Steady Turning Flight

Dr. A. Rona

February 21, 2020

Aims of Lecture
Part 1

1. To examine ways aircraft turn

2. To derive expressions for correctly banked turns
3. To compare turning and straight-level flight

Part 2

1. To work through a steady turn example

2. To look briefly at height loss during turning
Turning Aircraft

R
V2
Centripetal acceleration: α = R
2
Centripetal force: m VR

β
To execute a turn, aircraft can
either
I “Skid to turn” - alter yaw of V
aircraft to create side-slip
(basically using rudder)
I β = angle of side-slip
(NB - slightly
non-standard illustration)
Problems with turns using rudder
1. Passenger Airsickness
I Pilot typically sits close to centre of rotation.
I Passengers sitting behind pilot experience side-to-side motion
I Particularly uncomfortable for passengers sitting at the back of the
aircraft
2. Yaw induced roll
I If rudder used to initiate turn, advancing wing experiences greater
airspeed
I Greater airspeed implies greater lift (L = 1 ρCL SV 2 ) on advancing
2
wing
I Greater lift tends to roll the aircraft - even with no aileron input!

Main use of rudder

I Corrections of adverse yaw (during bank when induced drag on
higher wing is greater, causing adverse yaw)
I Making small turns (especially at low speed where ailerons lose
effectiveness)
Bank-to-turn

φ
Alternatively Lt
I “Bank-to-turn” - roll the
aircraft to alter the direction of
the lift vector α
(using ailerons)
Aircraft nose
I φ = roll angle points into
slide

mg
I Bank-to-turn is typically more efficient (easier) in most aircraft
I Correctly banked turn: centripetal force provided solely by inward
component of lift vector due to banking of aircraft

NB: Rudder input necessary to prevent aircraft side-slipping

Turning aircraft - fundamental relationships
Resolving horizontally and vertically:

Lt cos φ = mg
V2 φ
Lt
Lt sin φ = mα = m
R

α
V2
tan φ = Aircraft nose
gR
points into
2
 
V slide
φ = arctan
gR
mg

This implies
I The faster the aircraft is travelling, the more it must bank to adhere
to a turn of a given radius
I For a fixed bank angle, the radius of the turn must increase as the
square of the velocity
Load Factor
I An important parameter indicating the “stress” an aircraft (and its
pilot/passengers) can be subjected to.
I Load Factor, N defined as

lift in turn
N =
weight
Lt
=
mg
mg /(cos φ) 1
= = = sec φ
mg cos φ
I N is a ratio of forces (dimensionless) although often given in “g”.
I When bank angle is zero (φ = 0), N = 1
I Load factor a significant parameter in aircraft turning.
Load Factor - illustration
φ=0 φ=30 φ=60

N=1 N=1.2 N=2

I Load factor indicates “weight gain” of passengers/pilots.

I Straight, level flight: normal sensation of weight
I Correctly banked turn at 60o : sensation of twice normal weight
I Typical load factors: commercial aircraft ≈ 2; fighter aircraft
≈ 8 − 10.
Relationship between load factor and turning

sec2 φ = 1 + tan2 φ Bank angle increases with

Bank angle
tan2 φ = sec 2 φ − 1 = N 2 − 1 load factor (for small φ)
p
tan φ = N2 − 1

p V2 For a given load factor,

tan φ = N2 − 1 =
Turn radius gR radius of turn increases
V2 as square of speed
R = √
g N2 − 1

V2 V2 Centripetal acceleration
Centripetal α = = 2
R √V increases with load
acceleration g N 2 −1
factor.
p
= g N2 − 1
Alternative expressions for turn radius
Two expressions for lift:

Lt
V2

I N = Lt /(mg ) ⇔

 = 1
Lt = Nmg ⇒ ρSC L,t
2
I Lt = 12 ρSCL,t V 2 
 Nmg
=

1
2 ρSCL,t
Using this value in the expression for turn radius gives

V2 Nmg
R= √ = 1
√
g N2 − 1 2 ρSCL,t g N2 − 1
Nm
= 1
√
2
2 ρSCL,t N − 1

Minimum radius turn, Rmin , attained at CL,max .

Nm
Rmin = 1
√
2 ρSCL,max N2 − 1
Rate of turn
Rate of turn ω given by
V V gp 2
ω= = 2 = N −1
R √V V
g N 2 −1

Using s
Nmg
V = 1
2 ρSCL,t

in the expression for ω gives

s
1
2 ρSCL,t
p
ω = g N2 − 1
Nmg
s r
1
2 ρSCL,t g N2 − 1
=
m N

Implication: turn rate increases as a function of CL,t

Turning flight vs Straight level flight
When entering a turn, lift vector direction is altered. Thus to keep
same CL during turn, velocity (throttle) must be adjusted
How does this compare to straight level flight?
Straight Level Turn
Nmg
mg Vt2 = 1
Vs2 = 1 2 ρSCL,t
2 ρSCL,s
Nmg
mg CL,t = 1 2
CL,s = 1 2 ρSVt
2
2 ρSVs

Thus for same lift coefficient, CL,s = CL,t :

√
Vt = NVs
√
i.e speed needs to be increased by N to keep CL the same in turn
as in straight level flight
Turning flight vs Straight level flight
Assume now that change in lift coefficient (incidence angle) is
acceptable during turning flight.
How can straight-level airspeed be maintained during turning flight?

Straight Level Turn

Nmg
mg Vt2 = 1
Vs2= 1 2 ρSCL,t
2 ρSC L,s
Hence if Vs = Vt :

CL,s = CL,t /N or CL,t = NCL,s

which implies
I For same speed in turn, lift coefficient must increase by a factor of N
I If aircraft is flying close to stalling speed, attempts to turn the
aircraft while keeping velocity constant could stall the aircraft
I In practice, for gentle turns (φ ≤ 25o ) effects of turning are small
(sin φ ≈ φ). For |φ| ≤ 30o , pilots tend not to adjust throttle and
accept a slight loss in speed.
Turning vs straight level flight: remarks
Constant CL Constant V

⇒ Velocity
√ must be increased: ⇒ Lift coefficient must be
Vt = NVs increased CL,t = NCL,s
⇒ Increase in thrust required (or ⇒ Increased CL ⇒ increased α
height loss) ⇒ Turn radius decreased (danger
⇒ Turn radius increased: of stall!)
NV 2
R = √ s
g N2 − 1
Height loss during turning
Assumptions:
I Thrust (throttle) is constant and independent of speed
I Turn takes place at same lift coefficient for initial level flight
I Velocity (V) increases to maintain this
(hence some height loss must occur)

Resolving normal to flight path LT

LT = mg cos γ
⇒ L cos φ = mg cos γ DT

Assuming γ small, cos γ ≈ 1 and γ

TT
hence γ − flight path angle

L cos φ = mg (N = sec φ)
mg
Height loss during turning
LT

Resolving along flight path

DT

TT + mg sin γ = DT γ
TT γ − flight path angle

mg
Since thrust = drag in straight level flight
T = D = TT
Also, √
DT = ND (because Vt = NVs )
Hence
D + mg sin γ = ND
 
D(N − 1) 1
sin γ = = (N − 1)
mg CL /CD
Implication: minimum angle occurs at minimum drag condition