Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In response to a traumatic event, anxiety may interrupt the formation of memories and disrupt the learning
processes, resulting in dissociation. Depersonalization (a feeling of disconnection from one’s self) and derealisation
(a feeling of disconnection from one's surroundings) are other dissociative methods of withdrawing from anxiety [6]
Bipolar disorder or manic-depressive disorder, which is also referred to as bipolar affective disorder or manic
depression, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or
more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or more depressive
episodes. The elevated moods are clinically referred to as mania or, if milder, hypomania. Individuals who
experience manic episodes also commonly experience depressive episodes, or symptoms, or mixed episodes in
which features of both mania and depression are present at the same time.[2] These episodes are usually separated by
periods of "normal" mood; but, in some individuals, depression and mania may rapidly alternate, which is known as
rapid cycling. Extreme manic episodes can sometimes lead to such psychotic symptoms as delusions and
hallucinations. The disorder has been subdivided into bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia, and other types, based on
the nature and severity of mood episodes experienced; the range is often described as the bipolar spectrum.
Data from the United States on lifetime prevalence varies; but it indicates a rate of around 1% for bipolar I, 0.5%–
1% for bipolar II or cyclothymia, and 2%–5% for subthreshold cases meeting some, but not all, criteria. [citation needed]
The onset of full symptoms generally occurs in late adolescence or young adulthood. Diagnosis is based on the
person's self-reported experiences, as well as observed behavior. Episodes of abnormality are associated with
distress and disruption and an elevated risk of suicide, especially during depressive episodes. In some cases, it can
be a devastating long-lasting disorder. In others, it has also been associated with creativity, goal striving, and
positive achievements. There is significant evidence to suggest that many people with creative talents have also
suffered from some form of bipolar disorder.[3]
Genetic factors contribute substantially to the likelihood of developing bipolar disorder, and environmental factors
are also implicated. Bipolar disorder is often treated with mood stabilizing medications and, sometimes, other
psychiatric drugs. Psychotherapy also has a role, often when there has been some recovery of the subject's stability.
In serious cases, in which there is a risk of harm to oneself or others, involuntary commitment may be used. These
cases generally involve severe manic episodes with dangerous behavior or depressive episodes with suicidal
ideation. There are widespread problems with social stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice against individuals with a
diagnosis of bipolar disorder.[4] People with bipolar disorder exhibiting psychotic symptoms can sometimes be
misdiagnosed as having schizophrenia, another serious mental illness.[5]
The current term "bipolar disorder" is of fairly recent origin and refers to the cycling between high and low episodes
(poles). A relationship between mania and melancholia had long been observed, although the basis of the current
conceptualisation can be traced back to French psychiatrists in the 1850s. The term "manic-depressive illness" or
psychosis was coined by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin in the late nineteenth century, originally referring to
all kinds of mood disorder. German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard split the classification again in 1957, employing the
terms unipolar disorder (major depressive disorder) and bipolar disorder.
Kleptomania- An irresistible urge to steal items of trivial value. People with this disorder are compelled to steal
things, generally, but not limited to, objects of little or no significant value, such as pens, paper clips, paper and tape.
Some kleptomaniacs may not even be aware that they have committed the theft.
Kleptomania is distinguished from shoplifting or ordinary theft, as shoplifters and thieves generally steal for
monetary value, or associated gains and usually display intent or premeditation, while kleptomaniacs are not
necessarily contemplating the value of the items they steal or even the theft until they are compelled without motive.
Increasing brain research and clinical work indicate that shoplifting and stealing can become addictive-compulsive
disorders. Hence, the terms "shoplifting addiction" or "theft addiction" or "compulsive theft or stealing" have gained
popularity and credence recently. There even are books and support groups devoted to recovery from addictive-
compulsive shoplifting or stealing. Most "theft addicts" are neither kleptomaniacs nor typical criminals who steal for
profit or due to sociopathic or character logical issues. On the contrary, most theft addicts typically are extremely
honest, giving, and empathetic individuals; their stealing, however, evolves due to stress, trauma, increasing feelings
of unfairness and entitlement, and unresolved anger and/or grief. Most theft behavior by "theft addicts" is more
compulsive or semi-planned than impulsive and the items stolen—while not usually needed are nonetheless
pinpointed, used, or given as gifts. Anger and feelings of powerlessness are quite commonly linked to theft addicts'
stealing. Thus, these are middle category persons who ought not to be neglected and for whom "addiction and
recovery" principles and treatment may be very helpful.
This disorder usually manifests during puberty and, in some cases, may last throughout the person's life.
People with this disorder are likely to have a co morbid condition, specifically paranoid, schizoid or borderline
personality disorder. Kleptomania can occur after traumatic brain injury and carbon monoxide poisoning.
Kleptomania is usually thought of as part of the obsessive-compulsive disorder spectrum, although emerging
evidence suggests that it may be more similar to addictive and mood disorders. In particular, this disorder is
frequently co-morbid with substance use disorders, and it is common for individuals with kleptomania to have first-
degree relatives who suffer from a substance use disorders.