DPUE

Chapter 1
THE SOLID STATE

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 The Solid State
Matter can exist in the three states namely solid, liquid & gas. Under a given set of conditions
of temperature and pressure the possible stable state of a given substance depend upon the net effect of
two opposing factors, intermolecular forces tend to keep the molecule ( or atom or ion) closer,
whereas thermal energy tend to keep them apart by making them move faster. At sufficiently low
temperature, the thermal energy is low and intermolecular force bring them so closer that they cling to
one another and occupy fixed positions and exists in solid state.

The characteristic properties of solid state are,

i) They have definite mass, volume and shape.
ii) Intermolecular distances are short.
iii) Intermolecular forces are strong.
iv) Their constituent particles have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean
positions.
v) They are incompressible and rigid.

Amorphous and crystalline solids

Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on the basis of the nature of order present in the
arrangement of their constituent particles.
Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
1. They have definite geometrical shape 1. They have irregular shape

2. They have sharp melting point. 2. They melt gradually over a temperature
range.
3. They possess long range order. 3. They have short range order

4. Anisotropic in nature. 4. Isotropic in nature.

5. They are true solids. 5. Pseudo solids or super cooled liquids.

6. When cut using a sharp edged tool they 6. When cut using sharp edged tool,
split into two pieces with smooth and irregular surfaces are generated.
plain surface.
7. Eg : Quartz, NaCl, CsCl 7. Eg : Glass, Rubber, Plastic

Classification of crystalline solids:

Crystalline solids are classified into 4 categories as molecular, ionic, metallic and covalent solids. On
the basis of nature of intermolecular forces operating in them.
1) Molecular solids:
In molecular solids molecules are the constituent particles. They are further subdivided into,
i) Non-polar molecular solids:
They comprise of either atom or molecules formed by non polar covalent bonds.
E×: H2, I2 &Cl2
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 In these solids atoms or molecules are held by weak dispersion forces or London forces.
 These solids are soft.
 Non conductor of electricity.
 They have low melting point.
 Usually in liquids or gaseous state at room temperature and pressure.
ii) Polar molecular solids:
The constituent of these types of solids are molecules like HCl, SO2 etc formed by polar
covalent bonds. The molecules in such solids are held together by relatively dipole-dipole
interactions.
 These solids are soft
 Non conductors of electricity
 Melting points are higher than those of non polar molecular solids
 Exist as gases or liquids under room temperature & pressure.
E× :solid SO2, solid NH3
iii) Hydrogen bonded molecular solids:
The molecules of such solids contain polar covalent bonds between hydrogen & fluorine,
oxygen or nitrogen atoms. Molecules are bonded by strong hydrogen bonds. (H2O, ice)
 Non conductors of electricity.
 Volatile liquids or soft solids under room temperature & pressure.

2) Ionic solids :
Ions are the constituent particle of ionic solids. Such solids are formed by the three dimensional
arrangements of cation & anions bound by strong electrostatic force.
 These solids are hard & brittle in nature.
 Have high melting point and boiling points.
 Ions are not free to move about in solid sate ∴ they are electrical insulators in the solid
state, however in the molten state or when dissolved in water conducts electricity.
3) Metallic solids :
Metals formed by the definite arrangement of metal ions surrounded by & held together by a
sea of free electrons. These electrons are mobile & evenly spread out throughout the crystal.
These free & mobile electrons are responsible for high electrical & thermal conductivity of
metals.
 When electric field is applied these electrons flow through the network of ions.
 When heat is supplied to one portion of a metal, the thermal energy is uniformly spread
throughout by free electrons.
 Metal are luster & color in certain cases.
 Metals are highly malleable & ductile.

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 4) Covalent or network solids: These are crystalline solids of non metals result from the
formation of covalent bonds between adjacent atoms throughout the crystal. They are also
called gaint molecules. Atoms are very strongly held at their positions because covalent bonds
are strong & directional in nature.
 Such solids are very hard and brittle.
 They have extremely high melting points and
many even decompose before melting.
 They are insulators. E×: diamond, silicon
carbide.
Graphite is a covalent solid but it is soft and a conductor
of electricity. Its exceptional properties are due to its
structure. Carbon atoms are arranged in different layers
& carbon atom is covalently bonded to three of its
neighboring atoms in the same layer. The fourth valence
electron of each atom is present between different layers
& is free to move about. These free electrons make
graphite a good conductor of electricity. Different layer
can slide one over the other. This makes graphite a soft
solid & a good solid lubricant.

Crystal lattice
The three dimensional arrangement of constituent particles in a crystal is called crystal lattice.
Each particle is depicted as a point.
Or, A regular three dimensional arrangements of points in space is called a crystal lattice.
There are 14 possible three dimensional lattices. These are called Bravias lattices.

Characteristics of a crystal lattice

 Each point in a crystal lattice is called lattice point or lattice site.
 Each point represents one constituent particle which may be an atom, a molecule or an ion.
 Lattice points are joined by straight lines to bring out the geometry of the lattice.

Unit cell
The smallest portion of a crystal lattice is called unit cell. It is when repeated
in different directions, generates the entire lattice.

Characteristics of a unit cell

 Its dimensions along the three edges a, b & c. These edges may or
may not be mutually perpendicular.
 Angles between the edges are α (between b & c), β (between a & c)
and γ (between a & b).
 A unit cell is characterized by 6 parameters a, b, c & α, β, γ.
 Based on the values of a, b, c & α, β & γ there are seven types of unit cells or crystal systems.

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 They are
 Cubic
 Tetragonal
 Orthorhombic
 Hexagonal
 Rhombohedral
 Monoclinic
 Triclinic

Monoclinic Primitive, a≠b≠c α = γ = 90 Monoclinic sulphur

End-centred β ≠ 90 Na2SO4.10H2O
Triclinic Primitive a ≠b ≠ c α≠β≠γ K2Cr2O7,CuSO4.5H2O
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Classification of unit cells
Based on the positions of constituent particles unit cells are broadly classified into two types.
1. Primitive unit cells:
When constituent particles are present only on the corner positions of a unit cell, it is
called as primitive unit cell.
2. Centered unit cells :
When a unit cell contains one or more constituent particles present at positions other
than corners in addition to those at corners it is called a centered unit cell.

Types of centered unit cells

 Body centered unit cell:
Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle (atom, molecule or ion) at the centers of the
body, in addition to those at the corners.

 Face centered unit cell:

Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle present at the centre of each face, in
addition to those at the corners.
 End centered unit cell:
In such a unit cell, one constituent particle is present at the centre of any two opposite faces,
in addition to those at the corners.

Number of atoms in a unit cell

In solid state particles are considered to be rigid sphere it is assumed that the centre of the sphere
coincides with the lattice point. Therefore, the entire sphere does not belong to one particular unit cell.
Consider a cubic crystal system & atom is the constituent particle.
1.Primitive cubic Unit cell
Primitive cubic unit cell has atoms only at its corners. Each atom at a corner is shared between 8
adjacent unit cells. Four unit cells in the same layer and four unit cells of the upper layer.
∴ only 1/8th of an atom (or molecule or ion) actually belongs to a particular unit cell.
So total number of atoms in one unit cell is 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom.

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 2. Body centered cubic unit cell
A bcc unit cell has an atom at ends of its corners and also one atom at its body centre.
Thus in a bcc unit cell,
i) 8 corners × 1/8 per corner atom = 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom.
ii) One body centered atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom.
So total number of atoms per unit cell = 2 atoms.

3. Face centered cubic unit cell

A fcc unit cell contains atom at all the corners & at the centre of all the faces of its cube.
Thus in a fcc unit cell,
i) 8 corner atoms × 1/8 atom per unit cell = 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom.
ii) 6 face centered atoms × ½ atom per unit cell =6×1/2=3 atoms.
Total number of atoms per unit cell = 4 atoms.

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Close packed structures
In solids, the constituent particles are close packed, leaving the minimum vacant space.
a. Close packing in one dimension

In this arrangement, each sphere is in contact with two of its neighbors. The number of nearest
neighbors of a particle is called its coordination number. Thus in one dimensional close packed
arrangement the coordination number is 2.

b. Close packing in two dimension

Two dimensional close packed structure can be generated by stacking (placing) the rows of close
packed spheres. This can be done in two different ways.
i) The second row may be placed in contact with the first one such that spheres of the second row are
exactly above the first row. The spheres of two rows are aligned horizontally as well as vertically.
In two dimensional arrangement coordination number is 4. If the centre of the 4 immediate
neighbouring spheres is joined, a square is formed. Hence this packing is called square close
packing in two dimensions.

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ii) In this arrangement the spheres of the second row are placed in the depressions created by the
spheres of the first row.
If the first row is represented as ‘A’ type & the second row is different & may called as ‘B’ type.
When the third layer is placed in staggered manner, it is also of ‘A’ type. Fourth row is of ‘B’
type. Hence this arrangement is ABAB type.
In this arrangement each sphere is in contact with 6 of its neighbors and the co ordination number is
6.
The centers of these six spheres are at the corners of a regular hexagon. Hence this packing is
called two dimensional hexagonal closes packing. In this layer there are some voids (empty space)
which are in triangular shape. The triangular voids are of two different types. In one row the apex
of the triangles are pointing upwards and in the next layer downwards.

c. Close packing in 3 dimensions

Three dimensional packing can be obtained by placing two dimensional layers one above the
other.
i) Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square close packed layers :
In this arrangement the layers of spheres are placed above the previous layers such that the
spheres of the upper layer fall exactly above the first layer. This lattice has AAA…. type
pattern. This leads to simple cubic lattice and its unit cell the primitive cubic unit cell.

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ii) Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional hexagonal close packed layers :
Let us consider a two dimensional hexagonal close packed layer ‘A’ and place a similar layer
above it such that the spheres of the second layer are placed in the depressions of the first layer.
The second layer is denoted as ‘B’ as the alignment is different.
When sphere is placed in the triangular void, a tetrahedral void is formed. It is called so
because a tetrahedron is formed when the centers of those four spheres are connected. The

other triangular voids of the first layer are covered by the triangular voids of the second layer

such that their vertices are pointed in the opposite directions. The resultant void is called
octahedral voids. An octahedral void is surrounded by six spheres.
If ‘N’ spheres are involved in close packing then;
The number of octahedral voids formed = N
The number of tetrahedral voids formed = 2N

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iii) Placing the third layer over the second layer : There are two possible arrangement they
are :
a) Covering tetrahedral voids :
In this arrangement, the spheres of the third layer cover the tetrahedral voids of the second
layer. Here the spheres of the third layer fall right above that of first layer. In other words, the
arrangement is represented as ABAB… type. This close packing is called hexagonal close
packing (hcp). This type of arrangement is found in metals like Mg, Zn etc

b) Covering octahedral voids :

In this arrangement, the spheres of the third layer cover the octahedral voids of the second
layer. Here the arrangement in the third layer neither resembles that in second or first layer.
Continuing like this, fourth layer resembles first layer and so on. So this arrangement is
represented as ABCABC…type. This type of close packing is called cubic close packing
(ccp) or face centered cubic (fcc). This type of arrangement is found in metals like Cu, Ag,
Fe, Ni, Au, Al etc.

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Packing efficiency
The percentage of the total space filled (occupied) by the particles is called packing efficiency.

Packing efficiency in simple cubic lattice

In simple cubic lattice the atoms are located on the corners of the
cube. The particles touch each other along the edge of the cubic
unit cell.
Let the edge length or side of the unit cell of the cube be ‘a’ &
radius of each particle be ‘r’.
Thus we have a = 2r
∴ The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = (2r)3 = 8r3
The volume of the one particle (sphere) =
Since a simple cubic unit cell contains only one atom,
The volume occupied by the particle =

Packing efficiency =

= 52.36%
52.4%

Packing efficiency in hcp and ccp (face centered) structures

In this type of the arrangement the particles are in touch with one another along the fcc diagonal.
Let the edge length of the unit cell be ‘a’
∴ The radius of each particle be ‘r’ and length of face diagonal be ‘b’
In ΔABC
AC2 = BC2 +AB2
b2 = a2 + a2
or b2 = 2a2
b=√
We have b= 4r
√ = 4r

Or a= = √
√
3
∴ Volume of the cube = a3 = √

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We know that each ccp unit cell has effectively 4 spheres.
∴ Total volume of 4 spheres = 4 x

Packing efficiency in body centered cubic structure

In this type of arrangement, the particles are in touch with
each other along the body diagonal.
Let the edge length of the unit cell be ‘a’ , the radius of each
particle be ‘r’.
The length of face diagonal be ‘b’.
The length of body diagonal be ‘c’.

In ∆EFD
b2 = a2 + a2
b=√ a
In ∆AFD
c = a2 + b2
2

= a2 + 2a2 = 3a2
∴c=√ a
Since the length of the body diagonal ‘c’ is equal to 4r.
ie c = 4r
√ a = 4r
a = 4r/√
ie volume of the cube, a3 =(4r/√ )3
We know that the number of particle in body centered unit cell is 2
The volume occupied by sheres = 2(

∴ Packing efficiency =

= 2(

= 68
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Calculation involving unit cell dimensions
Let the edge length of a unit cell of a cubic crystal be ‘a’ & number of atoms per unit cell be ‘z’
Mass of an atom be ‘m’
Then volume of the unit cell = a3
Mass of the unit cell = number of atoms in the unit cell x mass of each atom
= zxm
Where z number of atoms per unit cell
m mass of a single atom
∴

d =

But,

∴m=

Where M molar mass

Avogadro’s number
∴ Density of the unit cell =

Here density of unit cell is same as the density of the substance.

Imperfections in solids
The crystalline solids have orderly arrangement. However crystals are not perfect. There are different
types of imperfections or defects in them.
Any deviation from perfectly ordered arrangement of constituent particles in a crystal is called crystal
defect or imperfections.
These defects are broadly classified into point defects and line defects.
Point defects are irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a
crystal.
Line defect are deviation from ideal arrangement in entire row of lattice points.
Types of point defects:
There are three types of point defects:
a. Stoichiometric defect
b. Impurity defect
c. Non- stoichiometric defects
i) Stiochiometric defects
They are also known as intrinsic or thermodynamic defects. These are the point defect that does
not disturb the stoichiometry of the solid. There are two types of stiochiometric defect.

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 a.. Vacancy defect
When some of the lattice points are vacant, the crystal is said
to have vacancy defect. Since mass decreases & volume
remains same results in the decrease in density of the
substance. This defect can also develop when a substance is
heated.

b..Interstitial defect
When some extra constituent particles (atom or molecules)
occupy an interstitial site, the crystal is said to have interstitial
defect. Since mass increases & volume remains the same density
of the substance increases.
Vacancy and interstitial defects are shown by non-ionic solids.
Ionic solids exhibit somewhat similar defects called Frankel
defects and Schottky defects.

 Frankel defect
This arises when an ion occupies interstitial site instead of normal lattice
points. It is also called dislocation defect.
It creates a vacancy defect in its original site and an interstitial defect at
its new location.
It does not change the density of the solid. It is shown by ionic substance
in which there is large difference in the size of ions.
ex : ZnS, AgCl, AgBr, AgI due to small size of Zn2+ and Ag+ ions.

 Schottky defect
This arises when equal number of cations and anions are missing from
the lattice point such that electrical neutrality is maintained.
Since mass decreases & volume remain same results in decrease in
density of the crystal. It is observed in NaCl, KCl, CsCl & AgBr.

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ii) Impurity defect
This defect is caused by the presence of an impurity in the
crystal.
If molten NaCl contains a little amount of SrCl2 , some of the
sites of Na+ ions are occupied by Sr2+ ions. Each Sr2+ replaces
two Na+ ions. It occupies one of the site & the other site remains
vacant. The cationic vacancies thus produced are equal in
number to that of Sr2+ ions present.
Another similar example is the solid solution of CdCl2 and
AgCl.

iii) Non – stoichiometric defects

These disturb the stoichiometry (the ratio of number of constituent particles) in the crystal.
There are two types of Non – stoichiometric defects
Metal excess defect
 Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies
When crystal of sodium chloride is heated in an atmosphere
of sodium vapor, the sodium atoms are deposited on the
surface of the crystal. The Cl- ions from lattice point diffuse to
the surface creating anionic vacancies. The sodium atom on
the surface loses one electron to form Na+ & combine with Cl-
to form sodium chloride. The released electrons diffuse in to
the anionic sites. As a result the crystal now has an excess of
sodium. The anionic sites occupied by the unpaired electrons
are called F- centers (German word Farbenzenter meaning
color center).
Therefore excess of sodium makes sodium chloride yellow,
excess of lithium makes LiCl pink & excess of K makes KCl
violet.

 Metal excess defect due to presence of extra cation at interstitial sites

Zinc oxide is white in color at room temperature. On heating, it loses oxygen and turns
yellow.
→

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 The excess of Zn2+ ions in crystal move to the interstitial sites and the electrons to the
neighboring interstitial sites. Hence there is excess of zinc in the crystal & the electrons, &
these electrons absorb radiation in visible region hence zinc oxide turns to yellow.
Metal deficiency defect
This defect is observed in metals exhibiting variable valency.
For Ex : In FeO some Fe2+ ions are missing from the sites & their positions are occupied by
number of Fe3+ ions to maintain electrical neutrality.

This result in less amount of the metal than the required for stoichiometric proportion.
Therefore FeO is mostly exists as Fe0.95O. Actually it may vary from 0.93 to 0.96.

Electrical properties
Solid exhibits electrical conductivities ranging from 10 -20 to 107 ohm-1m-1. Solids can be
classified into three types on the basis of their conductivities.
i) Conductors :
These are the solids with conductivities ranging between 104 to 107ohm-1 m-1. Metals that
have the conductivities in the order of 107 ohm-1 m-1 are good conductors.
ii) Insulators :
These are the solids with very low conductivities ranging between 10 -20 to
10-10 ohm-1m-1.
iii) Semiconductors:
These are the solids with conductivities in the range from 10-6 to 104 ohm-1 m-1.

Conduction of electricity in metals

A conductor may conduct electricity through movement of electrons or ions.
 In metallic conductors, the conductivity is due the movement of electrons and in
electrolytes it is due the ions.
 Metals conduct electricity in the solid state as well as in molten state.
 The conductivity of the metals depends upon the number of valence electrons available per
atom.
 The atomic orbitals of metal atoms from molecular orbitals which are so close to each
other so as to form a band.
 If this band is partially filled and it overlaps with a higher energy unoccupied conduction
band, then electrons can flow easily under an applied electric field and the metal show
conductivity.
 In insulators the gap between the filled valence band and the next higher unoccupied
conduction band is large, electrons can’t jump to it and such substance has very small
conductivity .
Conduction of electricity in semiconductors
 In case of semiconductors, the gap between the valence band and the conduction band is small.
Therefore, some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some conductivity.

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 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases with rise in temperature since more
electrons can jump to the conduction band.
 Substance like silicon and germanium show this type of behavior and are called intrinsic
semiconductors.
 The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is too low to be practical use. Their conductivity
is increased by adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity. This process is called
doping.
 Doping can be done with an impurity which is electrons rich or electrons deficient as compared
to the intrinsic semiconductors silicon or germanium.
a. Electron rich impurities
 Silicon and germanium belong to 14 group of periodic table and have 4 valence
electrons each.
 In their crystal, each atom forms four covalent bonds with its neighbours.
 When doped with a group 15 element like P or As which contain 5 valence electrons,
they occupy some of the lattice points is Si or Ge crystal.
 Four out of the five electrons are used in the formation of four covalent bonds with the
four neighbouring silicon atoms. The fifth electron is extra and is delocalized.
 The delocalized electrons increase the conductivity of doped Si (or Ge).
 Here, the increase in the conductivity is due to the negatively charged electrons, hence
silicon doped with electron rich impurity is called n- type semiconductor.

b. Electrons deficient impurities

 Silicon and germanium can also be doped with group 13 elements like boron,
aluminium or gallium which contain only 3 valence electrons.
 The place where the fourth valence electron is missing is called electron hole or
electron vacancy.
 An electron from the neighboring atom can come and fill the electron hole, but in doing
so, it would leave an electron hole at its original position.
 Under the influence of the electric field electrons would move towards the positively
charged plate through electronic holes, but it would appear as if electron holes
(positively charged) are moving towards the negatively charged plate. This type of
semiconductors is called p-type semiconductors.

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Application of n-type and p-type semiconductor:
 Diode is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as rectifiers.
 Transistors are made by sandwitching a layer of one type of semiconductors between two layers
of other type of a semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to detect or amplify
radio or audio signals.
 The solar cell is an efficient photo diode used for the conversion of light energy into electrical
energy.

Magnetic properties
 Every substance has some magnetic properties
associated with it due to the presence of electrons.
 Each electron in as atom behaves like a tiny
magnet.
 The
magneti
c
moment
of an
electron
is due to
two
types of
motions
.
 Its
orbital
motion around the nucleus.
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 Its spin around its own axis.
 Electrons being a charged particle and undergoing these motions can be considered as a small
loop of current, which possesses a magnetic moment.
 Thus each electron has a permanent spin and orbital magnetic moment associated with it.
 The magnitude of this magnetic moment of electron is very small and in the unit called Bohr
Magneton, BM (μB). It is equal to 9.27 x 10-24 Am2.
 On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be classified into five categories
i) Paramagnetic
ii) Diamagnetic
iii) Ferromagnetic
iv) Anti ferromafnetic
v) Ferri magnetic

 Para magnetism
 Paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted by a magnetic field.
 They are magnetized in a magnetic field in the same direction
 They lose their magnetism in the absence of magnetic field.
 It is due to the presence of one or more unpaired electrons which are attracted by the
magnetic field.
 O2, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+ are examples of paramagnetic substances.

 Diamagnetism
 Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
 Water, sodium chloride and benzene are some example of such substances.
 They are weakly magnetized in the opposite direction.
 It is shown by those substances in which all the electrons are paired and there is no
unpaired electron.
 Pairing of electron cancel their magnetic moment and lose their magnetic character.
 Ferromagnetism
 A few substances like Fe, Co, Ni, Gd & CrO2 are attracted very strongly by a magnetic
field. Such substances are called ferromagnetic substances.
 These substances can be permanently magnetized.
 In the solid state, metal ions of ferromagnetic substances are grouped together into
small regions called domains. Thus each domain acts as tiny magnet.
 In an unmagnetized piece of a ferromagnetic substance, the domains are randomly
oriented and their magnetic moments get cancelled. When a substance is placed in a
magnetic field all the domains get orient in the direction of the magnetic field and a
strong magnetic affect is produced. This ordering of domains persists even when the
magnetic field removed and the ferromagnetic substance becomes a permanent magnet.
 Anti ferromagnetism
 Substances like MnO showing anti ferromagnetism have domain structure similar to
ferromagnetic substance, but their domains are oppositely oriented and cancel out each
others magnetic moment.
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 Ferrimagnetism
 It is observed when the magnetic moment of the domains in the substance is aligned in
parallel and anti parallel directions in unequal number.
 They are weakly attracted by the magnetic field as compared to ferromagnetic
substances.
 Fe3O4 (Magnetite) and Ferrites like MgFe2O4 and ZnFe2O4 are examples of
ferrimagnetic substances.
 These substances loose ferrimagnetism on heating and become paramagnetic.

**********************

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 Unit 1:The Solid State
Chapter weightage :7 marks
Question number 11 :2 marks,
27: 5 marks
Questions carrying one mark
1. Which type of solid is anisotropic in nature?
Ans: Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature.
2. Which type of solids is called as super cooled liquids?
Ans: Amorphous solids are called super cooled liquids.
3. Sodium chloride and quartz belong to which type of solid?
Ans: Crystalline solids.
4. Which type of force of attractions is present between the molecules in polar molecular
solids?
Ans: Dipole-dipole interactions
5. Solid shows different values for refractive index when measured in different directions-
Identify the type of solid.
Ans: Crystalline solids.
6. When a solid is cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut in to two pieces and the newly
generated surfaces are plain and smooth. Identify the type of solid.
Ans: Crystalline solids.
7. Which type of force of attractions is present between the molecules in non polar molecular
solids and between the particles in ionic solids?
Ans: London forces and Electrostatic force of attraction respectively.
8. What is crstal lattice?
Ans: The regular three dimensional array of lattice points in space is called crystal lattice.
9. What is a unit cell?
Ans: It is the smallest repeating unit which when arranged in three dimension gives the
crystal lattice.
10. What is a primitive cubic unit cell?
Ans:The cubic unit cell in which the particles/atoms are present only at the eight corner of
the cube is called primitive unit cell.
11. Define the coordination number of a particle in solids.
Ans:It is the total number of nearest neighboring particles to a given particle.
12. What is the number of octahedral and tetrahedral voids generated ,if the number of close
packed spheres is N ?
Ans: N and 2N respectively.
13. What is the coordination number of a particle in a tetrahedral void?
Ans: Four.
14. Among schottky and Frenkel defect, which type of defect decreases the density of the
crystal?
Ans: Schottky defect.
15. What are point defects?
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 Ans:Deviations from the ideal arrangement around a particular point or an atom in a
crystalline solid.
16. What areF- centers?
Ans: The anionic sites occupied by the unpaired electrons are called F-center.
17. Towhich colour potassium chloride turns ,when excess potassium ions present?
Ans: Violet
18. Name the type of non –stoichiometric defect observed when white ZnO turns yellow on
heating?
Ans: Metal excess defect.
19. Name the non –stoichiometric defect responsible for the composition of ferrous oxide to be
Fe0.95O1.
Ans:Metal deficiency defect.
20. Which type of point defect is observed when NaCl containing little SrCl2 is crystallized?
Ans: Impurity defect.
21. Which defect is also called dislocation defect?
Ans:Frenkel defect.
22. What is doping?
Ans:The process of increasing the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductors by adding a
suitable impurity is called doping.
23. What type of semiconductors is obtained when silicon doped with boron impurity?
Ans: p-type semiconductor
24. Name the unit used to measure magnetic moment.
Ans: Am2( 1 Bohr magneton=9.27 x 10 -24Am2)
25. What are diamagnetic substances?
Ans: These are the substances which are repelled by the magnetic field.
26. What are ferromagnetic substances?
Ans: These are the substances which are strongly attracted by the magnet.
27. Hoe body diagonal and radius of a sphere (r) are related in bcc unit cell?
Ans:4r=√2a
28. Give an example for ferromagnetic substance.
Ans:Fe,Co,Ni Gd and CrO2
29. Give an example for diamagnetic substance.
Ans: H2O,NaCl and C6H6
30. Name the crystal defect which lowers the density in an ionic crystal. (Mar 2015)

Questions carrying two marks

1. How crystalline solids differ from amorphous solids in their melting point?
Ans:Crystalline solids have sharp melting point where as amorphous solid do not have sharp
melting point.

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2. Write the differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids?
Ans:
Sl no. Property Amorphous solid
Crystalline solid
1 Shape They have definite They do not have definite
geometrical shape geometrical shape
2 Melting point They have Sharp They do not have sharp
melting point melting point
3 Nature True solids Pseudo solids or super
cooled liquids
4 Order in Long range order Short range order
arrangement of
constituent
particles
5 Anisotropy Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature
nature

3. What is meant by anisotropy? What type of solids show this nature?

Ans:The physical properties like refractive index ,coefficient of thermal expansion ,when
measured in different directions gives different value for a crystalline solid hence it is
anisotropic in nature.
4. Give two differences between Schottky defect and Frenkel defect? (MQP 2016,J 2015,J 2017)
Schottky defect Frenkel defect
Schottky defect is due to the missing of equal Frenkel defect is due to the shifting of an ion
number of cations and anions from their from its normal site to an interstitial site.
positions.
Schottky defect decreases the density of the Frenkel defect does not change the density of
substance the solid.
Example:NaCl,KCl,CsCl and AgBr Example:AgCl,agBr ,AgI and ZnS

5. Calculate the number of particles present per unit cell in an FCC unit cell.
Ans: contribution of corner particle=8 x 1/8=01
Contribution of a particle at the centre of face =6 x ½ =03
Total number of particles/unit cell =04
6. Calculate the number of particles present per unit cell in a BCC unit cell.
Ans: contribution of corner particle=8 x 1/8=01
Contribution of a particle at the centre=01
Total number of particles/unit cell =02
7. Calculate the number of particles present per unit cell in a simple cubic unit cell.
Ans: contribution of corner particle=8 x 1/8=01
Total number of particles/unit cell =01
8. Mention the two characteristics of a unit cell.
Ans: Edge length and axial angles.
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9. What is the relation between edge length(a) and radius of the sphere (r) in fcc unit cell ? what is
its packing efficiency?
Ans: The relationship edge length(a) and radius of the sphere(r) are a=2√2r.Packingefficiency
is 74%.
10. What is the relation between edge length(a) and radius of the sphere (r) in bcc unit cell ? what
is its packing efficiency?
Ans: The relationship edge length(a) and radius of the sphere(r) are a=4r/√3.Packingefficiency
is 68%.
11. Mention the two types of non stoichiometric defects in solids?
Ans: Metal excess defect and metal deficiency defect.
12. Write the formula to calculate the density of the unit cell and explain the terms.
Ans: d= z M
a3 NA M=Molecular mass
d=density
z= number of particles per unit cell
a=edge length
NA=Avagadro number
13. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?
Ans:n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping of the crystal of a group 14 element such as Si
or Ge ,with a group 15 element such s P or As( pentavalent).Conductivity increases due to
negatively charged electrons.
p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping of the crystal of a group 14 element such as Si or
Ge ,with a group 13 element such as B,Al orGa(Trivalent).conductivity increases as a result of
electron hole.
14. What is Frenkel defect ? Give an example. (Mar 2014)
Ans: Frenkel defect is due to the shifting of an ion from its normal site to an interstitial
site.Examples:ZnS,AgCl,AgBr, and AgI.
15. What is meant by the term coordination number in solids? What is the coordination number in
a face centered cubic close packing structure? (Mar 2015)
Ans:The number of nearest neighbours of a particle is called its coordination numbers.
Coordination number in a face centered cubic close packing structure is 12.
16. In a compound ,nitrogen atoms (N) make cubic close packed lattice and metal atoms (M)
occupy one third of the tetrahedral voids present .Determine the formula of the compound
formed by M and N. (MQP 2016)
Ans:Since nitrogen atoms make ccp arrangement ,number of atoms of N per unit cell is 4.
The number of tetrahdral voids =8
But only 1/3 rd of tetrahedral voids are occupied by atoms of ‘M’,the number of atoms of ‘M’
are=1/3 x 8=8/3. Hence the formula of the compound is M8/3N4=M8N12 or M2N3
17. Give an example for a crystal showing F-centre defect.(MQP 2016).
Ans:Sodium chloride ,KCl.
18. What is Schottky defect? what is its effect on the density of the solid? (Mar 2016).
Ans:Schottky defect is due to the missing of equal number of cations and anions from their
positions. Due to schottky defect density of the substances decreases.
19. Calculate the number of particles(atoms)per unit cell in a FCC crystal lattice.(Apr 2016).
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 20. What are ferromagnetic substances? Give one example.(Apr 2016).
21. Give the differences between crystalline and amorphous solids with respect to shape and
melting point.(Mar 2017)
22. An element having atomic mass 63.1g/mol has face centered cubic unit cell with egde length
3.608 x 10-8 cm.Calculate the density of unit cell.[Given:6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol](Mar 2017).
23. How is ferrimagnetism arises in substances?Give an example of substance showing
ferrimagnetism.
Ans: Ferrimagnetism is observed when the magnetic moments of the domains in the substance
are aligned in parallel and anti-parallel directions in unequal numbers.
Examples:Fe3O4 (Magnetite)(Jun 2017)
24. Give any two differences between Schottky and Frenkel defect.(Jun 2017).

Questions carrying three marks

1. Calculate the packing efficiency in simple cubic unit cell. (Mar 2014,Mar 2016,Mar 2017)
In simple cubic lattice the atoms are located on the corners of the cube. The particles touch
each other along the edge of the cubic unit cell.
Let the edge length or side of the unit cell of the cube be ‘a’ & radius of each particle be ‘r’.
Thus we have a = 2r
∴ The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = (2r)3 = 8r3
The volume of the one particle (sphere) =
Since a simple cubic unit cell contains only one atom,
The volume occupied by the particle =

Packing efficiency =

= 52.36%
52.4%

2. Calculate the Packing efficiency in hcp and ccp (face centered) cubic unit cell. (Mar
2015,MQP 2016)
In this type of the arrangement the particles are in touch
with one another along the face diagonal.
Let the edge length of the unit cell be ‘a’
∴ The radius of each particle be ‘r’ and length of face diagonal be ‘b’

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In ΔABC
AC2 = BC2 +AB2
b2 = a2 + a2
or b2 = 2a2
b=√
We have b= 4r
√ = 4r
Or a= = √
√
3
∴ Volume of the cube = a3 = √
We know that each ccp unit cell has effectively 4 spheres.
∴ Total volume of 4 spheres = 4 x

3. Calculate the packing efficiency in body centered cubic unit cell. (MQP 2016)
In this type of arrangement, the particles are in touch with each other along the body
diagonal.
Let the edge length of the unit cell be ‘a’ , the radius of each particle be ‘r’.
The length of face diagonal be ‘b’.
The length of body diagonal be ‘c’.
In ∆EFD
b2 = a2 + a2
b2= 2a2
In ∆AFD
c = a2 + b2
2

= a2 + 2a2 = 3a2
∴c=√ a
Since the length of the body diagonal ‘c’ is equal to 4r.
ie c = 4r
√ a = 4r
a = 4r/√
ie volume of the cube, a3 =(4r/√ )3
We know that the number of particle in body centered unit cell is 2
The volume occupied by spheres = 2(

∴ Packing efficiency =

27
 = 2(

= 68
4. Based on band theory explain the conduction in metals, insulators and semiconductors.
Ans: Conduction of electricity in metals: In metal, the valence shell is partially filled or it
overlaps with a higher energy unoccupied conduction band so that electrons can flow easily
under an applied electric field.
Conduction of electricity in insulators: If the gap between filled valence band and the next
higher unoccupied band (conduction band) is very large .so electrons cannot jump to it and
such a substance has very small conductivity and it behaves as an insulator.
Conduction of electricity in semi conductors: In semiconductors, the gap between the valence
band and conduction band is small .Therefore some electrons may jump to the conduction band
and show some conductivity .Electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases with increase
in temperature .Substances like Si,Ge show this type of behavior and are called intrinsic
semiconductors.
5. How are solids classified on the basis of the force of attraction?
Ans:
a. Molecular solids :Particles are held by
i.London forces (in nonpolar solids) ex:Benzene ,argon ,I 2
ii. Dipole-dipole interaction (in polar solids) ex:Urea ,ammonia
iii.Hydrogen bonding (in hydrogen bonded solids) ex:ice
b. Ionic solids :In solid state ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces
.ex:NaCl,MgO
c. Covalent or network solids: Particles are held by covalent
bonding.ex:SiO2(quartz),diamond
d. Metallic solids: Particles are held by metallic bond.ex:Fe,Cu
6. What are point defects? Explain the types.
Ans: Deviations from the ideal arrangement around a particular point or an atom in a
crystalline solid.These are of three types.
a. Stoichiometric defects:Do not disturb stoichiometry of rhe solid .These are also called
intrinsic or thermodyanamic defects.ex: Frenkel defect ,schottky defect.
b. Non stoichiometric defects: This defect alters the stoichiometric ratio of the constituent
elements.
i.Metal excess defect
a. Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies.
b. Metal excess defect due to the presence of extra cations at interstitial sites.
ii. Metal deficiency defect
c. Impurity defect.

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7. What are diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances?
Ans: Diamagnetic Substance: The substances which are weakly repelled by the magnetic field
.this property is shown by those substance which contain fully filled orbitals (no unpaired
electrons).
Paramagnetic substance: The substance which are attracted by the magnet. The magnetic
character is temporary and is present as long as the external magnetic field is present.ex:O 2,
Fe3+,Cr3+
Ferromagnetic substance: The substance which are strongly attracted by the magnet .They
show permanent magnetism even in the absence of magnetic field. ex: Fe, Ni, Gd
Problems:
1. An ionic compound is formed by two elements A and B .The cations A are in ccp arrangement
and those of anions B occupy all the tetrahedral voids. What is the simplest formula of the
compound? (Ans:A4B8 or AB2)
2. A compound is formed by two elements X and Y .the element X forms ccp and atoms of Y
occupy 1/3 of tetrahedral voids .What is the formula of the compound? (Ans:X3Y2)
3. Gold (atomic radius=0.144nm) crystallizes in a face centered unit cell .What is the length of the
side of the cell? (MQP 2016) (Ans:0.40723nm)
4. Silver forms ccp lattice and x- ray studies of its crystals show that the edge length of its unit
cell is 408pm.Calculate the density of silver .(atomic mass=107.9u) (Ans:10.5528g/cm3)
5. X-ray diffraction studies show that copper crystallizes in an fcc unit cell with cell edge of 3.6 x
10-8 cm. In a separate experiment, copper is determined to have a density of
8.92g/cm3.calculate the atomic mass of copper. (Ans:62.6525u)
6. The edge of fcc unit cell of platinum is 392pm and density is 21.5g/cm3.calculate the avagadro
number. (Ans:6.022 x10 23)
7. The unit cell of sodium chloride has four formula units. The edge length of the unit cell is
0.564nm.What is the density of sodium chloride? (Ans:2.165 g/cm3)
8. A body centered cubic element having density 10.3g/cm3 ,has a edge length of 314pm.calculate
the atomic mass of the element.(NA=6.022 x1023/mol) (Ans:96.01u)
9. Calcium metal crystallizes in a fcc lattice with edge length of 0.556nm.calculate the density of
the metal.(atomic mass of calcium=40g/mol, N A=6.022 x1023/mol) (Ans:1.54 g/cm3)
10. Copper crystallizes in a fcc lattice with edge length 3.61 x 10 23/mol .Calculate the density of
the crystal (Atomic mass of copper =63.5g/mol, NA=6.022 x1023/mol) (Ans:8.9 g/cm3)
11. Silver crystallizes in a face centered cubic structure. If the edge length is 4.077 x 10 -8 cm and
density is 10.5g/cm3.Calculate the atomic mass of silver. (Ans:107.09u)
3 o
12. The density of lithium atoms is 0.53g/cm .The edge length of Li is 3.5A .Find out the number
of Li atoms in a unit cell .( NA=6.022 x1023/mol and M=6.94). (Ans:2)
-2
13. An element with molar mass 2.7 x 10 kg/mol forms a cubic unit cell with edge length
405pm.If its density is 2.7 x 103 kg/m3,what is the nature of the cubic unit cell? (Ans:z=4)
3
14. Niobiun crystallizes in body centered cubic structure .If density is 8.55g/cm , calculate atomic
radius of niobium, given that its atomic mass is 93u. (Ans:143pm)
15. An element has a body centered cubic (bcc) structure with cell edge of 288pm.the density of
the element is 7.2g/cm3.How many atoms are present in 208g of the element?
(Ans:24.187x1023atoms)

29
16. Aluminium crystallizes in an fcc structure. Atomic radius of the metal is 125pm.Calculate the
edge length of unit cell of the metal. (Mar 2014)(a=2√2r)
17. An element crystallizes in FCC lattice .If edge length of the unit cell is 408.6pm and density is
10.5g/cm3.Calculate the atomic mass of the element.(NA=6.022 x 1023)(Mar 2016)
18. Silver forms a ccp lattice .The edge length of its unit cell is 408.6pm.Calculate the density of
the silver.( NA=6.022 x 1023 ,atomic mass of silver =108g/mol)(Apr 2016)

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