on A project report

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
A project report for partial fulfilment of
the
Requirements towards the award of the
b.sc Sixth semester 2021 course .
Under the supervision of
AKSHAY KUMAR PATNAIK

(lecturer in physics)
Submitted by:
ANNAPURNA SAHU

ROLL NO. : GA1921418 REGD NO.: 06093/2018

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GYATRI DEGREE COLLEGE
BERHAMPUR, ODISHA
2021
 Guide certificate

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “ PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT” Submitted by ANNAPURANA SAHU in particle fulfilment
for the award of the Degree of bachelor of science GYATRI
DEGREE COLLEGE is an authentic work carried out by me
under the supervision of AKSHYA KUMAR PATNAIK . To the
best of my knowledge , the matter embodied in the thesis
has not submitted to any other university / institute for the
award of any Degree

GUIDE :-
AKSHYA KUMAR PATNAIK

LECTURE IN PHYSICS

GYATRI DEGREE COLLEGE

BERHAMPUR, GANJAM

DECLARATION
I ANNAPURNA SAHU having regd. No. : 06104/2018
do hereby declare that the project report entitled
“PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT” GYATRI DEGREECOLLEGE
UNDER BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY. Berhampur for the
award of the degree of b.sc.is an anthentic and
original work carried out by me. Under the guidance of
SRI.AKSHAY KUMAR PATNAIK ,lecture in physics .

Under the active Guidance of :

AKSHYA KUMAR PATNAIK ANNAPURNA SAHU

LECTURE IN PHYSICS PHYSICS HONOURS

GYATRI DEGREE COLLEGE B.SC. FINAL YEAR

BERHAMPUR, GANJAM ROLL NO. ; GA1921418

REGD. NO : 06098/2018

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanx of gratitude
to supervisor SHRI. AKSHYA KUMAR PATNAIK , who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project of PHYSICS , who also help me in complecting
my project . I come to know about so many new
things .I am really thankful to him . secondly , I would
also like to thank my parents and friends who helped
me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited
time frame .

ANNAPURNA SAHU
PHYSICS HONOURS

GYATRI DEGREE COLLEGE B.SC. FINAL YEAR

BERHAMPUR, GANJAM ROLL NO. ; GA1921418

REGD. NO : 06098/2018

CONTENT
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE
INTRODUCTION
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10
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13
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

What is the Photoelectric Effect and Why does it Occur?

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface
of a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It
is important to note that the emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons is dependent on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s
surface. The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the metal
due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.
The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to
absorb energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind
them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a
result of the photoelectric effect is provided below

Explaining the Photoelectric Effect: The Concept of Photons

The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However, this
phenomenon can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be visualized
as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light are
called photons. The energy held by a photon is related to the frequency of the light
via Planck’s equation:
E = h𝜈 = hc/λ
Where,

 E denotes the energy of the photon

 h is Planck’s constant
 𝜈 denotes the frequency of the light
 c is the speed of light (in a vacuum)
 λ is the wavelength of the light
Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry photons of varying
energies. For example, the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light (the
wavelength of blue light is much shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore, the
energy held by a photon of blue light will be greater than the energy held by a photon of red
light.

Threshold Energy for the Photoelectric Effect

For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are incident on the surface of the metal
must carry sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the
nuclei of the metals. The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from
the metal is called the threshold energy (denoted by the symbol Φ). For a photon to possess
energy equal to the threshold energy, its frequency must be equal to the threshold
frequency (which is the minimum frequency of light required for the photoelectric effect to
occur). The threshold frequency is usually denoted by the symbol 𝜈th and the associated
wavelength (called the threshold wavelength) is denoted by the symbol λth..

Relationship between the Frequency of the Incident Photon and the Kinetic
Energy of the Emitted Photoelectron
Therefore, the relationship between the energy of the photon and the kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectron can be written as follows.
Ephoton = Φ + Eelectron
⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2
Where,

 Ephoton denotes the energy of the incident photon, which is equal to h𝜈

 Φ denotes the threshold energy of the metal surface, which is equal to h𝜈th
 Eelectron denotes the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, which is equal to ½mev2 (me =
mass of electron = 9.1*10-31 kg)
If the energy of the photon is less than the threshold energy, there will be no emission of
photoelectrons (since the attractive forces between the nuclei and the electrons cannot be
overcome). Thus, the photoelectric effect will not occur if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the frequency of the
photon is exactly equal to the threshold frequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th), there will be an emission of
photoelectrons, but their kinetic energy will be equal to zero. An illustration detailing the
effect of the frequency of the incident light on the kinetic energy of the photoelectron is
provided below.

From the image, it can be observed that:

 The photoelectric effect does not occur when the red light strikes the metallic surface
because the frequency of red light is lower than the threshold frequency of the metal.
 The photoelectric effect occurs when green light strikes the metallic surface and
photoelectrons are emitted.
 The photoelectric effect also occurs when blue light strikes the metallic surface.
However, the kinetic energies of the emitted photoelectrons are much higher for blue
light than for green light. This is because blue light has a greater frequency than green
light.
It is important to note that the threshold energy varies from metal to metal. This is because
the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the metal are different for different metals. It
can also be noted that the photoelectric effect can also take place in non-metals, but the
threshold frequencies of non-metallic substances are usually very high.
 CHAPTER 2: HISTORY

When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain

threshold frequency (typically visible light for alkali metals, near ultraviolet for other
metals, and extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the radiation is absorbed and electrons
are emitted. Light, and especially ultra-violet light, discharges negatively electrified
bodies with the production of rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Under certain
circumstances it can directly ionize gases. The first of these phenomena was discovered
by Hertz and Hallwachs in 1887. The second was announced first by Philipp Lenard in
1900. The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an arc lamp, or
by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil between zinc or cadmium
terminals, the light from which is very rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in
ultra- violet rays, as these have been absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce
nearly so large an effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals discharge
negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will be
found in papers by G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch.

19TH CENTURY: In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic

effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not equivalent to the
photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a strong
relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith
discovered photoconductivityin selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance
properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster
(1854–1920) and Hans Geitel (1855–1923), students in Heidelberg, developed the first
practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light. Elster and
Geitel had investigated with great success the effects produced by light on electrified bodies.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric effect and the production and reception of
electromagnetic waves. He published these observations
in the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver
consisted of a coil with a spark gap, where a spark
would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves.
He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the
spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum
spark length was reduced when in the box. A glass
panel placed between the source of electromagnetic
waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
(1857-1894)
that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would
increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, as
quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of investigation and
reported the results obtained. He did not further pursue the investigation of this effect. The
discovery by Hertz in 1887 that the incidence of ultra-violet light on a spark gap facilitated
the passage of the spark, led immediately to a series of investigations by Hallwachs, Hoor,
Righi and Stoletow on the effect of light, and especially of ultra-violet light, on charged
bodies. It was proved by these investigations that a newly cleaned surface of zinc, if charged
with negative electricity, rapidly loses this charge however small it may be when ultra-violet
light falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to begin with, it acquires a
positive charge when exposed to the light, the negative electrification going out into the gas
by which the metal is surrounded; this positive electrification can be much increased by
directing a strong airblast against the surface. If however the zinc surface is positively
electrified it suffers no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this result has been
questioned, but a very careful examination of the phenomenon by Elster and Geitel has
shown that the loss observed under certain circumstances is due to the discharge by the light
reflected from the zinc surface of negative electrification on neighbouring conductors
induced by the positive charge, the negative electricity under the influence of the electric
field moving up to the positively electrified surface. With regard to the Hertz effect, the
researchers from the start showed a great complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric
fatigue — that is, the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic
surfaces. According to an important research by Wilhelm Hallwachs, ozone played an
important part in the phenomenon. However, other elements enter such as oxidation, the
humidity, the mode of polish of the surface, etc. It was at the time not even sure that the
fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed
analysis of photoeffect was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results published in 6
works; four of them in Comptes Rendus, one review in Physikalische Revue (translated from
Russian), and the last work in Journal de Physique. First, in these works Stoletov invented a
new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photoeffect.
Using this setup, he discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and
the induced photo electric current (the first law of photoeffect or Stoletov's law). One of his
other findings resulted from measurements of the dependence of the intensity of the electric
photo current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure
Pm corresponding to a maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of solar
cells. In 1899, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes. Thomson
deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those previously found in the cathode
ray, later called electrons, which he called "corpuscles". In the research, Thomson enclosed a
metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation. It was
thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and,
after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic "corpuscle" to be emitted, and current
to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and colour of the
radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current.

20TH CENTURY: The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made
by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and
made very great positive and small negative ions, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon,
as did J. J. Thomson, as a Hertz effect upon the solid or liquid particles present in the gas. In
 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of
individual emitted electrons increased with
the frequency (which is related to the coluor)
of the light.
This appeared to be at odds with
Maxwell's wave theory of light, which
predicted that the electron energy would be
proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
Lenard observed the variation in electron
energy with light frequency using a powerful
electric arc lamp which enabled him to
investigate large changes in intensity, and
that had sufficient power to enable him to
investigate the variation of potential with
light frequency. His experiment directly
under measured potentials, not electron kinetic
energy: he found the electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping potential
(voltage) in a phototube. He found that the calculated maximum electron kinetic energy is
determined by the frequency of the light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an
increase in the maximum kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation –
ultraviolet radiationwould require a higher applied stopping potential to stop current in a
phototube than blue light. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative
because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done
on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of
minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was
determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled
the number of electrons emitted from the surface. The researches of Langevin and those of
Eugene Bloch have shown that the greater part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this
'Hertz effect'. The Lenard effect upon the gas[ itself nevertheless does exist. Refound by J. J.
Thomson and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer, Jr., it was studied and showed very
different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard.
In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this apparent paradox by describing light as
composed of discrete quanta, now called photons, rather than continuous waves. Based upon
Max Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Einstein theorized that the energy in each
quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by a constant, later called Planck's
constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single This
Photo by Unknown Author is licensed electron, creating the observed effect. This discovery led to the
quantum revolution in physics and earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. By
wave-particle duality the effect can be analyzed purely in terms of waves though not as
conveniently. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was
caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his 1905 papers, named "On a
Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light". This paper
proposed the simple description of "light quanta", or photons, and showed how they
explained such
phenomena as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms of absorption of
discrete quanta of light explained the features of the phenomenon and the characteristic
frequency. The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck's published law of black-body
radiation ("On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum") by assuming that
Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies E proportional to the frequency f of the
oscillator by E = hf, where h is Planck's constant. By assuming that light actually consisted
of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the photoelectric effect that agreed
with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only
on the frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity: a low-intensity, the high-
frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, the low-
frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to dislodge any
electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at
first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James
Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption
of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments showed that
Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the idea of
photons continued since it appeared to contradict Maxwell's equations, which were well
understood and verified. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected
electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly, the precise
relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of
photoelectrons increases with increasing frequency of incident light and is independent of
the intensity of the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally
determined until 1914 when Robert Andrews Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was
correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–
particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of
both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect
was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the
energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation.
Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time,
and then be emitted.
Hertz’s Observation
Hertz’s Observations The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was first
discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. While demonstrating the existence of electromagnetic
waves, Hertz found that the high voltage sparks passed across the metal electrodes of the
detector loop more easily when the cathode was illuminated by UV light from an arc lamp.
The UV light falling on the metal surface caused the emission of negatively charged
particles, which are known as electrons, into the surrounding space and hence enhanced the
high voltage sparks.

by Unknown Author is licensed under

 Hallwach’s and lenard’s Observation

Hallwach’s and Lenard’s Observations During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm

Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in
detail. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an electroscope. He allowed UV light to fall
on a zinc plate. He observed that the zinc plate became:
(i) uncharged if initially negatively charged

(ii) positively charged if initially uncharged

(iii) more positively charged if initially positively charged.

From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted
by the zinc plate when exposed to UV light. A few years later Lenard observed that when
UV radiations are allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing
two electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a current flows in a circuit. As soon as UV
radiations are stopped, the current also stops. These observations again indicate that UV
radiations incident on the emitter plate C eject out same negatively charged particles from it.
These particles are attracted by the collector plate A, setting up a current through the
evacuated glass tube. After the discovery of electrons by JJ Thomson in 1897, it was
established that these particles are indeed electrons and were called photoelectrons. In 1900,
Lenard argued that that when UV light is incident on the emitter plate, it causes the emission
of electrons from its surface. These electrons are attracted by the positive collector plate so
that the circuit is completed and the current flows. This current was called Photoelectric
current. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the frequency of the incident light
was less than the a certain minimum value, called the threshold frequency, no photoelectrons
were emitted at all. Different substances emit photoelectrons only when exposed to
radiations of different frequencies. Alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Cs and R barer highly
photosensitive. They emit electrons even with visible light. Metals like Zn, Cd, Mg, Al etc.
respond only to UV light. X-rays can eject electrons even from heavy metals.

Failure of classical wave theory to explain

photoelectric effect
According to wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes a metal
surface, the free electrons at the surface absorb the radiant energy continuously. Greater the
intensity of incident radiation, greater are the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic felids,
and greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence higher intensity should liberate
photoelectrons with kinetic energy. But this is contrary to the experimental result that the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of the
incident radiation. 2. No matter what the frequency of the incident radiation is, a light wave
of sufficient intensity (over a sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy
required to eject the electrons from the metal surface. Thus the wave theory fails to explain
the existence of threshold frequency. 3. The energy of light wave is smoothly and evenly
distributed across its advancing wavefront. Each electron intercepts an insignificantly small
amount of this energy and so it should require a finite time to escape from metal surface. But
actually, the emission is almost instantaneous.

CHAPTER 3: EINSTEIN’S THEORY

In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of

Planck’s quantum theory according to which radiation travels in the form of discrete
photons. The energy of each photon is hʋ, where h is planck’s constant and ʋ is the
frequency of light.
 thor is licensed under

The main points of the Einstein’s Theory of photoelectric effect are

1. Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles- one a photon of
radiation and the other an electron of the photosensitive metal.
2. The free electrons are bound within the surface of the metal due to restraining forces of
the surface. The minimum energy required to liberate an electron from the metal surface
is called work function W0 of the metal.
3. .Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hʋ of the incident photon is used up
in two parts;
a. A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from the metal
surface, which is equal to the work function of the metal.
b. The remaining energy of the photon is bused in imparting kinetic energy to the ejected
electron.
4. Very few (<1%) photons, whose energies are greater than the work function are capable
of ejecting the photoelectrons.
By the conservation of energy,
Energy of the incident photon = maximum KE of photoelectron + work function
hʋ = mv2 max + W0
Kmax = mv2 max = hʋ - W0
If the incident photon is of threshold frequency ʋ0, then its energy hʋ0 is hujust sufficient
from the metal surface and does not give it any kinetic energy. So hʋ0 = W0. Hence,
Kmax = mv2 max = hʋ - hʋ0 = h(ʋ - ʋ0)

The above equation is called Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation and can be used to explain
the laws of photoelectric effect as follows:
 1. Explanation of effect of intensity: the increase of intensity means the increase in the
number of photons striking the metal surface per unit time. As each photon ejects only one
electron, so the number of ejected electrons increases with increase in intensity of incident
radiation.

2. Explanation of threshold frequency: If v < v0 the frequency of incident radiation is

less than the threshold frequency, the KE of photoelectrons becomes negative. This has no
physical meaning. So photoelectron emission does not occur below the threshold frequency.

3. Explanation of kinetic energy: If v > v0 then

Kmax = mv2 max α

ʋ i.e.above threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons increases
linearly with increase in the intensity increases only the number of incident photons and not
their energy. Hence the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of incident radiation.

4. Explanation of time lag: photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic collision

between a photon and an electron. Thus the absorption of energy from a photon by a free
electron inside the metal is a single event which involves transfer of energy in one lump
instead of continuous absorption of energy as in wave theory of light. Hence there is no time
lag between the incidence of a photon and the emission of a photoelectron.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

According to Einstein’s theory on the photoelectric effect is, when
a photon collides inelastically with electrons, the photon is absorbed completely
or partially by the electrons. So if an electron in a metal absorbs a photon of
energy, it uses the energy in the following ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface electron free from the metal. It is
known as the work function of the material. Rest energy will appear as kinetic
energy (K) of the emitted photoelectrons.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION EXPLAINS THE FOLLOWING

CONCEPTS

The frequency of the incident light is directly proportional to the kinetic

energy of the electrons and the wavelengths of incident light are inversely
proportional to the kinetic energy of the electrons.
If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0.
γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no emission of photoelectrons.
The intensity of the radiation or incident light refers to the number of
photons in the light beam. More intensity means more photons and vice-
versa. Intensity has nothing to do with the energy of the photon. Therefore,
the intensity of the radiation is increased, the rate of emission increases but
there will be no change in the kinetic energy of electrons. With an
increasing number of emitted electrons, the value of photoelectric current
increases.
 CHAPTER 3: PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

DEFINITION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The phenomenon of metals releasing electrons when they are exposed to the light of the appr
opriate frequency is called the photoelectric effect, and the electrons emitted during the
process are called photoelectrons.

by Unknown Author is licensed under

PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The law of conservation of energy forms the basis for the photoelectric effect.

MINIMUM CONDITION FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

T HRESHOLD F REQUENCY ( Γ TH )
It is the minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will produce a
photoelectric effect i.e. ejection of photoelectrons from a metal surface is known as threshold
frequency for the metal. It is constant for a specific metal but may be different for different
metals.
If γ = frequency of incident photon and γth= threshold frequency, then,

 If γ < γTh, there will be no ejection of photoelectron and, therefore, no photoelectric

effect.
  If γ = γTh, photoelectrons are just ejected from the metal surface, in this case, the
kinetic energy of the electron is zero
 If γ > γTh, then photoelectrons will come out of the surface along with kinetic energy
T HRESHOLD W AVELENGTH ( Λ TH )
During the emission of electrons, a metal surface corresponding to the greatest wavelength to
incident light is known threshold wavelength.
λth = c/γth
For wavelengths above this threshold, there will be no photoelectron emission. For λ =
wavelength of the incident photon, then

 If λ < λTh, then the photoelectric effect will take place and ejected electron will possess
kinetic energy.
 If λ = λTh, then just photoelectric effect will take place and kinetic energy of ejected
photoelectron will be zero.
 If λ > λTh, there will be no photoelectric effect.
W ORK F UNCTION OR T HRESHOLD E NERGY (Φ)
The minimal energy of thermodynamic work that is needed to remove an electron from a
conductor to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the surface of the conductor is
known as work function/threshold energy
Φ = hγth = hc/λth
The work function is the characteristic of a given metal. If E = energy of an incident photon,
then

1. If E < Φ, no photoelectric effect will take place.

2. If E = Φ, just photoelectric effect will take place but the kinetic energy of ejected
photoelectron will be zero
3. If E > photoelectron will be zero
4. If E > Φ, the photoelectric effect will take place along with possession of the kinetic
energy by the ejected electron.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT FORMULA

According to the Einstein explanation of the photoelectric effect is:
The energy of photon = energy needed to remove an electron + kinetic energy of the
i.e. hν = W + E
Where,

 h is Planck’s constant.
 ν is the frequency of the incident photon.
 W is a work function.
  E is the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons: 1/2 mv².

LAWS GOVERNING THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. For a light of any given frequency; (γ > γ Th) photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light

1. For any given material, there is a certain minimum (energy) frequency, called
threshold frequency, below which the emission of photoelectrons stops completely,
no matter how high is the intensity of incident light.

2. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is found to increase with the
increase in the frequency of incident light, provided the frequency (γ > γ Th) exceeds
the threshold limit. The maximum kinetic energy is independent of the intensity of
light.
3. The photo-emission is an instantaneous process.
 Photoelectric Effect: Experimental Setup
The given experiment is used to study the photoelectric effect experimentally. In an
evacuated glass tube, two zinc plates C and D are enclosed. Plates C acts as anode and D acts
as a photosensitive plate.
Two plates are connected to a battery B and ammeter A. If the radiation is incident on the
plate D through a quartz window W electrons are ejected out of the plate and current flows in
the circuit. This is known as photocurrent. Plate C can be maintained at desired potential
(+ve or – ve) with respect to plate D.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

 The threshold frequency varies with material, it is different for different materials.
 The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the light intensity.
 The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the light frequency.
 The stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency and the process is
instantaneous.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

With the help of this apparatus, we will now study the dependence of the photoelectric effect
on the following factors.
 1. The intensity of incident radiation.
2. A potential difference between metal plate and collector.
3. Frequency of incident radiation.

EFFECTS OF INTENSITY OF INCIDENT  RADIATION ON PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The potential difference between the metal plate,collector and frequency of incident
light is kept constant and the intensity of light is varied:
The electrode C i.e. collecting electrode is made positive with respect to D (metal plate). For
a fixed value of frequency and the potential between the metal plate and collector, the
photoelectric current is noted in accordance with the intensity of incident radiation.
It shows that photoelectric current and intensity of incident radiation both are proportional to
each other. The photoelectric current gives an account of the number of photoelectrons
ejected per sec.

EFFECTS OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METAL PLATE AND COLLECTOR  ON

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The frequency of incident light and intensity is kept constant and the potential
difference between the plates is varied:
Keeping the intensity and frequency of light constant, the positive potential of C is increased
gradually. Photoelectric current increases when there is a positive increase in the potential
between the metal plate and collector up to a characteristic value.
There is no change in photoelectric current when potential is increased higher than the
characteristic value for any increase in the accelerating voltage. This maximum value of the
current is called saturation current.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The intensity of light is kept constant and the frequency of light is varied:
For a fixed intensity of incident light, variation in the frequency of incident light produces a
linear variation of the cut off potential/stopping potential of the metal. It is shown that the cut
off potential (Vc) is linearly proportional to the frequency of incident light
The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases directly proportionally to the frequency of
incident light to completely stop the photoelectrons. We should reverse and increase the
potential between the metal plate and collector in (negative value) so the emitted
photoelectron can’t reach the collector.
DIFFERENT GRAPHS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

 Kinetic energy V/s frequency

 Vmax V/s v
 Saturated Current V/s Intensity
 Stopping potential V/s frequency
 Potential V/s current: (γ = constant)
 Photoelectric current V/s Retarding potential
Photoelectric Equation Graphs