobile, dove nessuna delle parti
operava di buona fede, ma donde appare che già allora, e nei due
campi opposti, il sentimento comune era il desiderio di diventare
nazione, appena un impulso esterno desse il crollo ai principati,
destituiti del fondamento vero, l’amore dei popoli.
E parve venuto allorchè i Francesi (1830), i quali aveano una
Costituzione e tutti i mezzi legali di correggerla e svilupparla, si
precipitarono alle vie illegittime; e nelle tre giornate di luglio, con
grande sacrifizio di vite, cacciarono la dinastia de’ Borboni, e al
domani vi sostituirono quella degli Orléans. Non era però soltanto
una rivoluzione di palazzo; cambiavasi il diritto pubblico, al re
discendente da re, capo de’ nobili, largitore della libertà,
surrogandosene uno eletto da una turba parigina che intitolavasi
popolo francese; alla dinastia ripristinata dagli stranieri, una che
fondava i suoi diritti sulla rivoluzione, cioè sovra ciò che, per l’istesso
suo nome, manca di stabilità. Poichè non può scuotersi la Francia
senza che tutt’Europa se ne risenta, vi tennero dietro sollevazioni nel
Belgio, in Polonia, in Grecia, e commovimenti per tutta Europa.
La Francia sta sempre in occhio che l’Austria, sua antagonista, non
ingrandisca di troppo in Italia, solletica le aspirazioni nazionali, ostili
all’Austria: eppure ripugna dal lasciare che vi si formi uno Stato
poderoso, e noi ci diciamo traditi perchè supponiamo gratuitamente
che sia generosità disinteressata quel ch’è tornaconto nazionale. Da
un pezzo gli accorti denunziano una siffatta politica: eppure coloro
che vedono unica salvezza nelle rivoluzioni, ne considerano unica
leva la Francia, e perciò l’invocano, e dai movimenti di essa
prendono impulso e norma ai proprj; delusi cento volte, cento
ricascano, come l’amante coll’amica infedele, o come il naufrago che
s’aggrappa a qualunque corpo, foss’anche un altro naufragante.
Ora però sembrava affatto al caso nostro il simbolo della nuova
rivoluzione francese: perchè, alla Santa Alleanza, ch’erasi arrogato
d’intervenire in qualunque paese onde impedire le istituzioni
dissonanti dal sistema di lei, Francia contrapponeva il non-
intervento, cioè che nessuna nazione potesse impedire che un’altra
mutasse gli ordinamenti interni, secondo la volontà del principe o del
popolo. Chi sbandì sempre le Costituzioni d’Italia? L’Austriaco,
diceano. Ora che la magnanima Francia proclamò il non-intervento,
potranno i popoli di essa costituirsi, forse d’accordo coi re: se non
resta altra via che l’insurrezione dove mancano rappresentanza e
diritto di petizione, la Francia democratica sosterrà certo una
rivoluzione democratica; tanto più che così l’Austria sarà costretta
occupare in Italia le armi, che affilava contro la nuova rivoluzione. Il
ministro Lafitte avea dichiarato alla tribuna: — La Francia non
permetterà che il non-intervento sia violato»; e Dupin soggiunse: —
Se la Francia, rinserrandosi in un freddo egoismo, avesse detto che
non interverrà, sarebbe vigliaccheria: ma dire che non soffrirà
s’intervenga, è la più nobile attitudine che possa prendere un popolo
forte e generoso» [197].
La Santa Alleanza e i principi nostri sentirono il pericolo, e
prepararonsi: il re di Piemonte tolse le armi alla Savoja, mise le
fortezze e l’esercito in istato di guerra, ma subito stendeva la mano
al nuovo re Luigi Filippo come al solo che poteva allora salvare
l’autorità. Al contrario il duca di Modena mai nol volle riconoscere,
ebbe sempre come legittima soltanto la linea primogenita, e lasciava
che in Parlamento i Francesi minacciassero cacciarlo a colpi di
scudiscio. La situazione restava complicata dall’essere allora
appunto vacanti i troni di Piemonte, di Sicilia, di Roma.
L’interregno papale fu tumultuoso, non solo fra gli ambasciadori che
imponevano chi eleggere o no a pontefice, ma nella città dove si
tentò una sollevazione (9bre), istigandola principalmente la famiglia
Buonaparte colà ospitata; anzi Napoleone e Luigi, figli del già re di
Olanda, con alcuni Côrsi e con vecchi soldati corsero gridando Italia
e Libertà, ma non trovando consenso, andarono dispersi o furono
presi. Tra siffatte irrequietudini era elevato alla tiara Mauro
Cappellari, dotto e pio camaldolese di Belluno (1831 2 febb.); e col
nome di Gregorio XVI «si assunse liberamente in faccia all’Europa
gl’impegni che si rendeano necessarj per la durevole unione tra
gl’interessi del trono e quelli della nazione» [198].
La rivolta, che era fallita in Roma mercè l’attenzione del cardinale
Bernetti segretario di Stato, meglio riuscì in provincia. I cospiratori,
sempre tenendosi sicuri del non-intervento, divisavano far in
ciascuno Stato particolari rivoluzioni, salvo poi a fondersi in un solo
che avesse centro Bologna. I Menotti di Carpi erano ricca famiglia e
industriosa, con estesa fabbrica di cappelli di trucioli; col qual
pretesto Ciro viaggiò, ed affiatossi colla propaganda a Parigi e coi
Buonaparte a Roma. Ch’egli si facesse intermedio di questi presso il
duca di Modena, col quale era associato per negozj, e che il duca lo
lusingasse per tradirlo, è smentito da lettere; Enrico Misley riceveva
denari dal duca per ispiare i cospiratori a Parigi, mentre da questi
faceasi credere devoto alla libertà [199]. La tresca cresceva; ma di
mezzo al preparare vien arrestato Nicola Fabrizj modenese,
principalissimo fra i cospiratori, sicchè questi non potendo più
mettere indugio, raccolgonsi in numero di quindici nella casa Menotti
(3 febb.), e spacciano per sollecitare soccorsi dalla campagna e
dalle città. Il duca informatone, unisce i pochi soldati, e segnatosi,
marcia a capo di quelli, e con pochi colpi obbligatili a rendersi, li
caccia prigione, e scrive: «Mandatemi il boja». Al domani però,
udendo che anche gli Stati vicini insorgeano, egli non credesi più
sicuro, e rifugge sul Mantovano, seco traendo Ciro Menotti, che
confida ai carcerieri austriaci. Subito Modena si grida libera, e con
un atto di sole settantadue firme proclama dittatore l’avvocato Nardi
1831 con tre consoli Maranesi, Minghelli, Morano. Reggio, dove le
trame faceano capo alla Giuditta Sidoli, fece rivoluzione da sè, poi si
unì alla modenese, preponendo al governo l’insigne giureconsulto
Pellegrino Nobili; e si cominciò a disfare il vecchio, e cacciare i
Gesuiti, soliti capri emissarj.
A Parma e Piacenza l’austriaca Maria Luigia mostrava cuor buono e
generosa carità; istituì un ospizio della maternità; se, come tutti gli
Stati, contrasse debiti [200], alle scarse rendite del paese suppliva col
proprio lauto appanaggio; in occasione di feste di Corte mandava
abiti e ornamenti alle dame; arricchì d’insigni professori l’Università;
a disegno del Coconcelli fece costruire i ponti del Taro e della
Trebbia, spendendo in questo un milione, quasi due in quello; e
conservò i codici, gli ordinamenti amministrativi, la moneta di
Francia: ma l’essere austriaca e l’avere rotto fede all’ancor vivo
Napoleone screditava la duchessa, di cui solo quando morì
lasciando ben fornite le casse, confessaronsi i meriti. Regnante al
modo del secolo passato anche pei costumi, un generale austriaco
(Neipperg), poi un conte francese (Bombelles) da governatori si fece
amanti e mariti; e ad essi abbandonava il paese nelle lunghe sue
dimore ai bagni o a Vienna. Non mancarono cortigiani che
coll’avidità e l’ignoranza corruppero le benevole intenzioni di essa e
il denaro pubblico malversarono, mentre al commercio, all’industria,
alle miniere, ad ogni durevole istituto non si badava, com’era
naturale in dominio goduto a vita. E di tal condizione provvigionale
risentivansi tutte le ordinanze, oggi fatte, domani casse, e mutate le
persone. Anche la rivalità della pingue ma abbandonata Piacenza
colla preferita Parma seminava zizzania.
Nè i sudditi odiavano l’arciduchessa, bensì il ministro Werklein, in cui
tutta affidavasi dopo morto lo splendido Neipperg: ed avendo anche i
Parmigiani inalberato la bandiera italiana, ed ella dichiarato che i
suoi legami le impedivano di fare le chieste concessioni, venne
cortesemente accompagnata al confine austriaco, e istituito il
Governo con Linati, Casa, Castagnola, Sanvitale, Melegari, Ortalli,
Macedonio Melloni. Piacenza fu tenuta in fede dalla rivalità o dalla
cittadella.
Bologna compiva la sua rivoluzione, incruenta come le altre; e il
prolegato rimetteva i poteri ai cittadini che eressero un Governo
provvisorio (8 febb.). Il cardinale Benvenuti, legato a latere, fu
arrestato; e gl’insorgenti, formato un piccolo corpo sotto Armandi,
intitolatosi generale e ministro della guerra, bloccano la fortezza
d’Ancona, e l’hanno dopo pochi giorni: il colonnello Sercognani,
avendo per commissario Carlo Pepoli, avanza con duemila
cinquecento uomini nelle Marche; Perugia, Spoleto, Foligno, tutta
l’Umbria rispondono al suo appello, quasi a una festa; e
senz’opposizione del Governo, senza riazione di partiti, senz’ombra
di pericolo, la bandiera tricolore sventola fin a Orticoli, a Terni, a
Ponte Felice, insomma in vista di Roma: dappertutto istituivasi la
guardia nazionale, diminuivansi i dazj del sale e del macinato,
spandevansi proclami.
Faville che traevano importanza dalla conflagrazione di tutt’Europa.
Perocchè, sull’esempio di Francia, e forse pe’ suoi incitamenti, la
Grecia che da dodici anni combatteva per respingere la mezzaluna
dalle fronti segnate dalla croce, ripigliava spiriti alla lotta in cui
l’Europa principesca l’avea sfavorita; Spagna e Portogallo rialzavano
le abbattute bandiere costituzionali; Germania credea venuto il
tempo di ottenere ciò che le era stato promesso e mentito; la
Svizzera già prima aveva riformato i suoi statuti in senso popolare; in
Inghilterra, al grido dei radicali chiedenti libertà mesceasi terribile la
voce della plebe chiedente pane; il Belgio, a nome del cattolicismo
conculcato, ribellavasi all’Olanda; la Russia che muoveva
gl’innumerevoli suoi eserciti per rimettere la quiete in Europa, vede
la vanguardia sua rivoltarsele, cioè la Polonia, che con valore
segnalato invoca il nome di Maria e la sua nazionalità.
Tutti questi insorti fissavano gli occhi alla Francia, come a promessa
salvatrice. Di là, mezzo secolo prima, era venuta una scossa, per cui
que’ medesimi che non avevano acquistato la libertà aveano però
spezzato la servitù; era fresco il ricordo delle irresistibili vittorie di
Napoleone; la bandiera tricolore riuscirebbe meno gloriosa ora che
veniva portata, non più da un conquistatore, ma dalla libertà? non
per minacciare l’indipendenza dei popoli, ma per restituirla? Tali e
più belle speranze vagavano per le menti: ma la Francia non era
diretta da una Convenzione, bensì da un re nuovo, rinvenuto più che
cercato, accettato più che voluto, e come unica tavola in un
naufragio nel quale si temeva perisse l’ordine sociale.
Luigi Filippo, intento a farsi soffrire dagli altri re, e assodare la
propria dinastia col rispettare le altre, invece di convergere quelle
sparse resistenze ad un rimpasto europeo, s’incaricò di eliderle; e
per un pezzo vi riuscì. Casimiro Perrier, abile ministro, professa voler
fiaccare le fazioni anzichè dar mano ai sollevati, e alle turbolente
Camere (8 marzo) intimava: — Noi sosteniamo che lo straniero non
ha diritto d’intromettersi a mano armata negli affari interni; ma forse
ci terremo obbligati a portare l’armi dovunque non venga questo
dogma rispettato? Sarebbe un’intervenzione anche questa. Lo
sosterremo per via di negoziati; ma sol l’interesse o la dignità della
Francia potrebbero farci prendere le armi: il sangue de’ Francesi
appartiene solo alla Francia».
Subito si formò a Londra una conferenza di ministri che non
rappresentavano le nazioni ma i re, e che si accingeano a ripristinare
ciò che le tre giornate aveano abbattuto; e il Governo francese, che
avea favorito le sommosse finchè opportune a sviare i nemici
minaccianti, s’affrettò a comprimerle. Guglielmo Pepe, il capitano
infelice della prima rivoluzione napoletana, e che struggeasi di
condurne un’altra, erasi diretto a Lafayette, generale della guardia
nazionale e centro di tutte le cospirazioni, chiedendogli duemila
uomini, diecimila fucili e due fregate, con cui sollevare le Sicilie.
Ebbe le buone parole che colui prodigava a tutti: ma all’atto non
trovò che tergiversazioni; onde esso meditò passare in Corsica,
reclutarvi a denaro da seicento a mille di que’ robusti, e arrischiare
uno sbarco, che fra otto giorni lo renderebbe padrone di Napoli.
Tanto sono irrimediabilmente ciechi i cospiratori di professione! Ma
quand’egli, solo con due uffiziali, era per salpare, n’ebbe divieto, e fu
rimandato a Parigi ad aspettare ancora e sognare per diciassette
anni. Altrettanto erasi usato cogli Spagnuoli. L’Austria, irremovibile
nel guardare come sua propria la causa di tutti i Governi d’Italia, rise
del proclamato non-intervento, e mosse sopra i ducati insorti, o
allegando le riversibilità, o l’esservi invitata; assalirebbe anche il
Piemonte se i rivoluzionarj vi prevalessero.
La insurrezione della media Italia non era costata nè pericoli nè
sagrifizj; leggermente abbracciata, fiaccamente sostenuta, nè grandi
virtù nè grandi vizj palesò. I rappresentanti delle città di Romagna
(26 febb.) dichiarano scaduto dal dominio temporale il papa, e
stringonsi in uno Stato solo, con presidente, consiglio di ministri,
consulta legislativa [201]; si pongono a moltiplicare atti, come suole
ogni amministrazione che si sente di breve durata; e il proclama
dell’avvocato Vicini vuolsi confrontare colla dichiarazione degli Stati
Uniti per vedere quali guasti faccia tra noi la retorica. È codardo
quanto facile il calunniare la sventura, ma perchè farsene adulatore?
Certamente al popolo non si mostrò lo scopo d’un’insurrezione, a cui
non era spinto da eccesso di sofferimenti; mancarono capi che colla
risolutezza e col gran nome abbagliassero e strascinassero
gl’indifferenti, che son sempre il numero maggiore; inesperti delle
politiche cose, come gente a tutt’altro allevata, i governanti
s’impigliavano nelle minime difficoltà; onesti, leali, con quella
moderazione che onora ma che non salva, in un mondo il quale
compassiona i deboli, ma s’allea solo coi forti, esitavano per paura di
compromettere una patria che amavano, una pace di cui sentivano
la necessità; e cullandosi nel promesso non-intervento, invece di
profittare dell’impeto popolare, assalire Roma, suscitare Piemontesi,
Lombardi, Toscani, raccomandavano la quiete come garanzia
dell’inviolabilità, rimandavano a casa i campagnuoli chiedenti armi.
Nulla dirò delle gelosie rideste fra le città; nulla dei disordini
inseparabili da Governi che, nati da vittoria popolare, restano schiavi
della moltitudine, guidata da chi più grida, più esagera, più promette.
Napoleone e Luigi Buonaparte, falliti in altri tentativi di sollevare
Roma, accorsero a infervorare la rivoluzione romagnuola, e
scrissero al papa, esortandolo a deporre il temporale dominio prima
che le forze giungessero su Roma invincibili [202]. Nuovo pretesto ai
nemici di dire l’indipendenza italica minacciata da un’usurpazione
napoleonica.
Ma di pretesti non facea mestieri dove francamente era stata
dichiarata l’inimicizia. Una colonna d’Austriaci guidata da Geppert,
passato il Po, ripose in dominio il duca di Modena e Maria Luigia (9 e
13 marzo): il veterano generale Zucchi, che dal servizio dell’Austria
era disertato a comandar la rivoluzione della sua Modena [203],
ritirasi col piccolo esercito sul Bolognese; ma quel Governo,
scrupoloso al non-intervento anche quando il vede conculcato,
ricusa ricevere quei fratelli se non disarmati. Quel Gregorio, che fu
poi moda di trattar da imbecille, era stato ricevuto dalla plebe
romana con applausi strepitosissimi; ma egli da savio non
lasciossene lusingare, e «poichè rare sono le clamorose riunioni che
disgiunte vadano da qualche discordia», sapendo che allestivasi
altra festa, fece pubblicare che «non aveva egli bisogno di tali
dimostrazioni per misurare l’attaccamento che gli porta questo suo
amatissimo popolo» [204].
Al primo annunzio della sollevata Romagna, la Corte mostrossi
disposta a larghi patti, volendo il Bernetti prevenire l’invasione
austriaca; intanto erangli venute assicurazioni non solo dall’Austria
ma e dalla Francia, dove quel non-intervento che offriva il tema di
mille variazioni alla tribuna parigina ed ai giornali, due campi
dell’eroismo parolajo, or sottoponeasi ad interpretazioni da casisti:
che l’imperatore d’Austria poteva bene prender parte alle vicende
della duchessa di Parma sua figlia; anche a quelle di Modena,
ducato a sè riversibile; ma quanto alla Romagna, mai non gli si
permetterebbe. Per verità, se i Francesi non ajutavano la Polonia col
pretesto della lontananza, per l’Italia sarebbe bastato affacciarsi al
ciglio delle Alpi. Ma Metternich, che vedeva pericolare o le provincie
austriache o l’ingerenza sul bel paese, negò alla Francia il diritto
d’impedirgli di ripristinare il dominio papale; — Se si ha a morire,
tanto vale un’apoplessia, quanto la lenta soffogazione: faremo la
guerra»; ed entrò sul territorio pontifizio. Allora la fragorosa Francia a
gridare vilipesa la dignità nazionale e traditi i patrioti, e volersene
vendetta; l’ambasciadore Maison da Roma incalzava a gettar il
fodero, e spedire un esercito in Piemonte: ma il casismo soccorse di
nuovo mostrando che l’Austria non v’interveniva per proprio conto,
sibbene a richiesta del papa; e che del resto, guaj a lei se pensasse
invadere il Piemonte [205], il quale in fatto non n’avea bisogno.
L’ardore esalò in magnanime ciancie, e i Romagnoli videro non poter
sostenersi che da sè. «Italiani, all’armi! chi ha un fucile, una spada,
una falce, la prenda e venga con noi, che la vittoria non ci può
fallire»; ebbero raccozzato un esercito di circa settemila uomini; ma
vedendo presa Bologna, si ritirarono innanzi agli Austriaci, che
procedeano a passo di carica sulla via Emilia: a Rimini tennero testa
(25 marzo) quel tanto che bastasse perchè la loro bandiera fosse
vinta, non macchiata; e avendo con quel fatto protetta la ritirata
sopra Ancona, lasciato molti morti sul campo e trasportatine i feriti, si
rassegnarono ad evitare una resistenza disastrosa quanto inutile.
Il Governo, ridottosi in Ancona, dichiarando non essersi mosso se
non per fiducia del non intervento, dai Francesi proclamato in
pubblico e promesso in particolare, rimette in libertà il legato
Benvenuti; il quale promette l’oblio di qualunque atto della
rivoluzione, e firma il passaporto de’ capi. Questi s’imbarcano;
Ancona è resa pacificamente dal generale Armandi (29 marzo): ma
la convenzione viene dichiarata nulla a Roma, giacchè il Benvenuti
avea cessato dalla sua carica col divenire prigioniero; s’istituisce
processo contro quelli che avessero firmato l’atto di decadenza, o
violato il giuramento militare, o pubblicato scritti empj o sediziosi; agli
altri intero perdono. Il colonnello Sercognani, ch’era proceduto fin a
Rieti, udito quel rovinío, volta per la Toscana, e ben accolto dal
popolo e soccorso dal Governo rifugge in Francia. Tre navi portarono
altri profughi in Francia, in Inghilterra, a Corfù; ma una fu arrestata
da due golette austriache, e ventun pontifizj e sessantasette
modenesi che vi stavano furono gettati nelle prigioni di Venezia.
Poco poi i pontifizj, più tardi i modenesi furono rimessi in libertà;
processati gli austriaci, e Zucchi, come disertore, sottoposto a
giudizio militare e condannato in fortezza per tutta la vita. Paolo
Costa di sessant’anni e malato della pietra, andò a Corfù ad
insegnare filosofia, come l’archeologo Orioli; Pellegrino Nobili di
settantasei anni, dopo una fuga piena di pericoli, raggiunse in
Francia suo figlio, insigne fisico fuggente anch’esso, sinchè
ottennero di ricoverarsi in Toscana. Questi e il filosofo Mamiani, i
fisici Amici e Melloni, il medico Sterbini, il poeta Pepoli ed altri colla
loro civiltà e sapienza cresceano la pietà per le sventure d’Italia in
quella Francia dove i nostri ricevettero ospitalità benevola, stentati
sussidj e fallaci promesse [206]. Napoleone Buonaparte era finito di
morte violenta: suo fratello Luigi dall’amorevole madre Ortensia fu
campato a preparar nuove trame, che doveano portarlo alla prigionia
poi al trono. Gli Austriaci tennero occupati i ducati della media Italia
e le Legazioni; in Lombardia spaventarono con processi rigorosi,
pure mondi di sangue; e Metternich fu decorato dall’imperatore
d’Austria «per aver tanto contribuito a mantenere l’indipendenza
degli Stati italiani».
Maria Luigia, non avendo destinato alcuno a governare in sua vece,
non poteva far colpa a chi erasi assunto gli affari; tornata a Parma,
presto bandì generale perdono, eccettuandone ventun profughi.
L’odio concentravasi sul Mistrali ministro, più ambizioso che
tristo [207], sul Sartorio, capo della polizia, che poi fu accoltellato; sui
Gesuiti annidati nel collegio di Piacenza, e contro i quali si fece poi
una chiassosa dimostrazione; mentre l’arciduchessa pensava a
goder la vita, e i resti d’un corpo ch’era stato di Napoleone diede al
conte di Bombelles che la ridusse e parca e devota.
Francesco di Modena, più irritato perchè avea previsto eppur non
ovviato, e persuaso che «i settarj si ostinano a voler abbattere altari
e troni, e che un sovrano è responsabile in faccia a Dio se tollera il
trionfo dell’irreligione» mandò al supplizio Vincenzo Borelli e Ciro
Menotti, il quale salì al patibolo esclamando — Italiani, non
lusingatevi a promessa di stranieri» [208]. Coll’editto 18 aprile 1832
sopprimeva le formole giuridiche contro i rei di Stato,
abbandonandoli agli sgherri e alle spie; e sparsasi voce d’un
attentato contro la vita di esso, i soldati giuravano, «Se l’inferno
vomitasse un’anima capace di rinnovare le ribellioni, noi renderemo i
concittadini responsali sulla vita loro della sicurezza di Francesco IV
con giustizia militare pronta sicura». Da tremilacinquecento volontarj
estensi rimanevano alle proprie case ma in armi, vigilando alla
pubblica tranquillità, e pronti ad accorrere quando bisognasse. Il
duca non curossi che Francia e Inghilterra interrompessero le
relazioni diplomatiche con lui, lasciava stampare contro di esse e
contro il liberalismo, e francamente si collocava campione de’
Governi assoluti, alla riazione pretendendo imprimere il carattere
religioso e patriarcale, dopo sei anni di processi, furono condannate
a gravissime pene cenquattro persone, ma tutte contumaci e due
morte; e quelle pene stesse ebbero mitigazione. Giuseppe Ricci,
guardia nobile del duca, al quale era rimasto fedele nei movimenti
del 1831, e che passava pel favorito di esso, accusato che
cospirasse ad assassinarlo, fu fucilato: vittima forse d’una ingiustizia,
ma non eroe politico.
Quel Canosa, che, parendo eccessivo a Napoli, n’era stato rinviato
con doni e mortificazioni, viveva oscuro a Genova, allorchè il duca di
Modena lo chiamò a capo della sua Polizia, dove per molti anni fu lo
spauracchio de’ liberali di tutta Italia. Più tardi ritiratosi a Nizza, si
congratulava seco «d’aver processato, imprigionato, frustato, ma
non impiccato; d’aver prevenuto le colpe collo sbigottire, ma non
ucciso un solo per crimenlese nè stando governatore militare a
Ponsa, nè ministro di polizia a Napoli; mentre dappoi abbondarono
congiure, sêtte, mandati di morte, e in conseguenza commissioni
militari, e un numero estesissimo di esiliati, vera e bestiale misura
per chi conosce il mestiere» [209].
In Piemonte Carlo Felice poco avea fatto per rimarginar le piaghe del
suo paese; pieno di sè, nè cerimonie volea nè malinconie, ripetendo
— Non son re per essere seccato». Ad un capitano di bastimento
che avea durato fatica nel salvarlo in una procella, volea dare
qualche centinajo di scudi, ma il ministro gli suggerì avrebbe meglio
aggradito la croce di san Maurizio e Lazzaro. — Oh che zugo!
(esclamò) dategliela subito». Intanto la giustizia era pessimamente
amministrata [210], sospetti i pensatori, mesto il paese pei tanti
profughi e per gli arbitrj della Polizia. Il re, disgustato di Torino come
covile di faziosi, sene teneva lontano; non raccoglieva regolarmente i
consigli di Stato, puzzandogli di costituzione, e lasciava far ai ministri
e principalmente al Latour. Avrebbe rinnegato la tradizione di tutta la
sua stirpe se si fosse accordato coll’Austria, delle cui spoglie par
destinata a ingrandire: onde avendogli questa offerto soccorsi contro
i faziosi, egli ricusò risoluto, e represse qualche tentativo de’
Savojardi.
Non ebbe figli, e con lui terminato (1831 27 aprile) il ramo
primogenito di casa di Savoja, appunto nel bollore delle sommosse
gli sottentrava il ramo cadetto di Carignano [211] nella persona di
Carlalberto, quel desso che vedemmo nella rivoluzione del 1821.
Giovane, allevato in mezzo alle armi, partecipe delle speranze se
non delle trame liberali, avea subíto gl’insulti dell’Austria, che
diceano si fosse adoperata a farlo credere indegno del trono per le
macchie del 21, mal lavate al Trocadero, e surrogargli il duca di
Modena. Tanto bastava perchè, dimenticando il passato, sopra di lui
si fissassero le speranze de’ Liberali, e girò l’indirizzo di un Italiano
(Mazzini), il quale gli mostrava come non gli restasse che essere
tiranno ed esecrato, o farsi costituzionale e italiano francamente
rompendola coi potentati; parziali riforme gli nimicherebbero l’Austria
senza amicargli i popoli, mentre con una parola libera e sincera
potea ricreare l’Italia, riunirne le membra sparte, e se pronunziasse,
«È mia tutta e felice», venti milioni d’uomini esclamerebbero, «Dio è
nel cielo, e Carlalberto sulla terra! — Respingete l’Austria, lasciate
addietro la Francia, e stringetevi a lega l’Italia; ponetevi alla testa
della nazione, e scrivete sulla vostra bandiera, Unione, Libertà,
Indipendenza! proclamate la santità del pensiero, liberate l’Italia dai
barbari, date il vostro nome ad un secolo, siate il Napoleone della
libertà italiana. Or che temete? il Tedesco? gridategli guerra, ardite
guardar da vicino questo colosso eterogeneo, forte solo perchè altri
è debole. Una voce ai vostri, una voce alla Lombardia, e avanti. Là,
nella terra lombarda hanno a decidersi i fati dell’Italia ed i vostri;
nella terra lombarda, che non aspetta se non un reggimento ed una
bandiera per levarsi in massa: ma siate forte e deciso; rinnegate i
calcoli diplomatici, gl’intrighi de’ gabinetti, le frodi dei patti. La salute
per voi sta sulla punta della vostra spada... Se voi non fate, altri
faranno, e senza voi e contro voi...».
Carlalberto re vedeva altrimenti che l’antico granmastro d’artiglieria,
e conobbe che un movimento avrebbe posta in compromesso
l’indipendenza del suo paese, determinando una nuova invasione
austriaca. Nonchè parlare di costituzione, nemmeno l’amnistia
concesse; nominò un consiglio di Stato, esprimendo che volea fare
miglioramenti, ma «senza scostarsi dagli esempj lasciati da’ suoi
maggiori», e «conservando inalterata la dignità della Corona». Si
disperò dunque anche di lui; onde molti s’affrettarono a ricoprire la
polvere di carbone colla polvere delle anticamere, altri si annoiarono
nelle società secrete.
Perocchè, mentre le rivoluzioni del 31 eransi fatte a pieno giorno
confidando nell’iniziamento del Governo francese, allora i novatori si
ridussero a trame sotterranee; e appoggiatisi ai radicali, meditarono
sommosse invece dell’insurrezione. Giuseppe Mazzini, nato a
Genova nel 1808, ivi fondò l’Indicatore genovese; soppresso questo
giornale, andò a piantare l’Indicatore livornese; poi a Genova
processato nel 30 e sbandito, ricoverò a Marsiglia, e con Bianchi
piemontese e Santi di Rimini istituì la società della Giovane Italia.
Suo simbolo un ramo di cipresso; parola d’ordine Ora e sempre.
Direttosi a «tutti quelli che sentivano la potenza del nome italiano e
la vergogna di non poterlo portare francamente», escludeva ogni
uom maturo; confidava nell’insurrezione armata; accennava anche
ad una religione da surrogare al cattolicismo, di cui dicea finito il
tempo; e d’accordo coi Carbonari nel volere sbrattar la patria dai
forestieri, ne discordava nel non chiedere più costituzione ma
repubblica, abbattere ogni privilegio, confidare nel popolo a cui quelli
non erano ricorsi. Venne sistemata a modo delle guerriglie, giacchè
derivava dalla solita fonte; e la dirigevano da Londra Mazzini, da
Malta i modenesi Giovanni e Nicola Fabrizj; stampava le sue
declamazioni e i suoi intenti; e fin dai primordj apparve una sentenza
di morte, eseguita col pugnale contro un preteso traditore.
Anche questa società parve più diretta a generare martiri che ad
assicurare la vittoria, mostrando perseveranza di moto più che
evidenza di meta. Il primo atto importante ne fu la spedizione di
Savoja. I nostri rifuggiti comprarono una mano di que’ Polacchi che
erano scampati dalla loro patria quando fu anch’essa abbandonata e
vinta, e sotto al generale Ramorino, genovese che avea combattuto
in Polonia, mossero dal lago di Ginevra e da Grenoble verso la
Savoja (1834 gennajo). I proclami dicevano, dovunque è
despotismo, essere sacro dovere l’insurrezione; delitto il non seguire
la bandiera di questa allorchè il momento sia giunto; non concepire
essi l’Italia che repubblicana, una dall’Alpi al Faro, non federativa;
aspirare a fondare una Roma del popolo, centro d’una grande e
libera unità religiosa, politica, sociale.
Ma parte furono arrestati sul territorio svizzero; alcuni entrati in
Savoja non incontrarono il minimo assenso nel popolo, nè disertori
dalla truppa, e pochi gendarmi li dissiparono. Malissimo concepita,
peggio condotta; pure volle spiegarsi colla solita bubbola del
tradimento, affisso al Ramorino.
Carlalberto avea già prima istituito corti marziali sotto di uffiziali
inesorabili, come il generale Galateri governatore d’Alessandria e il
Cimella nizzardo, e di cavillosi curiali; processati sessantasette
militari dal sergente in giù, dodici furono fucilati, anche alle spalle,
trenta alle galere «per aver avuto notizia della congiura, per aver
letto o fatto circolare un libro contrario ai principj della monarchia».
Coll’avvocato Andrea Vochieri d’Alessandria il Galateri insisteva
perchè rivelasse, promettendogli grazia; ed esso gli rispose: — La
sola grazia che desidero è che mi liberiate della vostra presenza». Il
generale gli dà un calcio nella pancia, e l’inquisito gli sputa in viso.
Galateri esacerbò la morte di lui facendolo traversar le vie dove
abitava, sicchè la moglie e i figliuoli lo vedessero, e alla fucilazione
assistette in grand’uniforme, pippando appoggiato a un
cannone [212]. Giacomo Ruffini genovese si ammazzò in prigione:
suo fratello fuggì in tempo per narrare, più tardi e ricreduto, le trame
e le speranze. E molti furono gli esigliati [213], molti i dolenti, molte le
decorazioni al Galateri e ad altri zelanti.
Dopo la spedizione di Savoja furono fucilati Volonteri e Borrel caduti
prigionieri in quella, ed altri processati; e il non sospetto Gualterio
assicura che Carlalberto ne provasse poi dolore e rimorso, e dal
bisogno d’espiazione cominciasse la sua vita ascetica. Certo quel re
assentiva ai concetti e ai comporti del duca di Modena [214], e lasciò
rinnovarsi l’onnipotenza della Polizia: in conseguenza tornò odioso ai
Liberali, che gl’imputavano di favorire a Gesuiti e missionarj, aver
cercato la beatificazione d’Umberto di Savoja e di Bonifazio
arcivescovo, dato ricetto a un prelato Pacca, già direttore della
Polizia di Roma, poi scacciatone per sozzure; favoreggiato alla
fazione che in Ispagna ed altrove contraddiva alle costituzioni:
garantito un prestito di seicentomila lire fatto dai Pallavicini di
Genova alla duchessa di Berry per tentare una controrivoluzione in
Francia, dove su bastimento genovese sbarcò infelicemente [215]:
sicchè Carlalberto fu denunziato per sanfedista con tanta giustizia,
quanto una volta per Carbonaro.
Anche l’Austria cominciò processi, dove il tirolese Zajotti, già
partecipe alle cospirazioni o alle speranze italiche, nel 1815, fu
chiamato a tradurre in requisitorie criminali i suoi epigrammi da sala
e le sue critiche di giornale: molti furono condannati a morte, a tutti
commutata in carcere temporario, poi nella deportazione in America.
E di nuovo ne usciva un effetto opposto di quel che i Liberali aveano
sperato, crescendo l’influenza dell’Austria sulla penisola. Che essa
mirasse a ingrandire di territorio è una baja, accettata da quella
credulità ch’è propria de’ tempi di rivoluzione; ma è vero che, sentita
necessaria dai principi, e ai popoli non suoi men odiosa, che i
principi proprj, essa poteva dirsi arbitra dell’italiche sorti. Nesselrode,
Fiquelmont, Ancillon, rappresentanti della Russia, dell’Austria, della
Prussia, a Berlino convenivano che i loro sovrani cercherebbero far
adottare, che un principe, nel cui dominio scoppiasse una rivolta, ha
diritto di chiamar in soccorso il sovrano vicino che sia in grado
d’ajutarlo a ristabilire la tranquillità, senza che verun altro Governo
possa opporvisi o rimostrare. Francia dichiarò non lascerebbe
applicare questo dogma di diritto pubblico al Belgio, alla Svizzera, al
Piemonte, ma Metternich incaricava il conte Appony, ambasciadore
austriaco a Parigi, di chiarire quel ministero che il suo imperatore era
risoluto di portar soccorsi anche al re di Sardegna qualora li
domandasse, quand’anche dovesse seguirne una guerra. A ciò
risolveasi il proclamato non-intervento.
Che che ne blatterino i caffè, la politica pontifizia fu sempre gelosa
del predominio austriaco; Leone XII non meno che Pio VII ne
stettero in guardia; molto più il cardinale Bernetti, segretario di Stato
di Gregorio XVI. S’adoprò egli vivamente perchè gli Austriaci
uscissero al più presto: e di fatti non rimasero in Bologna che fino al
15 luglio 1831, quando le varie potenze si furono obbligate a
conservare il dominio temporale della santa Sede. Ma persuase che
non si otterrebbe mai tranquillità se non adattando il Governo ai
tempi, chiesero al papa v’istituisse assemblee comunali e provinciali
di elezione popolare; una giunta centrale sindacasse gli uffizj
amministrativi; secolarizzate le cariche pubbliche; con cittadini
notabili si componesse un consiglio di Stato [216].
Tali promesse arrisero ai Romagnuoli, e confidarono nell’êra nuova
che il Bernetti aveva preconizzata pubblicamente: ma ben presto fu
disdetta, e negate le riforme che era bello attuare quando non
avevano aria d’essere strappate a forza. L’editto del 5 luglio 1831 la
nomina de’ consigli comunali e provinciali attribuiva non al popolo,
ma al preside di ciascuna provincia; esclusi i secolari dal Governo
delle Legazioni; nè consentito d’aggiungere un Consiglio di Stato
laico al sacro Collegio [217]. Prendeasi paura de’ moderati quanto de’
sommovitori, e forse più, perchè contro loro non si poteva invocare
gli Austriaci.
Si dovettero aggravare le imposte, giacchè in que’ tre anni lo Stato
ebbe a spendere otto milioni cennovantottomila scudi più
dell’entrata: si comprarono due reggimenti svizzeri, il cui impianto
costò cinquecentomila scudi, e trecensessantamila l’annuo
mantenimento: si ordinò il disarmo delle Legazioni, alle guardie
urbane surrogando corpi di volontarj, cerniti alla peggio, che
diventarono tiranni e ladri atroci. Inveleniti gli animi, si ripigliarono le
coccarde tricolori; la guardia urbana si fece deliberatrice, e

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Comprehensive Energy Systems, vol.

Nomenclature m_ Mass ﬂow rate (kg/s)

Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00401-6 1

Greek Symbols y Total energy of ﬂowing ﬂuid

Acronyms HTF Heat transfer ﬂuid

Fig. 1 Conversion of energy sources to useful outputs.

Energy consumption (1000 TJ)

Initial energy Converted energy (form)

Heat Convector, radiator, Thermodynamic Thermionic and – –

Table 2 Signiﬁcant developments of techniques in energy conversion

Name of scientist/company Year Development/invention

Giovanni Branca 1629 Proposal of impulse steam turbine

natural gas, nuclear and gases

Waste Electricity and heat

Solar, biomass, wind, Bio fuels

Table 3 Conversion of one form of energy to other through some devices/processes

Process Input/available form of Energy Useful form of energy

Steam engine Heat Mechanical

4.1.3 Systems and Applications

4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat

4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel

presence of air, which can be expressed as

HHV of methane ¼ 55;533 kJ=kg

4.1.3.2 Thermal Efﬁciency of Energy Conversions

Condensation: H2 O ðvapor Þ-H2 OðliquidÞ þ DHcond ð9Þ

4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State

ECV = Constant Mass

Fig. 6 Mass and energy balance in a control volume.

Fig. 7 Mass ﬂow rate and enthalpy in a control volume.

Heat loss . Electric

Fig. 8 Water heater operating in steady state.

4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors

Fig. 12 Layout of compressor with inlet and exit parameters.

Fig. 13 Layout of turbine with inlet and exit parameters.

Using EES to ﬁnd the values of ideal air at speciﬁed temperatures

Substituting the values in above equation

1. Calculate change in enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

1. Using EES to ﬁnd the value of enthalpy h1 as

The ﬂuid is a mixture of liquid and vapor at the outlet of turbine so

Dh ¼ h2 h1 ¼ ð2361 3456Þ kJ=kg

Dke ¼ 16:25 kJ=kg

Dpe ¼ 0:068 kJ=kg

wout ¼ ½1095 þ 16:25 0:068 kJ=kg ¼ 1078 kJ=kg

3. Mass ﬂow rate needed to produce 6 MW of power

4.1.4.2 Heat Engines

Energy sink Qout

Fig. 15 Layout of a power plant with steam as a working ﬂuid.

The different quantities represented in Fig. 15 may be explained as

Wnet;out ¼ Qin Qout ðkJÞ ð20Þ

4.1.4.3 Thermal Efﬁciency

Wnet;out ¼ 250 187:5 ¼ 62:5 kJ

Thermal efﬁciency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Eq. (20) can be used to calculate net amount of work output.

Wnet;out ¼ 250 175 ¼ 75 kJ

Thermal efﬁciency can be obtained with the help of Eq. (22) as

Fig. 17 Schematic of a refrigeration cycle.

Fig. 18 Schematic of a heat pump device.

4.1.4.4.1 Coefﬁcient of performance

Then, Eq. (23) can be rewritten as

(1) The COP can be determined as

4.1.4.5 Heat Pump

1. Power input required to operate heat pump.

Assumption: Heat pump operates in steady state.