Biological Effects of Radiation

How do various forms of radiation interact with (biological)

matter?

The basic characteristic of radiation produced by radioactivity is

that it is high energy, and causes the ionization of matter by
ejecting an electron from an atom. (It’s generally called
ionizing radiation.)

When radiation is stopped my matter, it has interacted with it and

therefore caused ionization.

Highly penetrating radiation passes through matter without ionizing it.

Radiation protection and biological effects are the concern of Health

Physicists. Nuclear facilities employ health physicists to train staff,
monitor activites, and develop safety protocols.
Biological Effects of Radiation
Ionization produces free radicals. These are highly reactive
chemical species.

E.g. Gamma irradiation of water ejects an electron creating a radical ion

g + H2O ® H2O+. + e-
Both products lead to the production of more free radicals

H2O+ + H2O ® H3O+ + OH. e- + H2O ® H . + OH-

Free radicals attack biomolecules such as DNA strands or membrane

lipids. This can (infrequently) lead to genetic damage, cancers,
disruption of cell membranes, or malfunctions in enzymes that
regulate biological processes.
Biological Effects of Radiation

Penetrating power of a, b and g radiation:

• a are heavy, highly charged particles.
When an a particle strikes matter, it is stopped by as little as a single
sheet of paper.
a particles ionize the surfaces of matter effectively. Surface damage.
• b- are lighter, and more penetrating.
A b- particle can be stopped by a few sheets of paper or plastic.
They ionize to a greater depth than a particles.
• g are highly penetrating.
It takes several cm of water to gradually attenuate and stop g
radiation.
g radiation is less efficient, but causes internal damage.
• b+ are highly ionizing and penetrating.
A b+ particle reacts with an electron causing ionization and the
release of two gamma photons in opposite directions.
Radiation Exposure

Biological exposure arises through a variety of mechanisms.

E.g. Direct exposure to a radioactive source (external)

Solid or liquid: Localised source. Radiation can be shielded.
Gas or vapour: Diffuse source. May diffuse around shielding.
E.g. Contamination (external and internal)
External: Picking up radioactive material on hands, shoes, etc…
Internal: Ingestion or inhalation.

The risk of damage from a particles through internal contamination is

much higher than external, where they are quite well shielded by your
skin.
For more details, you can install and run the U.S. National Centre for Neutron Research safety training programme
available on the First Year Chemistry web site. This is the same programme used to train visitors, temporary and
permanent workers in the nuclear reactor at the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Biological Effects of Radiation

Half-Life and Radiation damage

Nuclides with longer half-lives disintegrate at lower frequency.

0.693
A = lN = N
t1 2

That is, longer half lives equals lower (molar) activity, so lower
potential for ionization and radiation damage.

From this point of view 238U, with a half-life of 4.5 billion years, or
230Th (T = 83,000 y) is less damaging than 3H (T = 12 y) or
1/2 1/2
234Th (T = 24.5 days).
1/2
Units of Radiation Dosage

(Human) Radiation dosage is measured in rems (or millirems)

or in Sieverts (Sv).
Dosage attempts to include all the factors that can affect a living organism -
activity, energy, penetration, and the mass of living matter irradiated.

Source Energy of Energy Relative Effective Dosage

Activity Radiation Absorbed per Biological Equivalent
unit mass Effectiveness
(dose)
a 10
b, g 1
Bq or Ci Joule Gray (J/kg) Q-factor rem = rad x Q
or Rad Sievert =Gy x Q
1Sv = 100 rem
1Gy = 100 rad
Energy per particle x Radiation distributed Less penetrating
activity x exposure or localised? radiation does more
time damage.
Dosages and Their Effects
The total expected dosage for an average person is about 360 mrem/year.

What are the short-term effects of radiation dosage?

25,000 mrem in 24h No detectable effects

50,000 mrem in 24h Slight temporary blood change
100,000 mrem in 24h Nausea & fatigue
200,000 mrem in 24h First death (no medical intervention)
500,000 mrem in 24h LD50 (50% of humans exposed die.)

N.B. The probability of longer-term effects increases with dose. Most health
physicists use a linear no-threshold model. That is, they assume that there
is no level of exposure that is free from effects. However the time-scale and
statistical nature of the effects make low-dose response hard to determine.
Common Sources of Radioactivity
We are exposed to several common natural sources of radioactivity. These
account for about 300mrem/year. The most common is radon, which is part
of the decay series of 238U and other heavy elements, and decays into
polonium with a half-life of 3.82 days.
222
86 Rn ¾¾
® 218
84 Po + 4
2 He

a decay of radon gas causes damage to lungs and is thought

to be responsible for up to 10% of lung cancers.

Other ambient isotopes include

40
19 K ¾¾
® 1840 Ar + 10 e
as dissolved potassium ions, and
14
6 ® 147 N + -10 e -
C ¾¾
in CO2 and organic compounds.
Other Common Sources of Radioactivity
• Other common sources of radiation include cosmic rays in the upper
atmosphere. Average annual exposure from this source at ground level
is ~26mrem.
• A 4h plane flight increases dosage by a few mrem.

• Medical exposure (x-rays and nuclear medicine) is around 40mrem/year

• Consumer products ~10mrem/y

• Nuclear fallout <1mrem/y

• Nuclear power ~.05mrem/y