Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1678-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Structural control of groundwater flow regimes and groundwater
chemistry along the lower reaches of the Zerka River, West
Jordan, using remote sensing, GIS, and field methods
Taleb Odeh Æ Elias Salameh Æ Mario Schirmer Æ
Gerhard Strauch
Received: 19 October 2006 / Accepted: 26 November 2008 / Published online: 7 January 2009
Ó Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract A hydrogeological study was completed within a
sub-catchment of the Zerka River drainage basin, in western
Jordan. The system is characterized by anticlinal bending
with an axis trending SSW–NNE and plunging a few degrees
in the SSW direction. The anticlinal structure diverts
groundwater flow towards the SSW while the strike-slipe
faults cause the groundwater to diverge where the fault is
perpendicular to the groundwater flow lines, and to converge
where the fault is parallel to the groundwater flow lines. A
direct relationship was found between the location of springs
and the type of groundwater flow with regard to the amount
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1678-1) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
T. Odeh (&)
Department of Hydrogeology,
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ,
Halle, Germany
e-mail: taleb.odeh@ufz.de
E. Salameh
Department of Geology, University of Jordan,
Amman, Jordan
e-mail: salameli@ju.edu.jo
M. Schirmer
Department of Water Resources and Drinking Water,
Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science
and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
e-mail: mario.schirmer@eawag.ch
G. Strauch
Department of Hydrogeology,
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ,
Leipzig, Germany
e-mail: gerhard.strauch@ufz.de
of discharge wherein large spring discharges are located in
zones of converging groundwater flow lines. In areas where
faults are not abundant, the groundwater retention time in the
aquifers is long and a zonation of the electrical conductivity
was detected due to mineral dissolution. By controlling
groundwater flow, the anticlinal setting produces three
genetic groups of groundwater flow systems: (1) alkaline–
earth alkaline water which is predominately a bicarbonate-
type composition, (2) alkaline–earth alkaline water which is
predominately bicarbonate–sulfate, and (3) alkaline–earth
alkaline water with a high alkaline component.
Keywords Geographic information system

Groundwater flow regime
Hydrochemistry

Remote sensing
Structural setting
Zerka River
Introduction
The Zerka River is the second largest River in Jordan with a
4,025 km2 drainage basin area which extends from the
foothills of the Jordan Valley to Jabel Druz in southern
Syria. The current study area focusses on a sub-catchment
of the Zerka River drainage basin with an area of about
146 km2 which lies about 13 km downstream of the King
Talal Dam (KTD) to the west (Fig. 1). Aquifers and aqui-
cludes which outcrop in the area range in age from Triassic
to Upper Cretaceous. The site is also characterized by recent
sediments and various geologic structures, including strike
slip faults and anticlines that play major roles in the
groundwater flow regimes and chemistry. Based on geo-
graphic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS)
methods, the roles of geologic structures in controlling the
groundwater flow regime and chemistry were evaluated. To
achieve these objectives, we determined the structural
123
1798 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Fig. 1 Location map of the

study area

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
Table 1 Methods of chemical
Lab. parameter
analyses
Calcium (Ca)
Calcium and magnesium (Ca, Mg)
Chloride (Cl)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Carbonate (CO3)
COD chemical oxygen demand
BOD biological oxygen demand
Nitrate (NO3)
Phosphate (PO4)
Sulphate (SO4)
Sodium, Potassium (Na, K)
setting, the groundwater flow regime and chemistry
including the distribution of contaminants. Furthermore, the
effects of the structures on the groundwater flow regime and
chemistry were evaluated using GIS and RS methods.
Methodology
Field work included a survey of springs and well sites
which were correlated with the geologic units and struc-
tures. Additional work was performed to correlate spring
discharge sites and faults. Water samples were collected
at the end of the summer in 2004 (13/09/04, 20/10/04).
Twenty samples were collected from the springs and
wells distributed on both sides of the Zerka River for both
chemical and biological analyses. In situ measurements of
hydrological parameters such as pH, electrical conduc-
tivity (EC), and temperature were carried out during
sampling. In addition to the depth of water in wells and
springs, site elevations were also measured. Chemical and
biological analyses of the water samples were carried out
at the University of Jordan laboratories. The American
Standard Methods for the analyses of water (Eaton et al.
2005) were used for the different chemical parameters as
listed in Table 1. GIS software provided appropriate
methods for efficient storage, retrieval, manipulation
analysis, and display of large volumes of the spatial ref-
erenced data. Accordingly, the GIS processing consisted
of four basic components: (1) data input and editing, (2)
storage of geographic databases, (3) data analysis and
spatial modelling, and (4) visualization and presentation.
RS and its associated image processing technology pro-
vided an ideal tool for determining the land use in the
watershed (Schultz and Engman 2000). The GIS tools
transformed the geographic features into a series of
thematic layers and attribute tables which represented
the characteristics of those features. The geographic
features are represented as points, lines and polygons. The
1799
Instrument used
Titration with 0.02 N Na2–EDTA using murexide-indicator
Titration with 0.02 N Na2–EDTA using eriochrome-black indicator
Titration with 0.01 N AgNO3 using potassium chromate indicator
Titration with 0.02 N H2SO4 and bromocresol indicator
Titration with 0.02 N H2SO4 and phenolphthalein indicator
Potassium dichromate solution
BOD5 test
Spectrophotometer (UV–visible) wave length 206 nm
Spectrophotometer (UV–visible) wave length 699 nm
Spectrophotometer (UV–visible) wave length 492 nm
Flamephotometer
geologic features are represented similarly. For example,
on the geological map the formations are represented
as polygons and faults are represented as lines. When
thematic layers are geo-referenced, they have a real world
location and overlay one another. Figure 2 shows the
flowchart that was used to produce digitized, thematic and
land use maps according to the geo-referenced maps, the
GIS data base, and the supervised classification method in
RS. The overlaying method in GIS was used to ease the
correlation between the different layers of geology,
hydrogeology, and hydrochemistry. Since delineation of
groundwater resource zones is based on the combined role
being played by various factors, the use of GIS improves
the assessment of the investigated region (Jaiswal et al.
2003).
Geographic and geological background
Topography
A digital elevation model (DEM) was created from the
triangle irregular network (TIN) of the digitized contour
lines (Fig. 3), which shows a high relief topography with
elevations ranging from -240 to 1,040 m above sea level
(a.s.l.). Accordingly, three distinct topographic zones were
classified as follows:
1. Highland zone: this zone appears on both sides of the
sub-catchment area with elevations ranging from 720
to 1,040 m a.s.l.
2. Escarpment zone: this zone is clearly visible on the
right-hand side of the Zerka River with elevations
ranging from 400 to 720 m a.s.l. while it appears on
both sides of the River at elevations ranging from 80 to
400 m a.s.l.
3. Foothill zone: the foothill zone is located at the foot of
the mountains of the escarpment leading into the Jordan
Valley. The elevation of this zone is about 400 m a.s.l.
123
1800 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Fig. 2 Flow charts of work 1) Raster Data.

mechanism
Data input
(ARCGIS 2 sheets of scanned geologic maps (1:50000) scale, one sheet of topographic map (1:10000) scale and satellite image
8.1)

Georeferencing to Palestine Grid

Storage as Rectified geological map, Rectified topographic map and rectified Satellite Image
raster

Digitizing Digitizing Supervised classification

(ENVI4.1 SOFTWARE)
Storage as
vector (with
Faults, Strikes and Zerka River, village location,
GIS data geological Formations KTD, counter lines Landuse map
base)

GIS analysis Geological period map TIN

(Triangle irregular net)

2) Tabulate Data.

Data input to
ArcGIS 8.1 Tabulate data DBF4 format

Hydrogeology (wells and springs): Hydrochemistry (wells and

GIS data Hydrostatic water level and springs springs):Major anion and cation,
base elevations (Coordinates from GPS).
EC.
Hydrology: Rainfall, evaporation,
runoff and ifiltration

Interpolation Thematic maps:

(kringging method) Hydrostatic water level, Major anion and cations, EC,
Using ArcGIS 8.1 Rainfall, evaporation, runoff and ifiltration.
SOFTWAR

GIS
manipulation Contour lines for groundwater
level thematic map

Geologic framework Structural framework

The Nubian-Arabian Pre-Cambrian Shield composed of
crystalline basement rocks underlies Jordan and outcrops in
the south western areas of the country. This shield has
undergone both uplift and subduction during various Pre-
Cambrian epirogenic events which resulted in marine
transgressions and regressions. During two major trans-
gressions, marine sediments of considerable thickness were
deposited. Sediment thickness reaches up to 4,000 m in the
Jafer Basin and even thicker sediments likely accumulated in
the Sirhan depression. In the central part of Jordan—
including the study area—marine sediments were deposited
during the Middle Cambrian, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
through to the Oligocene ages. Transgressions came from
north-west (Bender 1974). The formation outcrops in the
study area are of the Mesozoic era (Table 2).
The study area is located on the eastern side of the Dead
Sea–Jordan Valley transform fault. The Dead Sea trans-
form fault forms a part of the boundary between the
African and Arabian plates. According to Quennell (1958),
this fault shows major strike slip movement in two stages
with a total sinistral displacement of 107 km and large
vertical downthrows of more than 1,500 m. Due to its
proximity to the Dead Sea transform fault, the study area
has—since the beginning of the movements—been
strongly affected, especially in its relief topography and
drainage pattern. The distribution of faults and rose dia-
gram representation given in Fig. 4 shows that the major
fault system strikes WNW–ESE and the minor ones strike
(NNW to N)–(SSE to S). The WNW–ESE fault system is
one of the oldest systems in the region. Its strike is parallel

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810 1801

Fig. 3 Topographical features in the study area. a Topograpic map. b TIN Traingle irregular network. c DEM vertical exaggeration 9 5) for the
study area

123
1802 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Table 2 The main rock types of the formation in the study area
Group Formation Main rock type Age Period Era

Belqa G. Wadi Um Gudran F. Chalk and marl Santonian Cretaceous Mesozoic

Ajlun G. Wai Sir F. Limestone Touronian
Shueib F. Limestone Cenomanian to early Touranian
Hummar F. Dolomite Upper Cenomainian
Fuheis F. Marly limestone Cenomanian
Naur F. Dolomitic limestone Albian to early Cenomanian
Kurnub G. Kurnub F. Sandstone Neocmian to Albanian Jurassic
Azap G. Mugahanniyya F. Limestone and some clay Kimmeridgian
Hamam F. Carbonate, siliclastic Bajocion
Ramla F. Sandstone, clay and limestone Bajocion
Dahab F. Carbonate rock Bajocion
Silal F. Siliclastic rock Aalenian
Nimr F. Dolomitic limestone Liassic
Hihi F. Mudstone Lower Jurassic
Zerka G. Abu Ruweis F. Gypsum Carnian Triassic

Fig. 4 Faults distribution system in Jordan and in the study area. a Deed Sea transform fault and study area. b Faults distributions in the study
area. c Rose diagrams of faults in the study area

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
Fig. 5 Geological setting of the study area. a Geological map of the study area. b Cross sections. c Stereographic projection for the two main dip
angles of the system
to the trend of the Red Sea and Wadi Sirhan faults, namely
NW–SE (Quennell 1958). The system was later rejuve-
nated, with a clockwise rotation of the stress field. Most of
the faults in the study area show strike-slipe components as
a result of the rejuvenated stress system with acting forces
rotating clockwise from a NE–SW oriented to SSE–NNW.
The cross-sections show that the area has anticlinal bend-
ing, while the stereographic projection indicates that the
anticlinal axis is generally trending NNE–SSW and plun-
ges by a few degrees in a SSW direction. The anticlinal
bending was caused by the various stages of the rotating
stress field (Fig. 5).
Classification and analyses
Hydrogeological system
Many studies have been performed on the hydrogeologic
framework of northern Jordan such as MacDonald et al.
1803
(1965) and El-Naser (1991). The lithostratigraphic
sequence of the study area, according to the classification
by MacDonald et al. (1965), can be divided into three
hydrogeological units as follows (Table 3):
1. The upper aquifer complex
This complex consists mainly of limestone, dolomite,
and silicified limestone of Upper Cretaceous/Tertiary age
with a total thickness ranging from 600 to 700 m.
2. The upper aquiclude
This unit consists of marly Limestone of Middle
Cretaceous age with a total thickness about 60 m.
3. The lower aquifer complex
This complex consists mainly of sandstone of the Lower
Cretaceous age underlain by Jurassic rocks with interbed-
dings of limestone and sandstone and a total thickness
ranging from 200 to 500 m.
4. The lower aquiclude
123
1804 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Table 3 The hydrogeological

Geological Main rock type Hydrogeological Thickens Permeability (m/d)
units in the study area
formation classification (m) according JICA (1995)

Wadi Umm Gudran Chalk The upper aquifer 600–700 7.58 9 10-4
Wai Sir Limestone complex (unconfined
aquifer)
Shueib Limestone
Hummar Dolomite
Fuheis Marly Limestone Aquiclude 60 0
Naur Dolomitic The lower aquifer 200–500 4.48 9 10-5
limestone complex (semi
Kurnub Sandstone confined aquifer)
Mugahanniyya Limestone
Hamam Carbonate,
siliclastic
Ramla Sandstone
Dahab Carbonate rock
Nimr Siliclastic rock
Silal Dolomitic
limestone
Hihi Mudstone
Abu Ruweis Gypsum The lower aquiclude 40–80 0
complex

This unit consists of clays of the Lower Jurassic and
gypsum of the Upper Triassic with a total thickness ranging
from 40 to 80 m.
Groundwater flow
Groundwater recharge through infiltration takes place over
the highlands in the southern and northern parts of the study
area, as determined from thematic infiltration maps produced
by applying the general formula of the water balance equa-
tion (Fig. 6). Infiltration water forms in the upper aquifer
perched water bodies, which discharge through springs and
seeps along the higher lands. Part of the infiltration water
percolates into the lower aquifer complex which also
receives water from other recharge areas lying further east,
north, and south of the study area. The groundwater flow was
determined by the measured groundwater levels. A contour
map for the groundwater level was drawn by interpolating
the values of the hydrostatic water level in 49 wells and from
the elevations of 22 springs located within and around the
study area (Supplememtary Fig. 1). The maps show that
groundwater flows from the northern and southern recharge
areas towards the wadi Zerka, south and the north of the
recharge areas respectively, and from here, along the wadi
sediments towards the west.
Groundwater chemistry
Groundwater chemistry is influenced by different factors
such as dissolved substances in precipitation water,
geochemistry of percolated rock units, retention time of
groundwater in the different aquifers, weathering and
erosion of rocks in addition to human activities such as
urbanization, irrigation, and industrialization (Drever
1986; Gray 1994). To specify the origin of the dissolved
substances, 32 groundwater samples were collected from
wells and springs in addition to rainfall and analyzed for
their chemical constituents (Supplementary Fig. 2; Sup-
plementary Table 1). Plotting the samples on a modified
Piper diagram (Piper 1944; Furtak and Langguth 1967)
shows three genetic groups of groundwater generated
within the groundwater flow that is affected by the
structures (Fig. 7):
1. Normal earth-alkaline water is predominantly bicar-
bonate-type
The groundwater in the upper aquifer originates from
precipitation. Precipitation water in Jordan is normally
alkaline because of atmospheric dust, and is composed to
a great extent of carbonate (Salameh et al. 1991).
The groundwater in the upper aquifer is of an earth-alkaline
type with prevailing bicarbonate. The saturation indi-
ces indicate under-saturated water with respect to
dolomite and calcite in the upper aquifer (Supplementary
Fig. 3).
2. Normal earth-alkaline water is predominately bicarbo-
natic–sulfatic
Groundwater percolates from the upper to the lower
aquifer where additional dissolution of minerals takes

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
Fig. 6 Recharge water in the study area from the infiltration. a
Thematic map for rainfall distribution (mm/year) in the study area
(Ministry of Water and Irrigation of Jordan). According to the
thematic map the study area is divided into eight polygons from A–H.
b Thematic map for evaporation distribution (mm/year) by estimating
the amount of evaporation in each rainfall polygon according to the
place. There are two main lithological units: the Sandstone
Unit (Lower Cretaceous rocks), and the Carbonate Unit
(Upper Jurassic rocks). The changes in the groundwater
chemistry during percolation in the two rock types can be
interpreted as follows:
1805
Wundt equation (1937). c Themtaic map for runoff distribution by
estimating the amount of runoff (overland flow) in each rainfall
polygon according to the runnoff coefficient estimated by GTZ 1978
(equal to 1.8%). d Thematic map for infiltration distribution (mm/
year) in the study area by using the general water balance equation
(Infiltration = Precipitation - (Runoff ? Evaporation)
Sandstone Unit The groundwater reaching this unit is
over-saturated with respect to calcite and dolomite (SI [ 1)
and both minerals start to precipitate in the rock matrix.
However, the water remains under-saturated with respect to
halite and gypsum, although the saturation indices for both
123
1806 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Fig. 7 Groundwater genises in the study area. a Plotting of the samples on a Piper Diagram. The samples symbols in Table 4 have been
converted to numbers. b Hydrochemical classification and groundwater genetic groups. c Groundwater genetic group flow directions

slightly decrease. In addition, as mentioned above, the
water remains earth-alkaline type with prevailing bicar-
bonate and sulphates.
Carbonate Unit The groundwater reaches this unit from
the Sandstone Unit. The saturation indices for calcite and
dolomite indicate dissolution of calcite and dolomite which
starts again after precipitation within the Sandstone Unit.
The saturation indices with respect to other minerals like
gypsum and halite fluctuate significantly due to ionic
exchange.

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
Fig. 8 Landuse and groundwater contaminations. a Rectified space image with overlapping of the catchment area. b Rectified classified space
image. c Distribution of nitrate concentration and COD. d Distribution of microbiological contamination
3. Earth alkaline-water with a high alkaline component
When the groundwater reaches the foothills of the
escarpment and the Jordan Valley area, it mixes with a
groundwater body of high chloride and sodium concen-
trations leading to groundwater with alkaline components.
The water is under-saturated with respect to calcite and
dolomite and slightly over-saturated with respect to anhy-
drite and chlorides (Salameh 2001). Figure 8 shows the
locations of groundwater sampling locations superimposed
on the land use map and the distributions of some variables
related to land use (Supplementary Table 2). The nitrate
concentrations and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) in
the groundwater of the southern part are higher and have a
wider distribution than those of the northern part. This
behaviour is due to the intensive agricultural land use
where fertilizers and pesticides are applied. The biological
analysis shows that the groundwater in the northern part of
the study area, characterized by a higher degree of
1807
urbanisation, is more polluted with bacteria and fecal col-
iforms than in the southern part. Waste water collection in
this area is managed by use of cesspools for all kinds of
liquid wastes. The degree of microbial pollution of the
groundwater is, therefore, a consequence of the settlement
in the northern part of the Zerka River.
Results and discussion
Groundwater flow regimes and geological structures
The structures in the study area have major effects on the
groundwater flow regime. The anticlinal axis with its
associated jointing allows the general direction of the
groundwater flow to follow the approximate direction of
the anticline axis, plunging SSW. This indicates that a
folded structure creates a ‘river-like’ flow pattern within
the aquifers (Ben-Itzhak and Gvirtzman 2005). The water
123
1808 Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810

Fig. 9 Groundwater flow

regimes in the study area

Table 4 The amount of discharge from spring originating along the highlands flows towards the centre of
Springe name No. on the map 3
Discharge (m /year) the wadi which almost coincides with the anticlinal axis.
Faults in the study area make the groundwater flow lines
El Bassah 53 31,233.34 diverge if the fault is perpendicular to the groundwater flow
El Balad (Burma) 54 78,145.25 direction and converge if the fault is parallel to ground-
Hamed 55 72,268.38 water flow (Fig. 9). This is attributed to the fact that
Um Jurn 56 45,922.34 faulting increases the permeability and the porosity of the
El Balad (Sahen) 57 18,563.90 rocks along their trend lines. On the other hand, there is a
Dafal 58 27,224.83 relationship between the location of springs, the ground-
Eshshati 59 11,198.20 water flow lines, and the amount of discharge (Table 4):
El Azab 60 40,650.89 the greater amount of discharge is from springs located on
Subeihi 61 6,670.23 the zone of converging groundwater flow lines which
El Heisha 62 0 indicates that the strike slip faults in the study area are
El Huna 63 59,876.60 high-permeability faults. High-permeability faults act as
El Beid 64 6,876.60 preferential pathways for fluid migration and solute trans-
El Arqetain 65 16,114.02 port (López and Smith 1995).
El Kursi 66 9,460.80
Subeihi 67 0 Groundwater chemistry and geological structures
Hafayer 68 5,518.80
Hajjaj 69 17,373.25 The anticlinal setting of the study area diverts the
Jamman 70 20,654.83
groundwater towards the SW, carrying dissolved cations
and anions and causing their concentrations to increase in

123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
Fig. 10 Increasing of EC with
long groundwater retention time
that direction. From Fig. 10, it appears that there is a
zonation for the EC values. This is especially the case
where faults are less abundant and where the retention time
for the groundwater in the aquifers is long, hence the
increase in EC values which is related to mineral dissolu-
tion. Furthermore, the faults which are common in the
northern part are structurally weak zones and allow for
faster percolation of surface pollutants, especially those
coming from cesspools widely used in the northern part.
Conclusions
The investigated area of the Zerka River, Jordan, shows
anticlinal bending with an anticlinal axis trending SSW–
NNE and an axis that plunges a few degrees in a SSW
direction. As result of jointing, the anticlinal setting allows
the groundwater to flow in the same direction as the plunge
of the anticline axis.
The plunging anticline axis generates three genetic
geochemical groups as groundwater evolves along flow-
paths aligned along the plunge direction.
1809
The faults in the study area are strike slip faults while
the major fault system strikes WNW–ESE. These faults are
highly permeable, thus causing groundwater flow lines to
diverge when the faults are perpendicular to groundwater
flow, and to converge when they are parallel.
The strike slip faults are weakness zones which cause
faster exchange of surface and subsurface water including
pollutants from anthropogenic activities.
Where strike slip faults are less abundant, groundwater
retention times in the aquifers are longer, which causes
increasing groundwater EC values.
Acknowledgment We would like to thank the University of Jordan
for technical support, and John Molson (Laval University, Canada) is
thanked for reviewing the manuscript.
References
ArcMap (1999–2001) Version (8.1) ESRI Inc., USA
Bender F (1974) Geology of Jordan. Contribution of the regional
geology of the earth. Borntraeger, Berlin, p 196
123
1810
Ben-Itzhak L, Gvirtzman H (2005) Groundwater flow along and
across structural folding: an example from the Judean Desert,
Israel. J Hydrol 312:51–69
Drever F (1986) The geochemistry of natural waters. Prentice-Hall,
New York, p 388
Eaton AD, Clesceri LS, Rice EW, Greenberg AE (2005) Standard
Methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st edn.
The American Public Health Association Water Environment
Federation, and the American Water Works Association, New
York
El-Naser H (1991) Groundwater resources of the deep aquifer systems
in NW-Jordan hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical quasi 3D
modelling. Forschungsergebnisse aus dem Bereich Hydrogeol-
ogie und Umwelt, Würzburg, vol 3, pp 144
ENVI Version (2003) Version (4.0). The Environment for Visualizing
Images Research Systems Inc., USA
Furtak H, Langguth HR (1967) Zur hydrochemischen Kennzeichnung
von Grundwässern und Grundwassertypen mittels Kennzahlen.
Mem IAH-Congress, 1965, Hannover, pp 86–96
Gray F (1994) Drinking water quality—problems and solutions.
Wiley, New York, p 315
Jaiswal RK, Mukherjee S, Krishnamurthy J, Saxena R (2003) Role of
remote sensing and GIS techniques for generation of
123
Environ Geol (2009) 58:1797–1810
groundwater prospect zones towards rural development—an
approach. Int J Remote Sens 24(5):993–1008
López D, Smith L (1995) Fluid flow in fault zones: analysis of the
interplay of convective circulation and topographically driven
groundwater flow. Water Resour Res 31(6):1489–1504
MacDonald M et al (1965) East Bank Jordan water resources. Report
to Central Water Authority, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
Piper A (1944) A graphic producer in geochemical interpretation of
water analysis. Trans Am Geophys Union 25(6):914–928
Quennell AM (1958) The structure and geomorphic evolution of the
Dead Sea rift. Q J Geol Soc Lond 64:1–24
Salameh E (2001) Source of water salinities in the Jordan Valley area/
Jordan. Acta Hydrochim Hydrobiol 29:329–362
Salameh E, Rimawi O, Abumohli I (1991) Precipitation water quality
in Jordan. WRSC bull, 13th issue. University of Jordan, Amman
Schultz G, Engman E (2000) Remote sensing in hydrology and water
management. Springer, New York, p 400
Wundt W (1937) Beziehungen zwischen Mittelwerten von Nied-
erschlag, Abfluss, Verdunstung und Lufttemperatur fiir die
Landflächen der Erde. Deutsche Wasserwirtschaft 32, no. 5/6