EG2401

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MIDSUMMER EXAMINATIONS 2015

DO NOT OPEN THE QUESTION PAPER UNTIL INSTRUCTED TO DO SO BY THE
CHIEF INVIGILATOR

Department ENGINEERING

Module Code EG2401

Module Title Introduction to Aircraft Materials and Performance

Exam Duration Two and a half hours

CHECK YOU HAVE THE CORRECT QUESTION PAPER

Number of Pages 9

Number of Questions 6

Instructions to Candidates There are six questions in this paper.

Answers are expected to four questions. You must answer one question from
Section A and three questions from Section B.
Answers to only four questions will be marked. Attempted solutions which
you do not wish to submit should be crossed out. If you do attempt more
than four questions, and do not identify which four you want to be marked,
only the first four in your answer book will be marked.
For each question, the distribution of marks out of 20 is indicated in brackets.

For this exam you are allowed to use the following

Calculators Casio FX83 or Casio FX85 (any variant)

Books/Statutes Engineering Data Book

Additional Stationary This paper should be scheduled for the same time as EG2101

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SECTION A - You must answer ONE question

1. Fracture toughness [20 Marks Total]

a) Describe and explain, with the aid of a diagram, the ‘energy balance’ concept used in fracture
mechanics and in doing so, explain:
i) What is meant by ‘unstable equilibrium’ ?
ii) The conditions required for crack growth around this equilibrium point. [6 marks]

b) Samples of an aluminium alloy (AA7074-T651), to be used in the construction of a new light

aircraft, are purchased to undergo fracture toughness testing. To simulate a small defect
that would be picked up by routine maintenance procedures, a central through-crack is to be
introduced into each sample. The manufacturer claims that the fracture toughness (Kc ) of the
alloy is 24.8 MN m−3/2 .
√
The stress intensity is given by: K = Y σ πa
The dimensions of the sample are given in Figure 1, where:
W = 20 mm, t = 1 mm

Figure 1: Centrally-located through-crack in a fracture toughness plate specimen

Questions for 1. b) can be found at the top of the next page

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i) Calculate the critical crack size (ac ) predicted by the value of fracture toughness claimed
by the manufacturer, if the plate is subjected to a tensile load (F ) of 5 kN. Assume that
the correction factor, Y = 1. [3 marks]

ii) Given that the yield strength of the alloy is known to be 485 MPa, determine the crack
size below which the plate will fail by yielding rather than fast fracture. [2 marks]

iii) Based on your calculations, you decide to introduce a crack into each sample, with a
length (2a) of 3.5 mm. You discover that fast fracture occurs under an applied load (F ) of
5.5 kN. Therefore, what is the real fracture toughness of the material? [4 marks]

c) Following testing, the fracture surface of a number of the broken samples is observed by scan-
ning electron microscopy. Using this technique, the fracture surfaces are observed to have a
‘rough’ appearance, with a number of ‘cavities’ visible when viewed at high magnification.

Identify what type of fracture has occurred and describe the process by which it has happened,
with reference to bonding strength, plastic deformation, defects and the relative speed at
which the fracture has propagated. [5 marks]

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2. Fatigue life [20 Marks Total]

a) Sketch the variation of crack growth rate (da/dN ) with stress intensity range (∆K ) for a metallic
component. On your diagram label the threshold condition (∆Kth ), fracture toughness (∆Kc )
and the Paris regime. [5 marks]

b) The Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) was a component of the Space Shuttle Launch Vehi-
cle. The ET consisted of three major components: the forward liquid oxygen (LOX) tank, an
unpressurised intertank and the aft liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) tank.

Based on this design, a new re-usable ET is planned for a future launch vehicle. For this
new ET, the LOX tank will have a length of 12.5m, a diameter of 6.8m and a wall thickness of
2.0mm. It can be considered as a cylindrical thin-walled pressure vessel, and has a design
operating pressure of Pop = 180kPa (gauge). The properties of the aluminium alloy from
which it is to be constructed are: E = 78GPa, σy = 460MPa, Kc = 42MPa m1/2 .

From the results of laboratory tests the following steady-state crack growth parameters for this
alloy (in the Paris regime under fully reversed loading conditions) have been determined to be:

A = 3.2 × 10−12
m = 2.7

Note that:
√
- The stress intensity is given by K = Y σ πa
- Steady-state fatigue life can be described by Paris’ Law:

da
= A(∆K)m
dN
- Hoop stresses in a thin-walled pressure vessel can be calculated by:

Pr
σhoop =
t

Questions for 2. b) can be found at the top of the next page

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Assuming that the stress range is constant, that Y does not vary with crack length and ignoring
the effects of the non-zero mean stress, determine:
i) The critical crack length due to the stresses generated when the LOX tank is pressurised
to 150 % of standard operating pressure (P150% = 270 kPa). [4 marks]

ii) The predicted fatigue life of the component, in terms of the number of pressurisation
cycles to failure. The fatigue life of the LOX tank is to be tested at 150 % of standard
operating pressure. Assume that the initial detectable edge-crack size is 1.8mm. The
√
stress intensity range for such a crack is given by: ∆K = 1.12 ∆ σ πa. [6 marks]

iii) Whether the new LOX tank design will pass its preliminary certification, which requires
that it withstands 5000 pressurisation cycles at 150 % of the standard operating pressure.
[1 mark]

c) Figure 2 illustrates Wöhler, or stress-cycle (S-N), curves that are used as design tools to
identify the likely fatigue life of a material under a known stress amplitude.

Briefly describe what the terms ‘fatigue limit’ and ‘endurance limit’ mean, and identify the
fatigue limit for Material A and 106 cycle endurance limit for Material B. [4 marks]

Figure 2: Wöhler (S-N) curves for two characteristic materials.

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SECTION B - You must answer THREE questions

3. a) Explain what the two terms in the drag polar CD = CD0 + εCL2 represent. Briefly explain how
(if at all) the terms vary with airspeed? [2 marks]
b) Explain what the term “sink rate” means in the context of a gliding aircraft and give an expres-
sion for it in terms of airspeed (V ) and glide angle (γ). [2 marks]
c) At an airspeed of 19ms−1 and an altitude of approximately sea level, a glider, with wing
loading WL = mg/S = 260, attains its minimum sink rate of 0.73 ms−1 . The drag coefficient
is expressed as CD = CD0 + εCL2 .
i) Use first principles to show that the sink rate can be expressed as

2 ρSV
1 3
mg
Vs = CD0 +ε 1
2 ρSV
mg

[4 marks]
ii) Use this expression to calculate numerical values of ε and CD0 for the glider under con-
sideration. [8 marks]
d) Using your answer from part c) or otherwise, sketch a graph of power versus equivalent air-
speed. Include the no lift power, the lift dependent power and the total power. What is special
about the flight condition corresponding to minimum sink rate? [4 marks]

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4. a) Describe what the terms “gross still air range” and “safe operating range” mean. Which mea-
sure of range is typically greater? Explain your answer. [4 marks]
b) A generic expression for the range of an aircraft is
Z m1
V
R=− dm
m0 ṁ f

where V is the airspeed, m0 the initial mass of the aircraft, m1 the final mass of the aircraft
and ṁ f the fuel mass flow rate. For a turbojet aircraft with ṁ f = f T , where f is the specific
fuel consumption and T is the thrust, show that a general expression for its range is given by
Z m0  
1 CL
R= V dm (1)
m1 f mg CD

where all symbols have their usual meaning.

[5 marks]
c) Consider two cases of an aircraft in straight-level flight:
Case 1 Constant incidence (α); constant airspeed (V )
Case 2 Constant incidence (α); constant altitude
For each case simplify the integral (1) to derive closed-form expressions for the aircraft’s
maximum range. In both cases, state give an expression for CL at which the maximum range
occurs. [8 marks]
d) Assume that, for Cases 1 and 2 above, the aircraft is flying at the incidence corresponding
to its maximum range. Which Case will typically provide the greatest range? Explain your
reasoning. [3 marks]

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5. a) Describe and sketch the four phases of take-off. During each phase comment on the variation
of the lift and drag coefficients. [4 marks]
b) An aircraft is due to take off from a runway with a small adverse slope, β (i.e. it is due to
take-off slightly “uphill"). Draw a point-mass diagram of the forces acting on an aircraft during
the ground run stage of takeoff from this runway. [2 marks]
c) Using your answer to part b), or otherwise, show that the horizontal acceleration during the
ground run phase of take off from the runway described above can, approximately, be given
by
ρS(CDg − µCLg )
 
T0 − mg(β + µ)
a= − V2
m 2m
where CDg and CLg are the lift and drag coefficients during the ground run and µ is the coeffi-
cient of rolling friction due to the aircraft’s tyres. The aircraft thrust is assumed to be constant
at T = T0 . All other symbols have their usual meaning. Marks will be awarded for the accuracy
and clarity of your derivation. [4 marks]
d) An alternative expression for the horizontal acceleration during the ground run is given by

1 d(V 2 )
a=
2 dx
Use this and the information in part c) to show that the distance travelled during the ground
run on a runway with an adverse slope can be calculated using the following formula:
 
1 A
xg = ln
2B A − BVR2
and give expressions for A and B (VR is the horizontal velocity at rotation). Marks will be
awarded for the accuracy and clarity of your derivation. [5 marks]
e) Hence show that, compared to the zero-gradient case, an extra distance of approximately

mβVR2
∆x =
2T0 (T0 /mg − (2µ + β))

metres must be allowed for take off when the slope is adverse. [5 marks]

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6. A propeller driven aircraft of mass m = 7500kg is flying straight and level at 110 ms−1 at an altitude
where σ = 0.776. It then executes a correctly banked turn at a rate of 8 deg/s whilst maintaining
the same incidence and throttle setting. The wing-loading WL = mg/S = 1800Nm−2 .

a) Explain the meaning of a correctly banked turn. [2 marks]

b) In the context of turning aircraft, explain what the term load factor means. [2 marks]
c) Draw a free-body diagram of the aircraft in the turn, identifying relevant forces. [2 marks]
d) Show that the radius of the turn can be calculated using
√
g N2 − 1
R=
ω2
where N is the load factor and ω is the angular velocity of the aircraft during the turn.
[3 marks]
e) By deriving a quadratic equation involving the load factor, N , find the load factor for the aircraft
described above and then use this to calculate the turn radius.
Hint—Derive a relationship, in terms of load factor, between the airspeed in straight-level
flight, VT and the airspeed during the turn, VR . [9 marks]
f) What role, if any, does the rudder play in a correctly banked turn? [2 marks]

END OF EXAMINATION

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