The Solid State

Power point presentation - 1

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 The Solid State
General characteristics of solid
1. They have definite mass, volume and
shape.
2. They have strong intermolecular force
between the particles.
3. Intermolecular distances between the
particles are short.
4. Constituent particles have fixed
position and can only oscillate about
their mean position.
5. They are incompressible and rigid.
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Arrangement of particles in crystalline
solids

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Solids are classified in to two
1. Crystalline solids
2. Amorphous solids
Crystalline solids
1.They have long range order ie particles are
arranged in a definite pattern and this
arrangement is seen through out the crystal.
2.They have sharp melting point.
3.When cut with a sharp tool, they split into two
pieces and the newly generated surface will
be smooth.
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4.They are true solids.
5. They are anisotropic in nature ie some of the
physical properties show different values when
measured along different directions.
Amorphous solids
1.Here particles are not arranged in a definite
pattern. They have short range order ie regular
pattern of arrangement is observed only for a
short distance.
2. They do not have sharp melting point. On heating
they become soft and can be moulded in to
different shapes. At some temperature they
Examples of crystalline solids

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become crystalline.
3. Amorphous solids have a tendency to flow
very slowly ,therefore they are also known as
pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. That is
why glass panes fixed to windows of old
buildings are found to be slightly thicker at the
bottom.
4. When cut with a sharp tool, they split into
two pieces and but the newly generated
surface will be irregular.
Pseudo solids

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5.They are isotropic in nature ie some of the
physical properties show same value when
measured along different directions.
 Classification of crystalline solids
1. Molecular solids. – Here the constituent
particles are molecules. Further classified
a) Non- polar molecular solids – Here molecules
are held by weak London force or dispersion
force. So they are soft and have low melting
point. At room temperature they exist as gas
or liquids. They are non – conductors of
electricity. Eg – Hydrogen, chlorine , iodine
etc
b) Polar molecular solids – They are held by
strong dipole – dipole interaction. They are
also soft but have high melting point
compared to non – polar molecular solids. At
room temperature they exist as liquids or
gases. They are non conductors of electricity.
Eg – Solid SO2 and solid NH3.
c) Hydrogen bonded molecular solids – They are
held by strong hydrogen bond. They exist as
volatile liquids or soft solids at room
temperature. They are also non conductors of
electricity.
Force of attraction

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Force of attraction in polar and non
polar molecules

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Non polar molecular solids

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 Hydrogen bonded molecular solids

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2. Ionic solids – Here the constituent particles
are ions. They are held by strong electrostatic
force. So they are hard and brittle in nature
and have high melting and boiling point. In the
solid state the ions cannot move and they act
as insulators but in the molten state ions can
move freely and conduct electricity.
3. Metallic soilds – Metals are considered as a
collection of positive charge surrounded by a
sea of electrons. These free electrons are
 Crystallisation of
NaCl

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Molten or Aqueous solution of NaCl
conducts electricity
Ionic solids

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 Metallic solids

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 responsible for high electrical and thermal
conductivity of solids. Metals also show colour
and lustrous property. This is also due to
presence of free electrons.
4. Covalent or network solids
Here particles are held by strong covalent
bond. So they are hard and brittle and have
high melting point. They are insulators.
eg- Diamond and silicon carbide.
 Diamond
In diamond , each carbon atom is bonded to
four other carbon atoms tetrahedraly. All the
four electrons are used up for bonding which
makes diamond a bad conductor.

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 Graphite
In graphite, carbon atoms are arranged in
different layers. Each carbon atom is bonded
to three other carbon atoms in the same layer.
Three electrons are used for bonding and the
fourth electron is free which makes them a
good conductor. Different layers can slide over
each other which makes graphite , a good
lubricant.
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Graphite

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 Crystal lattice
The three dimensional arrangement of particles
( points) in space are known as crystal lattice.
1. Point represents particle which may be an
atom or a molecule or an ion.
2.Each point in a crystal lattice is known as
lattice point.
There are 14 possible three dimensional lattice
known as Bravais Lattices.
A portion of three dimensional cubic
lattice and its unit cell

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 Unit Cell
Smallest portion of a crystal lattice is known as
unit cell.
Unit cell is characterised by its dimension along
the three edges a,b and c.
The angle between the edges are represented
by alpha, beta and gamma.
 Unit cells are classified into two
1.Primitive unit cell – Here particles are seen
only on the corners of the unit cell.
2. Centred unit cell
Classified into three
a) Body centred unit cell – Particles are seen on
the corners and one on the centre of the unit
cell.
Primitive unit cell

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b)Face- centred unit cell – Particles are seen on
the corners and one in the centre of each face.

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c) End- centred unit cell – Particles are
seen on the corners and one in the
centre of any two opposite faces.
Seven primitive unit cells
Number of atoms per unit cell

Power point presentation -2

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Primitive cubic unit cell

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An atom in a corner is shared by 8 unit
cells

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Face centred cubic unit cell

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 Packing Efficiency
Percentage of total space filled by the particles.
Primitive cubic unit cell

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Face centred cubic unit cell

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Body centred cubic unit cell

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A compound is formed by two elements A and
B. Atoms of element B make ccp and those of
element A occupy all the octahedral voids
.What is the formula of the compound?
Number of atoms of element B = x
Number of octahedral voids formed = x
Out of x voids all the voids are occupied by the

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atoms of element A.
A:B=x:x
=1:1
Formula = AB

Atoms of element B forms hcp and those of

element A occupy 2/3 of tetrahedral void.
What is the formula of the compound ?
Number of atoms of element B = x
Number of tetrahedral void = 2x
Out of 2x voids , 2/3 void is occupied by atoms
of element A
A: B = 4x/3 : x
4:3
= A4B3

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A compound is formed by two elements M and
N. The element N forms ccp and atoms of M
occupy 1/3 of tetrahedral voids. What is the
formula of the compound.
Number of atoms of N = x
Number of tetrahedral voids = 2x
Out of 2x voids, 1/3 of the voids are occupied by
atoms of element M
M : N = 2/3 x : x
=2:3

Formula = M2N3

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Ferric oxide crystallises in hcp array of oxide ions
with 2 out of every 3 octahedral voids are
occupied by ferric ions. Derive the formula of
ferric oxide.
Number of Oxide ions = x
Number of octahedral voids = x
Out of x voids, 2/3 of the voids are occupied

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by atoms of Fe.
Fe : O = 2/3 x : x
=2:3

Formula = Fe 2O3

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Close packing in one dimension
Power point presentation -3
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 Close packing in one dimension
Here particles are arranged in a single row
by touching each other. The number of
nearest neighbours of a particle is called its
coordination number. In one dimensional
close packing coordination number is 2.
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 Close packing in two dimensions
This can be done in two ways
1. The second row is placed in contact with the
first row such that the spheres of the second
row are exactly above those of the first row.
This type of arrangement is known as AAA
type of arrangement in two dimension.

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Here each sphere is in contact with four of its
neighbours. Therefore coordination number is
4. If the centres of these four immediate
neighbouring spheres are joined , a square is
formed . Hence also known as two dimension
square close packing.

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Square close packing.

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2. The second row is placed above the first row
in a staggered manner such that its spheres fit
in the depression of the first row. This type of
arrangement is known as ABAB type of
arrangement in two dimension. Each sphere is
in contact with six of its neighbours, so the
coordination number is 6.
Hexagonal close packing

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If the centres of these six immediate
neighbouring spheres are joined , a hexagon is
formed . Hence also known as two
dimensional hexagonal close packing .

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Close packing in three dimensional
It is obtained by arranging two dimensional
layers one above the other. This can be done
in different ways.
1.Three dimensional close packing from two
dimensional square close - packed layers.
Here the second layer is placed over the first
layer such that the spheres of the upper layer
are exactly above those of the first layer.
This results in AAA type of arrangement in
three dimensional. The lattice thus generated
is simple cubic lattice and its unit cell is
primitive cubic unit cell.

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Two dimensional square close packing

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 Simple cubic lattice
three dimension

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2.Three dimensional close packing from two
dimensional hexagonal close packed layers.
a)Placing second layer over the first layer.
Arranging the first layer above the second layer
in such a way that the spheres of the second
layer are placed in the depressions of the first
layer.
Two dimensional hexagonal close
packing

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This type of arrangement results in two types of
voids.
1.Tetrahedral void – Void surrounded by four
spheres.
2.Octahedral void – Void surrounded by six
spheres.
If there are N spheres
The number of octahedral voids formed = N
The number of tetrahedral voids formed = 2N
b) Placing third layer over the second layer
There are two possibilities
1)Covering tetrahedral void – Spheres of the
third layer is placed above the tetrahedral
voids of the second layer which give rise to
hexagonal close packing( hcp) in three
dimensional.
Tetrahedral void

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This is also known as ABAB type in three
dimension ie the alternate layers have similar
arrangement. Eg – Mg, Zn.
2) Covering octahedral void - Spheres of the
third layer is placed above the octahedral
voids of the second layer which give rise to
cubic close packing( ccp) or face centred cubic
(fcc) in three dimensional. This is also known
as ABCABC type in three dimension ie the
arrangement of first layer and fourth layer is
similar and so on. eg – Cu, Ag
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Imperfections in solids

Power point presentation – 4

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 Imperfections in solids
Although crystalline solids have long range
order in the arrangement of their
constituent particles, yet crystals are not
perfect.
Defects are of two types
1.Point defect – Deviations from the ideal
arrangement around a point.
2.Line defect - Deviations from the ideal
arrangement in the entire row.
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 Types of point defects
1. Stoichiometric defects
2. Impurity defects
3. Non- stoichiometric defects
a) Stoichiometric defects – These defects do not
disturb the stoichiometry of the solid. They
are also called intrinsic or thermodynamic
defect. Basically they are of two types
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1.Vacancy defect – if some of the lattice sites are
vacant, the crystal is said to have vacancy
defect. This results in decrease in density of
the substance.
2. Interstitial defect – If some of the particles
occupy the interstitial site, the crystal is said
to have interstitial defect. This results in
increase in density of the substance.
These defects are shown by non-ionic solids.
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 Vacancy defect

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 Interstitial defect

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Ionic solids show Frenkel and Schottky defects.
3.Frenkel defect – The smaller ion occupies the
interstitial site . This creates a vacancy defect
in the original site and interstitial defect in the
new location. It is also called dislocation
defect. It does not change the density of the
solid. Eg – ZnS, AgCl, AgBr, AgI

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 Frenkel defect

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4.Schottky defect -It is basically a vacancy
defect seen in ionic solids. The number of
missing cation and anion will be same in order
to maintain neutrality.
Eg – NaCl, KCl, CsCl , AgBr
 Schottky defect

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b) Impurity defects – If molten NaCl containing
little of SrCl2 is crystallised, some of the sites
of Na+ ions are occupied by Sr2+ ions. Each
Sr 2+ ions replaces two Na+ ions and the other
site remains vacant. The vacancies thus
produced are equal in number to that of Sr2+
ions.
Eg – CdCl2 and AgCl.

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 Impurity defect

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c) Non- stoichiometric defect.
They disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.
They are of two types.
1.Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies–
When crystals of NaCl are heated in an
atmosphere of sodium vapour, sodium atoms
get deposited on the surface of the crystal.
The Cl- ions diffuse to the surface of the
crystal and combine with Na+ ion to give NaCl.
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 Crystalline solids

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This Na+ ion is formed by the loss of electrons
from sodium atom . The released electrons
diffuse in to the crystal and occupy the
anionic site. The crystal now has an excess of
sodium. The anionic site occupied by the
unpaired electrons are called F- centres. Due
to excitation and de - excitation of these
electrons, the crystal shows colour.
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 F- centre

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Metal excess defect due to the presence of extra
cation at interstitial site –
ZnO is white in colour at room temperature. On
heating it loses oxygen and turn yellow. The
excess Zn2+ ions moves to the interstitial site
and the electrons to the neighbouring site.
The formula becomes Zn1 + x O

ZnO = Zn2+ + ½ O2 + 2 electrons

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 Metal excess defect

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2. Metal deficiency defect – In crystals of FeO,
some Fe2+ ions are missing and the loss of
positive charge is made up by the presence of
required number of Fe3+ ions.
Analysis shows that Nickel oxide has a formula Ni.98O.
What fraction of nickel exist as Ni2+ and Ni3+.
It contains 100 oxygen atoms and 98 nickel atoms.
x ions exist as Ni2+
(98 – x ) ions exist as Ni3+
Number of positive charge = number of negative
charge
Charge = valency x number of ions
Charge of Ni2+ = 2x
Charge of Ni3+ =3( 98 –x)
Total charge of cations = Charge of Ni2 + Charge of Ni3+
(2x ) + 3 (98 –x )
Charge of anion = 2 (100)
2x + 3 ( 98-x) =(100 ) 2
x = 94
Number of Ni 2+ ions = 94
Number of Ni 2+ ions = 4
Fraction of Ni 2+ ions =………………
Fraction of Ni 2+ ions =………………
Aluminium crystallize in ccp. Its radius is 125 pm. What is
the length of the side of the cell.
a = 2√ 2r
= 2x 1.414 x 125 pm
= 353.5 pm
How many unit cells are there in 1 cm3 of aluminium?
Volume of one unit cell = a3 = (353.5 x 10-12 x 102 ) 3 cm3
= 4.417x 10-23 cm3
4.417 x 10-23 cm3 join to give 1 unit cell
1cm3 = 1/ 4.417 x 10-23 unit cell
= ……………….unit cell 1 pm = 10-12 m

1m = 100 cm
An element has a bcc structure with a cell edge
of 288 pm. The density of the element is 7.2 g
/cm3.
. How many atoms are present in 208 g of the
element ?
Volume of the unit cell = a3
= (288 x 10-12 m)3

= (288 x 10-10 cm)3

= 2.39 x 10-23 cm3

2.39 x 10-23 cm3 = 1 unit cell

Volume occupied by 208g of an element =mass/ density
= (208 g /7.2 g/ cm3 )

= 28.88 cm3

2.39 x 10-23 cm3 = 1 unit cell

28.88 cm3 = 28.88 / 2.39 x 10-23 unit cells

= 12.08 x 1023 unit cells

 1 unit cell of BCC contains 2 atoms
Total number of atoms in 208 g
( ie in 12.08 x 1023 unit cells ) = 2 x 12.08 x 1023 atoms

= 24.16 x 1023 atoms

Thank you

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