NOTE

M A T H E M A T I C S

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF SETS AND FORMULAS BASED ON
CARDINALITY OF SETS

What you already know What you will learn

Sets, Representation of sets, Types of Complement of sets,

sets, Operations on sets, Venn diagrams Law of algebra of sets

Symmetric Difference of Sets

Symmetric Difference of two sets A and B U A B

is denoted by AΔB = (A - B) ∪ (B - A).

Another way of writing Symmetric Difference

of two sets A and B is, AΔB = (A ∪ B) - (A ∩ B).

Concept Check

1. If A is null set and B = P(P(P(A))), where P(A) denotes power set of A, then which of the following
is/are correct?
a. { } ⊂ B b. { { } } ⊂ B c. { { } } ∈ B d. { } ∈ B

Complement of a Set

Complement of a set A represents the negation of the set A, U

which means everything except the set A.
It is denoted by Ac or A’. A
Ac = U - A, where U is the universal set.

a. A∩ Ac = Φ d. Uc = Φ
b. A∪ Ac = U e. Φc = U
c. (Ac)c = A

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Quick Query U A B

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

U A
2 1 3 4

5 7
Both A∩Bc and A - B, represent the same
9 region.
6 8
So, A∩Bc = A - B. This conversion is
Find Ac important.

Laws of Algebra of Sets

𝐴∪𝐴=𝐴 𝐴∪𝜙 = 𝐴
Idempotent laws Identity laws 𝐴∩𝑈 = 𝐴
𝐴∩𝐴=A

Commutative laws A B

𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴

A A
B B
𝐴∪𝐵 𝐵∪𝐴

𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴

A A
B B
𝐴∩𝐵 𝐵∩𝐴

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Associative laws A B C

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)∪𝐶 = 𝐴∪(𝐵∪𝐶)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)∩𝐶 = 𝐴∩(𝐵∩𝐶)

𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶

(𝐴∪𝐵)∪𝐶 𝐴∪(𝐵∪𝐶)

∩ ∩

𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶

(𝐴∩𝐵)∩𝐶 𝐴∩(𝐵∩𝐶)

∩ ∩

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Distributive laws A B C

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵∩𝐶) = (𝐴∪𝐵) ∩ (𝐴∪𝐶)

= ∩

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵∩𝐶) (𝐴∪B) (𝐴∪𝐶)

𝐴∩(𝐵∪𝐶) = (𝐴∩𝐵) ∪ (𝐴∩𝐶)

∩
=

𝐴∩(𝐵∪𝐶) (𝐴∩𝐵) (𝐴∩𝐶)

De Morgan’s laws A B

(𝐴∪𝐵)′=𝐴′∩𝐵′

= ∩

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′

(𝐴∩𝐵)′=𝐴′∪𝐵′

= ∪

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′

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Concept Check

2. If X = { 4n - 3n - 1, n ∈ N } and Y = {9(n - 1) : n ∈ N }, where N is a set of natural numbers.

Then XUY is e  qual to:
(a) X (b) Y (c) N (d) Y - X

3. If A and B are two sets then A∩(AUB) equals to:

(a) A (b) B (c) Φ (d) AUB

4. If A and B are two sets then (A U B)’ U (A’ ∩ B) equals to:

(a) A’ (b) B’ (c) A (d) None of the above

Cardinal Number of Sets

Rules based on cardinal number of sets

For any two non-empty sets A and B
𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) ⟺ 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint non-void sets
𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑛(𝐴 Δ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵)−2𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑛(𝐴′∪𝐵′) = 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)′ = 𝑛(𝑈) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑛(𝐴′∩𝐵′) = 𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵)′ = 𝑛(𝑈) − 𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵)
For any three non-empty sets A, B, and C
𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)
Number of elements in exactly two of the sets
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) + 𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) − 3𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)
Number of elements in exactly one of the sets
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶)−2𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) − 2𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) − 2𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) + 3𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)

Concept Check

5. If X and Y are two sets such that XUY has 18 elements, X has 8 elements and Y has 15 elements
then the number of elements in X ∩ Y is ______.
6. In a class of 60 students, 25 students play cricket, 20 students play tennis, and 10 play both
cricket and tennis, then the number of students who play neither cricket nor tennis is ______.

7. A class has 175 students. The following data shows the number of students opting one or more
subjects: Mathematics 100, Physics 70, Chemistry 40, Mathematics and Physics 30, Mathematics
and Chemistry 28, Physics and Chemistry 23, Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry 18. How
many students have opted for Mathematics alone?

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Summary sheet

Key Takeaways

The Commutative Property for the union and intersection say that the order of the sets in which we
do the operation does not change the result.
For example A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
The Associative Property for the union and the intersection says how the sets are grouped does
not change the result.
For example (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
The Distributive Property of union over intersection and the distributive property of intersection
over union show two ways of finding results for certain problems mixing the set operations of union
and intersection.
For example: A ∪ (B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C) and A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)
De Morgan’s Law states that the complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their
complements and the complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of their complements.
(A∪B)’ = A’∩B’ and (𝐴∩𝐵)′ = 𝐴′∪𝐵′

Key Formulae

𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)

𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)

𝑛(𝐴 Δ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 2𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)

𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)

Number of elements in exactly two of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) + 𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) − 3𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)

Number of elements in exactly one of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶

= 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶) − 2𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵) − 2𝑛(𝐵∩𝐶) − 2𝑛(𝐶∩𝐴) + 3𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶)

𝑛(𝐴′∪𝐵′) = 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)′ = 𝑛(𝑈) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵)

𝑛(𝐴′∩𝐵′) = 𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵)′ = 𝑛(𝑈) − 𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵)

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Mind map

Identity 𝐴∪𝐴 = 𝐴
Law 𝐴∩𝐴 = 𝐴

Idempotent 𝐴∪Φ = A
Law 𝐴∩𝑈 = A

Algebra
SETS
of Sets Commutative 𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴
Law 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴

Complement Associative (𝐴∪𝐵)∪𝐶 = 𝐴∪(𝐵∪𝐶)

of a Set Law (𝐴∩𝐵)∩𝐶 = 𝐴∩(𝐵∩𝐶)

𝐴∪(𝐵∩𝐶) = (𝐴∪𝐵)∩(𝐴∪𝐶)
Distributive
De Morgan’s Law A∩(B∪C) =
Law (A∩B)∪(A∩C)

(𝐴∪𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ (𝐴∩𝐵)′ = 𝐴′∪𝐵′

Self-Assessment
E
𝐴 𝐵
1. In the diagram to the right,
|A| = 15, |B| = 25, |A ∩ B| = 5, and |E| = 50.
(i) Insert the number of elements into each of the four regions.
(ii) Hence find |A ∪ B| and |A ∩ B’|
2. If a(t), b(t), and c(t) are the lengths of the three sides of a triangle ‘t’, in non-decreasing order
(i.e. a(t) ≤ b(t) ≤ c(t)), we define the sets:
• X = {Triangle t : a(t) = b(t)}
• Y = {Triangle t : b(t) = c(t)}
• T = the set of all triangles
Using only set operations on these three sets, define:
(i) The set of all equilateral triangles (all sides equal)
(ii) The set of all isosceles triangles (at least two sides equal)
(iii) The set of all scalene triangles (no two sides equal)
3. Let A be a set with m elements and B be a set with n elements, and assume m < n. For each
of the following sets, give maximum and minimum value of their cardinality.
(a) A ∩ B (b) A ∪ B (c) A - B

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Answer

Quick Query
Ac = U - A ⇒ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} - {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {2, 4, 6, 8}

Concept Check
1. If n(A) = m, then n(P(A)) = 2m
A = Φ, A has 0 elements so, 20 = 1. P(A) = { Φ}.
P(A) = { Φ}, n(P(A)) = 1 so, 21 = 2, P(P(A)) = {Φ,{ Φ} }
P(P(A)) = {Φ,{ Φ} }, n(P(P(A))) = 2 so, 22= 4, B = P(P(P(A))) = {Φ, { Φ}, {{ Φ}}, {Φ,{ Φ} }}
Hence Φ = { } and {Φ} = { { } }, are subsets of B. Therefore (a) and (b) are correct.
Similarly, Φ = { } and {Φ} = { { } } are also elements in B, Therefore options (c) and (d) are also
correct.
2. Given X = { 4n - 3n - 1, n ∈ N }. Putting some values of natural numbers,
we get X = { 0, 9, 54, 243, ..}
S
 imilarly Y = {0, 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54...}. It is clear that X and Y both contain multiples of 9 and
Y is the superset of X (i.e., Every element of X belongs in the set Y. Hence XUY, will be the
bigger set, Y.
3. We know that set operations are distributive, hence A∩(AUB) = (A∩A) U(A∩B) = A U (A∩B)
(Idempotent Law: (A∩A) = A)
 (A∩B) is the subset of A, hence A U (A∩B) = A ( (Subset)U(Superset) = Superset)
4. Using De Morgan’s Law (AUB)’ = A’∩B’, (AUB)’U(A’∩B) = (A’∩B’)U(A’∩B) = A’∩(BUB’)
Distributive Property 𝐴∩(𝐵∪𝐶) = (𝐴∩𝐵)∪(𝐴∩𝐶))
A’∩(BUB’) = A’∩U = A’
5. We know, 𝑛(𝐴∪𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴∩𝐵). Here n(XUY) = 18, n(X) = 8 and n(Y) = 15 Plugging the
values in the formulae, we get 𝑛(X∪Y) = 𝑛(X) + 𝑛(Y) − 𝑛(X∩Y)
18 = 8 + 15 - n(X∩Y) => n(X∩Y) = 5
6. Total Students = 60
Cricket (C) = 25
Tennis (T) = 20
Students playing both cricket and tennis = C∩T = 10
Students playing either cricket or tennis = C∪T = C + T - C∩T [𝑛(X∪Y) = 𝑛(X)+𝑛(Y)−𝑛(X∩Y)]
= C∪T = 25 + 20 - 10 = 35
Number of students who play neither cricket nor tennis = Total Students - Students playing
either cricket or tennis = 60 - 35 = 25
7. T
 otal students 175 U P C Here, e = M ∩ P∩C = 18
Mathematics (M) = 100 d + e = P∩C = 23; d = 5
Physics (P) = 70 e + g = M∩C = 28; g = 10
a d b
Chemistry (C) = 40 e + f = P∩M = 30; f = 12
e
M + P = 30 f g e + f + g + c = M = 100
M + C =28 c = c = 100 - (18 + 10 + 12) = 60
P + C = 23
M + P + C = 18 M

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Self-Assessment
1. (a) We begin at the intersection and work outwards. E
𝐴 𝐵

The intersection A∩B has 5 elements. 10 5 20

Hence the region of A outside A∩B has 10 elements, 15

and the region of B outside A∩B has 20 elements.
This makes 35 elements so far, so the outer region has 15 elements.
(b) From the diagram, |A∪B| = 35 and |A∩B’| = 10.
2. (a) Clearly, for equilateral triangle a(t) = b(t) = c(t) , therefore the answer is X ∩ Y
(b) For isosceles triangles, either a(t) = b(t) or b(t) = c(t), so the required set is X ∪ Y.
(c) A triangle is scalene if and only if it is not isosceles. So using the result of the previous
part, the set of scalene triangles is T - (X ∪ Y)
3. (a) Maximum Value: The largest intersection has all of the members of the smaller set, so m
is the upper bound or maximum value. This will be satisfied if A ⊂ B.
M
 inimum Value: The intersection can be empty, so 0 is the minimum value or lower bound.
We say A and B are disjoint if A ∩ B = φ. Using our current notation, this can be expressed
as A-B = A or equivalently B-A = B.
(b) M aximum value: The largest union occurs if all members of both sets are in the union, so
the sets must be disjoint. So the bound is m + n elements.
M
 inimum Value: The smallest union occurs when the two sets have a maximal number of
common elements, this occurs when A ⊂ B. In this case the size of the resulting set is n.
(c) M aximum Value: This will occur when A and B have no elements in common, meaning that
they are disjoint. Then A-B = A so the bound is m.
Minimum Value: Like the union, this will be smallest when there are a maximal number of
common elements, so A ⊂ B. Then A-B = φ and the minimum value is 0 (Remember that A
is the smaller set; the minimum value of |B-A| would be n − m).

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