BUILDING MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 1: BUILDING MATERIALS

1.1 TIMBER
1.2 BRICK
1.3 STONE
1.4 CONCRETE
1.5 METALS & ALLOYS
1.6 GLASS
1.7 PAINT
1.8 PLASTICS
CHAPTER 2: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
2.1 STONE MASONRY
2.2 BRICK MASONRY
2.3 TIMBER & STEEL TRUSSES
2.4 IMPORTANT BUILDING COMPONENTS
2.5 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES IN CONSTRUCTION
2.6 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
2.7 MODULAR COORDINATION
CHAPTER 3: ESTIMATION AND VALUATION
3.1 ESTIMATION
3.2 VALUATION
CHAPTER 4: PROJECT MANAGEMENT
4.1 CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)
4.2 PROJECT COST AND PROJECT CRASHING
4.3 PROGRAM EVALUATION REVIEW TECHNIQUE
4.4 PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
CHAPTER 1: BUILDING MATERIALS
WEIGHTAGE & TIPS (BUILDING MATERIALS)
Please refer to the weightage of this topic (Chapter 1: Building Materials of Section 2) from GATE
2011 to GATE 2020 tabulated below;
GATE YEAR WEIGHTAGE (Marks)
2020 0
2019 3
2018 5
2017 6
2016 2
2015 6
2014 3
2013 2
2012 5
2011 4
Average 3.6 Marks

Students are advised to remember the following points, before you start studying this Chapter:

• In building materials, the most important material from which highest number of questions have
been asked in GATE is ‘CONCRETE’. Students are advised to focus on the numerical part of
this topic.

• Questions in building materials are based on types, defects and uses. This is the theory area one
should focus on.
1.1 TIMBER

Wood derived from trees is processed in to planks for use in construction. Such wood prepared for use
in construction and carpentry is termed as “timber”.
1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER

Timber can be classified into categories based on many criteria. Few such parameters are; growth
characteristics, wood characteristics, and grading.
- Based on growth characteristics, timber is classified into exogenous and endogenous.
Exogenous trees grow outward by adding distinct consecutive rings known as growth rings or
annual rings. In such trees it is possible to estimate the age of timber by counting the number
of rings. Endogenous trees grow inwards. In these trees, fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most
portion. Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo and cane.
- Based on wood characteristics, timber is classified into hardwood and softwood. Hardwood is
generally derived from deciduous trees (characterized by broad leaves). Hardwood is generally
dark and heavy with good strength and fire resistance. Softwood is generally derived from
coniferous trees (characterized by cone shaped fruits). Softwood is generally light in colour and
weight with lower strength and fire resistance compared to hardwood.
- Based on grading as per IS 883:1994, timber is classified into three groups. The classification is
based on strength properties, namely, modulus of elasticity (E) and extreme fiber stress in bending
and tension (f). The classification is tabulated below:
Group A E above 12.6 x 103 N/mm2; f above 18.0 N/mm2
Group B E above 9.8 x 103 N/mm2 and up to 12.6 x 103 N/mm2; f above 12.0 N/mm2
and up to 18.0 N/mm2
Group C E above 5.6 x 103 N/mm2 and up to 9.8 x 103 N/mm2; f above 8.5 N/mm2 and
up to 12.0 N/mm2

1.1.2 CROSS-SECTION OF TIMBER

Cross-section of timber for a typical exogenous tree is characterized by concentric growth rings. The
dead inner rings are called ‘heartwood’ which is relatively dry and living outer rings are called ‘sap
wood’ which is relatively moist. Other important parts are marked in the figure below:

1 Cross-section of Timber

a. Pith: It is the inner most part of the tree and hence the oldest part of exogeneous tree when the plant
becomes old, the pith dies and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies in size and shape.
b. Heart Wood: This is the portion surrounding pith. It is dark in colour and strong. This portion is
useful for various engineering purpose. This is the dead part of wood. It consists of multiple growth
rings.
c. Sap Wood: It is the layer next to heart wood. It is composed of newer growth and contains sap. It
takes active part in the growth of trees by allowing sap to move in upward direction. The growth
rings of sap wood are light in colour. Sap wood is also termed as alburnum.
d. Cambium Layer: It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark. It contains
sap which is not yet converted into sap wood.
e. Inner Bark: It is an inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer.
f. Outer Bark: It is the outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibers. Sometimes it contains fissures
and cracks.
g. Medullary Rays: These are thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer. They hold
annular rings together. In some of trees they are broken and sometimes may not be visually
prominent.
1.1.3 SAWING OF TIMBER

Tree logs (trees after felled) if not cut/sawn for a long duration, would result in circumferential
shrinkage due to moisture drying from the outer part (sapwood). The outer most rings shrink more as
compared to inner rings. As a result, star shakes or cracks (discussed under defects) would appear on
the surface of log and deteriorate the timber quality.
There are four main methods of sawing. They are; Ordinary sawing, Quarter sawing, Tangential sawing
and Radial sawing.

2 Sawing of Timber

a. Ordinary Sawing: This is the most economical and widely used method of sawing. Here, long
parallel planks are cut from the tree log. As the inner portion (heart wood) is hard and outer portion
(sap wood) is soft, after drying there can be unequal shrinkage. So, the planks are liable to wrap
and twist.
b. Quarter Sawing: In Quarter sawing the logs are cut or sawn in quarter and each quarter is then cut
in such a way that the sawn members bend in transverse direction. This method is generally adopted
when no distinct medullary rays are present.
c. Tangential Sawing: Tangential sawing is generally used if annual rings are well formed and
medullary rays are not well formed. In this method, cuts are made tangent to the annual rings. Planks
obtained by this method wrap too much and must not be used for costly structural works or for
flooring.
d. Radial Sawing: In this method logs are sawn parallel to medullary rays and perpendicular to annual
rings. This method gives least shrinkage but has highest wastage. This method gives most
decorative grain patterns in which medullary rays are marked. This method yields timber planks
with least shrinkage because of the property of medullary rays to resist shrinkage. This method is
also known as Rift Sawing.
1.1.4 SEASONING OF TIMBER

Controlled reduction of moisture content from timber is termed as “Seasoning”. Moisture content of
trees may sometimes be as high as 60 percent. Proper seasoning of timber brings down this moisture
content to as low as 10 percent.
Seasoning of timber is necessary to reduce the moisture content and thereby increase the strength of
timber. Seasoning of timber also reduces development of shrinkage defects and results in longer life of
the timber.
Methods for seasoning of timber can be classified into two types: Natural seasoning and Artificial
seasoning. Natural seasoning is of two main types; Water seasoning and Air seasoning. Artificial
seasoning is of four main types; Seasoning by boiling, Kiln seasoning, Chemical seasoning and
Electrical seasoning. The flowchart below summarizes the classification of methods for seasoning
timber:

3 Classification of Timber Seasoning

A. Natural Seasoning: Seasoning of timber using natural elements like air and water is called ‘Natural
Seasoning’. This type of seasoning does not make use of external energy sources like fuel,
electricity or chemicals. Natural seasoning is of two main types as explained below;
 - Air Seasoning: This process involves exposing timber to air flow for seasoning. At first, a
platform or block piers are built on the ground to about 300mm height from ground level. Then
the arrangement of timber in layers is prepared above the platform. Air circulation is
maintained between timber planks to help reduce the moisture content. Even though this is a
slow process, it is an economical method suitable for large scale seasoning.

4 Air Seasoning

- Water Seasoning: This process is carried along river banks or streams where removal of wood
sap is achieved by immersing logs into water flow. This helps in replacement of wood sap of
wood cells by water. The water-saturated wood dries quicker as compared to sap-saturated
wood. This is a time-consuming process but an economical method.
B. Artificial Seasoning: Artificial seasoning is a faster alternative process for seasoning timber but is
costlier compared to natural processes. Types of artificial seasoning processes are discussed below;
- Seasoning by Boiling: Seasoning of timber is achieved by boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours.
After boiling, timber is allowed to dry. For large quantity of timber where boiling can be
difficult, hot steam is passed through timber logs in an enclosed space. The boiling or steaming
process develops the strength and elasticity of timber but it is costlier process.
- Kiln Seasoning: In this method timber is subjected to hot air in an air tight chamber. The hot
air circulates between the timber logs and reduces the moisture content. The temperature inside
the chamber is raised with the help of heating coils. When the required temperature is obtained
moisture content and relative humidity gets reduced and timber gets seasoned. Even though it
is a costly process it gives good results with respect to strength.
- Chemical Seasoning: In chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt solution for some
time. The salt solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the moisture
content is reduced and then timber surface is allowed to dry. Even though this a quick process,
it may sometimes affect the strength of timber.
- Electrical Seasoning: Dry wood is non-conductor of electricity while moist timber is a
conductor and can allow alternating current to pass through it. So, in this method alternating
current is used for drying the cells of timber by creating heat. As electricity is used, this process
is not economical.
1.1.5 PRESERVATIVES FOR TIMBER

Timber being an organic material, it may decay with time. This process of deterioration may be rapid
in some exposure conditions. Generally, rotting of timber due to growth of fungus or insects like
termites, is seen in moist or humid conditions.
There are many timber preservatives available which can reduce decay of timber by controlling the
growth and spread of fungi and termites. These preservatives can be applied by using a suitable process
like; brushing, spraying, injecting under pressure, etc.
Some important timber preservatives are discussed below;

• Coal tar: It is a thick dark liquid which is a by-product of coal gas production. Coal tar is applied
to preserve timber from growth of fungi. It penetrates into wood tissue and so can have high
degree of performance for a long duration of time. It has unpleasant smell and also results in
unpleasant surface appearance on timber.

• ASCU preservatives: ASCU (from chemical symbols for Arsenic and Copper) preservatives are
dissolved in water to prepare preservative solution. This odorless solution is sprayed on to timber
to protect it from white ants.

• Chemical salts: Water soluble chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride, zinc
chloride, sodium fluoride, sodium fluosilicates, etc. are used to prepare a water based liquid
solution and are applied onto timber surface. The demerit if using these salts is that they can be
washed away if the timber is exposed to moist conditions.

• Solignum preservative: Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using brush. They are well
suitable for preserving timber from white ants. Solignum paints can be used by adding colour
pigments and so the timber can have good appearance.

• Creosote oil: Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black or brown in colour. It
has an unpleasant smell. It is applied in a process where it is injected into timber under pressure.
It is a flammable oil and so is avoided for timber works near fireplaces. It is generally used for
railway sleepers and wooden poles.
There are some alternative timber preservation processes like charring and use of termite shields.

• Charring: It is a common method used for preserving timber poles and posts that are to be dug
into the ground. The outer part of the lower ends is charred (incompletely burnt) before insertion
into the ground. The charcoal layer so formed is an easy safeguard against attacks by fungi or
termite (as these organisms do not find any food in charcoal).

• Termite shields: The base of major timber columns may be preserved against organic attack by
constructing a suitable barrier between the timber and the ground. These barriers are termed as
‘Termite Shields’.

5 Termite Shield
1.1.6 DEFECTS IN TIMBER

Defects in timber can develop due to different reasons, viz., defects due to natural forces, defects due
to attack by insects and fungi, defects due to defective seasoning, etc. Details regarding various defects
in timber are discussed below;
A. Defects due to Natural Forces: Defects in timber may arise due to natural forces like wind or natural
phenomenon like tree growth characteristics;
a. Wind Cracks in Timber: If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds, the outer
surface shrinks and forms crack externally which are called wind cracks.

b. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the growth of
a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those branches remain in
the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection known as knots.

6 Knots in Timber

Knots are of two types;

• Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose and fall
out.

• Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect. Live knots are
usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber. But in dead knots, they
are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the strength of the wood and thus
lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious defects when the load is
perpendicular to the grains.

c. Twist: When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high speed winds, the fibers of wood gets
twisted. This type of wood is not suitable for sawing. So, this can be used for making poles,
posts etc.

d. Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of a timber.
In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes. It may or may not be a structural
problem depending upon depth and use. The main problem is aesthetic. Where the appearance
is important, shakes are undesirable. Shakes can be classified into four main categories;

• Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the sapwood and
sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks are wider
on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes
heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the
growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat
or frost causes temperature difference, which causes shrinkage leading to the crack.

• Ring Shakes/ Cup Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to
separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the annual ring
 completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes
are not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for this type of crack. These
are formed due to non-uniform growth of a tree or excessive bending by cyclones or winds.
In this case, the shakes develop between annual rings and separates them partly.

• Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes start propagating from the pith to the
sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the timber
causes this crack.

7 Shakes in Timber

e. Rind Galls: The meaning of rind is bark and gall has abnormal growth. So abnormal growth of
the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of branches causes this abnormal
growth. Wood from this portion of the timber lacks strength and desirable in structure.

8 Rind Gall in Timber

f. Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to crushing or compression.
Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during the young age of the tree these are the
main reasons behind this type of defect.

9 Upsets in Timber

g. Burls: Burls are uneven projections on the body of tree during its growth. These are mainly due
to the effect of shocks and injuries received by the tree during its young age.

h. Water Stain: When the wood is in contact with water for some time, the water will damage the
colour of wood and forms a stain on its surface. This defect is called as water stain.

i. Chemical Stain: Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action of any external chemical
agents like reaction by the gases present in atmosphere etc. The stain area gets discoloured in
this defect.
 j. Dead Wood: The wood obtained from the cutting of dead tree is light in weight and is actually
defected. It is reddish in colour and its strength is very less.

k. Coarse Grain Defect: The age of tree can be known by the number of annual rings. For fast
growing trees, the gap between the annual rings is very large. These trees are called as coarse-
grained tress and timber obtained from them is of less strength.

l. Timber Foxiness: When the timber is stored without proper ventilation, the trees growth near
the banks of water bodies and over matured trees may exhibit this type of defect. Foxiness is
generally indicated by red or yellow spots.

m. Druxiness: Druxiness is a defect of timber in which the top surface of timber indicates white
spots. These spots will give the access to fungi.

n. Callus: The wound of the tree is covered by a soft skin which is called as callus.

10 Callus in Timber

B. Defects due to attack by insects: Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes
and weaken the strength of the wood. Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the
sapwoods. The larvae make tunnels through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into
powder. Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels through
it. Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites. Marine boars are found in
salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge or shelter. All kinds of wood or timber
are vulnerable to this kind of insect.

C. Defects due to attack by Fungi: There are multiple types of defects that may arise in timber due to
growth of fungi. Growth of fungi is generally stimulated by presence of moisture.

a. Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are stored, it causes a stain.
Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food materials and is not affected by it. Stain action
causes colour but does not affect the strength of the wood.

11 Stain in Timber
b. Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect in wood.
This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both sapwood and heartwood are affected by
them. Considerable strength reduction occurs due to this defect.

12 Decay in Timber

c. Dry rot in timber: Dry rot is caused by certain type of fungi which actually eats wood for their
living. They make food by converting timber into dry powder form. This occurs mainly when
there is no ventilation of air or if the wood improperly seasoned. Absence of sunlight,
dampness, presence of sap will increase the growth of dry rot causing fungi. This can be
prevented by using well-seasoned wood and also by painting the timber surface with copper
sulphate.

d. Wet rot in Timber: Wet rot is caused by fungi which decomposes the timber and converts it
into grayish brown powder form. Wet rot causing fungi growths mainly due to an alternating
dry and wet conditions of timber.

e. Brown rot in Timber: The cellulose compounds of the wood are consumed by certain types of
fungi which then makes the wood brownish and this defect is called as brown rot.

13 Brown rot in Timber

f. White rot in Timber: Some types fungi attacks lignin of wood and leaves cellulose compounds
hence the wood will turn into white colour which is called white rot.

14 White rot in Timber

g. Blue Stain in Timber: Blue stain is a defect caused by some kind of fungi which makes the
timber bluish in colour.
 h. Heart Rot in Timber: Heart rot is caused in the trees when the heart wood is attacked by fungi
through its newly formed branch. This type of fungi makes the tree hollow by consuming heart
wood. This defect is known as heart rot.

15 Heart rot in Timber

D. Defects in timber due to defective seasoning: Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in
woods. During seasoning of timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior
surface. So, stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning process,
stress is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting from defective
seasoning are as follows;

a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.

16 Bow in Timber

b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.

17 Cup in Timber

c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibres, but it doesn’t extend from one end to
another.

18 Check in Timber

d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
 19 Split in Timber

e. Twist: Twist is formed when the timber piece is spirally distorted along its length. It looks like
propeller blade after twisting.

20 Twist in Timber

f. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process or seasoning.
For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.

21 Honeycombing in Timber

g. Case Hardening: Case is nothing but the top surface of wood which dries rapidly during
seasoning but the inner part did not. Then this defect is called as case hardening.

22 Case hardening in Timber

h. Collapse: During drying, some part of the wood may dry rapidly while some may not. Because
of this improper drying shrinkage of wood occurs which results the defect called collapse.
 23 Collapse in Timber

i. Wrap: The loss of shape of wood due to stresses developed during drying is called warping.

24 Wrap in Timber

E. Defects in timber due to defective conversion: These defects arise in timber during the process of
conversion of timber into workable pieces from the tree log. Few such defects are discussed below;

a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the pith or the
centre heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.

25 Boxed heart in Timber

b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.

c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.

d. Mis-cut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of experience in sawing
and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.

e. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

 f. Chip Mark: When the timber is cut through planning machine the parts of machine may form
chip marks on it. Usually they are indicated by chips on the finished surface.

g. Wane: The edge part of the timber log contains rounded edge on one side because of its original
rounded surface. This rounded edge is called wane.

26 Wane in Timber

1.1.7 ENGINEERED TIMBER

Engineered wood, also termed as composite wood, or manufactured board, includes a range of
derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding or fixing the strands, particles, fibres,
or veneers or boards of wood, together with adhesives, or other methods of fixation to form composite
material. Some important types of engineered wood are discussed below;

A. Plywood: Plywood is a wood panel manufactured from sheets of laminated veneer bonded under
heat and pressure with durable, moisture resistant adhesives. Panel strength and stiffness in both
directions is maximized by cross-orienting alternate layers. Cross-orienting is altering the grain
orientation of veneers from layer to layer.

27 Plywood

B. Particle board: Particle board is manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust,
and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Particle board is
cheaper, and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood. So, it is substituted for them
when cost is more important than strength and appearance.
 28 Particle board

C. Fibreboard: Fibreboard is made by breaking down hardwood or softwood residuals into wood
fibres, combining it with wax and a resin binder, and forming panels by applying high temperature
and pressure. Processed wood fibres are compacted to various degrees to give various grades of
fibreboards; Low-density fibreboard (LDF), Medium-density fibreboard (MDF) and High-density
fibreboard (HDF).

29 Fibreboard

D. Oriented strand board: Oriented strand board (OSB) is a wood structural panel manufactured from
rectangular-shaped strands of wood that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in layers, laid
up into mats, and bonded together with moisture-resistant, heat-cured adhesives. The individual
layers can be cross-oriented to provide strength and stiffness to the panel.

30 Oriented Strand Board

Most of the engineered timber surfaces are not finished to give good interior appearance (like in
plywood). So, engineered timber is finished with laminate or veneer on the external surface. Sheets of
laminate or veneer are struck onto the surface of engineered wood using adhesives.

Laminates such as Sunmica are basically a blend of paper and plastic. Brown paper and Decorative
paper soaked in phenolic and melamine resins are hard pressed together to form a stiff laminate sheet.
They are finished with decorative printed paper. This will have the printed decorative design for the
face of the sunmica/laminate sheet. Melamine resin is clear transparent resin for treating the decorative
paper. A clear translucent paper forms the topmost overlay of the decorative laminated sheet. Veneer is
a thin decorative covering of fine wood cut into sheet from natural wood. It is a thin layer of real
hardwood applied to a less expensive material such as plywood.

A comparison between Laminate and Veneer is tabulated below;

Laminate
Engineered from paper and plastic
Appearance achieved from printed
sheet on top
Available in numerous colours and
shades with textured, high gloss,
soft and matte finishes
Easier to maintain. They are scratch-
resistant, waterproof and usually
retain their look for years.
Usually affordable
Veneer
Made from natural hardwood
Appearance achieved from natural grains
of wood
Since it is a natural material, limited
number of shades available
Require more maintenance. Veneer
surfaces should be polished from time to
time to maintain the look.
Costlier than laminates

1.1.8 BAMBOO IN CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo as a building material has high compressive strength and low weight. It has been one of the
most widely used material for support of concrete formwork, especially in those places where it is
abundantly available. Bamboo is widely used for the construction of scaffolding, bridges and structures,
houses etc.
Due to a distinctive rhizome-dependent system, bamboos are one of the fastest-growing plants in the
world and their growth is three times faster than most other species of plants. Giant bamboos are the
largest members of the grass family. Some species of bamboo can grow 910 mm within a 24-hour
period.
A. Structural shapes: Bamboos can be treated in such a way that they assume desired shapes and
structural form while they grow. This is something which is unique to bamboo. Few such forms are
described below;

• Squared cross-section can be obtained by compressing the growing stalk of bamboo within a
square section.
• Arch shapes of bamboo can also be created by compressing the bamboo’s growth into the
desired shape. This would cost lesser than it would to get the same form with normal timber.
 • Curved and Flat shapes of bamboo are achieved through traditional techniques like applying
heat and pressure.
B. Methods of working: Preparation of bamboo to achieve desired shape, form, and length for use in
construction involves steps like splitting, shaping and bending.
• Splitting: Bamboo canes are split into halves or quarter sections using a knife and setting them
apart by a wedge.
• Shaping: Even though bamboos are naturally circular in section, they can be grown in a box of
square section to make bamboo acquire a shape as desired.
• Bending: Bamboos can be bent after freshly cut. Bamboos are generally bent by heating them
above temperature of 150° C. Bamboo will retain this shape even after cooling and drying off.
C. Bamboo wall construction: Bamboo is extensively used for construction of walls and partitions.
Bamboo walls can be of various forms;
• Woven bamboo wall: Stripes of bamboo are used to weave it into a partition wall. Such walls
are generally non-structural and have low thickness.
• Vertical halved culms: Half-split canes of bamboo are arranged into a wall by interlocking.
Such walls are structurally stronger (can take load from roof) than woven bamboo wall.
• Whole bamboo culms: Whole bamboos of circular cross-section of uniform size are stacked
into a wall. They are structurally capable of taking roof load.
• Wattle and daub: This is a composite wall with bamboo stripes called ‘wattle’, which is
‘daubed’ using sticky plastering material. Daub is usually made by combining clay, sand, dung
and straw.
• Bajareque: This is a traditional composite wall with mud core housing bamboo columns,
finished with bamboo and plaster.

31 Types of bamboo wall construction

D. Advantages of using bamboo in construction are listed below:
• Sometimes bamboo can have higher tensile strength than steel because of its axially running
fibres.
• Bamboo can be good for fire resistance and it can withstand high temperatures. This is due to
the presence of high value of silicate acid and water.
• Bamboo is highly preferred in earthquake prone regions due to its light-weight and elastic
features.
• Bamboos due to their low weight can be easily installed and transported.
E. Preservation techniques for bamboo: Proper treatment of Bamboo is required to protect it from
insects and rot before it is used for construction. Generally, a mixture of Borax and Boric acid is
used for this purpose. Another procedure widely employed is to boil cut bamboo and remove the
starches that are responsible for attack by insects.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS 2. Match the terms in Group I with their
corresponding example in Group II
LEVEL 1 (Easy Questions) Group I Group II
P. Wall construction 1. ASCU
1. Growth rings are seen in the cross-section technique
of _______ Q. Defect in timber 2. Wattle & daub
a. Bamboo R. Engineered wood 3. Rind gall
b. Endogenous trees
S. Preservative for 4. Pith
c. Exogenous trees timber
d. Small plants
5. OSB, HDF
2. Which method of sawing from following a. P – 3, Q – 2, R – 4, S – 5
yields least wastage of timber? b. P – 2, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 5
a. Ordinary flat sawing c. P – 2, Q – 3, R – 5, S – 1
b. Quarter sawing d. P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 5
c. Tangential sawing
3. Match the descriptions in Group I with the
d. Radial sawing
terms given in Group II.
3. Identify the ODD option from the Group I Group II
following four, which does not fall into the P. Moisture present 1. Star shake
category which remaining three options can in timber
be grouped under. Q. Process of drying 2. Sap
a. Kiln seasoning timber
b. Chemical seasoning R. Cracks along 3. Sawing
c. Air seasoning medullary rays
d. Steam seasoning radiating from pith
4. Which of the following is a popular brand 4. Seasoning
of laminates in India? 5. Ring shake
a. ACC 6. Heart shake
b. Sunmica a. P – 2, Q – 4, R – 1
c. Tata b. P – 2, Q – 3, R – 1
d. Fevicol c. P – 2, Q – 4, R – 6
d. P – 2, Q – 4, R – 5
5. Charring is a technique where ________
a. Chemical salts are impregnated into LEVEL 3 (One Mark GATE Questions)
timber
b. Timber is saturated with sea water 1. The age of a tree is determined by: (GATE
c. Under-seasoned timber is painted with 2010)
creosote oil a. Counting the number of rings in the
d. Top surface of timber is burnt stem cross section
b. Counting the number of leaves on the
LEVEL 2 (Moderate Questions) main branches
1. Match the timber defects in Group I with c. Measuring the height of the tree from
their respective category in Group II. the root-ball
Group I Group II d. Measuring the canopy circumference
P. Knots 1. Seasoning defect of the tree
Q. Star shake 2. Due to natural forces
R. Cup 3. Attack by fungi 2. Preserving timber by charring is carried out
S. Twist for: (GATE 2002)
a. P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 1 a. Wooden piles
b. P – 2, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 1 b. Wooden patrons
c. P – 3, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 2 c. Wooden doors
d. P – 3, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 2 d. Wooden truss
3. The most common method of protecting or a. Base plate
preserving timber is: (GATE 2001) b. Busway
a. Smoke Drying c. Dripline
b. Salt Seasoning d. Termite shield
c. Dry Seasoning
3. In the given image, the tree shows
d. Creosoting
abnormal growth at ‘X’ due to improper
LEVEL 4 (Two Mark GATE Questions) branch cutting. Name the timber defect at
‘X’.
1. Match the parts of a tree log in Group 1 with
their descriptions in Group 2. (GATE 2007)

Group 1 Group 2
P. Heartwood 1. Outer annual rings of
the tree
Q. Sapwood 2. Thin horizontal veins
radiating from the pith
towards the bark
R. Cambium 3. Outermost protective
Layer covering of the log
S. Medullary 4. Innermost rings
rays surrounding the pith
5. Outermost one ring a. Rind gall
between the bark and b. Heart shake
sapwood c. Timber foxiness
a. P – 4, Q – 2, R – 5, S – 3 d. Dry rot
b. P – 3, Q – 5, R – 4, S – 1
c. P – 4, Q – 1, R – 5, S – 2
d. P – 5, Q – 1, R – 4, S – 2
LEVEL 5 (Challenger Questions)
1. Hardwood is represented by H and
Softwood is represented by S. Select the
appropriate option which marks correct
categorization for given trees.
P. Teak
Q. Spruce
R. Cedar
T. Mahogany
a. (H – P, R, T); (S – Q)
b. (H – P, T); (S – Q, R)
c. (H – P); (S – Q, R, T)
d. (H – P, R); (S – Q, T)
2. For the given image identify the option
which correctly marks the name for ‘P’.
ANSWERS
LEVEL 1 (Easy Questions)
1. C
Exogenous trees grow outward by adding
distinct consecutive rings known as growth
rings or annual rings.
2. A
Ordinary flat sawing is the most economical
and widely used method of sawing. Here, long
parallel planks are cut from the tree log.
3. C
Air seasoning is a method under natural
seasoning. Kiln seasoning, steam seasoning and
chemical seasoning come under artificial
seasoning processes.
4. B
Sunmica is a popular brand of laminates in
India.
5. D
Charring is a common method used for
preserving timber poles and posts that are to be
dug into the ground. The outer part of the lower
ends is charred (incompletely burnt) before
insertion into the ground.
LEVEL 2 (Moderate Questions)
1. B
Knots and shakes are defects due to natural
forces. Cup and twist are defects due to
improper seasoning of timber. (Twist can also
be a type of defect arising due to natural forces)
2. C
ASCU (Arsenic Copper) solution is used to
protect timber from termites. Oriented strand
board (OSB) and HDF (High Density
Fibreboard) are examples for engineered wood.
3. C
Heart shake is a timber defect where cracks
develop along the lines of medullary rays,
starting from pith and propagate radially
outward towards sapwood.
LEVEL 3 (One Mark GATE Questions)
1. A
Exogenous trees grow outward by adding
distinct consecutive rings known as growth
rings or annual rings. In such trees it is possible
to estimate the age of timber by counting the
number of rings.
2. A
Charring is a common method used for
preserving timber poles and posts that are to be
dug into the ground. Wooden piles among given
options is the only underground timber
structure. Bases of timber posts and piles are
partially burnt to protect them from
deteriorating.
3. D
Creosoting is a timber preservation technique.
Remaining options are methods for seasoning
of timber.
LEVEL 4 (Two Mark GATE Questions)
1. C
Cross-section of timber for a typical exogenous
tree is characterized by concentric growth rings.
The dead inner rings are called ‘heartwood’
which is relatively dry and living outer rings are
called ‘sap wood’ which is relatively moist.
LEVEL 5 (Challenger Questions)
1. B
Spruce and Cedar are conifers. Coniferous trees
are evergreen and are softwood trees. Teak and
Mahogany are hardwood trees.
2. D
Termite shields are metal plates laid between
timber structures and ground to act as barriers
against organic attack by termites, white ants.
3. A
Abnormal growth of the bark in trees due to
improper cutting of branches results is called
rind galls. This results in timber which lacks
proper strength.