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Abstract
Resistivity and self-potential tomography can be used to investigate anomalous seepage inside heterogeneous
earthen dams. The self-potential (SP) signals provide a unique signature to groundwater flow because the source
current density responsible for the SP signals is proportional to the Darcy velocity. The distribution of the SP
signals is also influenced by the distribution of the resistivity; therefore, resistivity and SP need to be used in
concert to elucidate groundwater flow pathways. In this study, a survey is conducted at a small earthen dam
in Colorado where anomalous seepage is observed on the downstream face at the dam toe. The data reveal SP and
direct current resistivity anomalies that are used to delineate three anomalous seepage zones within the dam and to
estimate the source of the localized seepage discharge. The SP data are inverted in two dimensions using the
resistivity distribution to determine the distribution of the Darcy velocity responsible for the observed seepage.
The inverted Darcy velocity agrees with an estimation of the Darcy velocity from the hydraulic conductivity
obtained from a slug test and the observed head gradient.
Mineral
r z
O
Pore R
Mineral
L
(b) Sketch of the electrical double layer (c) Source current density
Shear plane
X− M+ OHP
M+
A−
X− M+ M+
Bulk pore solution
X− M+
M+ M+
Mineral surface
Stern layer
−
X
X− M+
M+ A−
X−
X−
M+
M+
X− M+ M+
A−
Flow
X− A −
Mineral
− + M+ M+
X M
o-Plane d-Plane
Figure 1. Description of the electrical double layer and the streaming current density. (a) Sketch of a single capillary of
radius R coated by the electrical double layer. (b) Sketch of the electrical double layer showing the Stern layer of sorbed
counterions and the diffusion layer; M+ denotes the metal cations while A− denotes the anions. The charge of the diffuse and
Stern layer counterbalances the charge on the mineral surface. A consequence of the electrical double layer is the existence
of an excess of electrical charge in the pore water, located in the vicinity of the mineral surface. The o-plane refers to the
mineral surface and the d -plane to the interface between the Stern layer and the diffuse layer. (c) The flow of water through
the pore network drags this excess of charge generating a streaming current density (modified from Revil et al. 2011).
V caused
with the drag of the effective excess of charge Q the ground surface (e.g., Revil et al. 2012). A classical
by the flow of the pore water and is therefore given by mistake is to mix the local potentials in the elec-
trical double layer coating the surface of the grains
V u
jS = Q (3) with the macroscopic field that is measured in SP
studies. These physical quantities are unrelated to one
where u (in m/s) denotes the Darcy velocity and Q V another.
3
(in C/m ) denotes the excess of electrical charge that is With respect to the macroscopic electrical field, the
carried along with the flow of the pore water. For pH generalized Ohm’s law for the total current density j is
comprised between 5 and 8, Jardani et al. (2007) found written as
that the QV is controlled by the permeability k (in m2 )
j = σ E + jS (5)
and they developed the following empirical relationship:
where σ denotes the electrical conductivity of the porous
V = −9.2 − 0.82 log10 k.
log10 Q (4) material. Equation 5 is combined with a conservation
equation for the electrical charge that is written as (Sill
Equation 4 holds for a broad range of porous rocks 1983)
and soils (see also an updated data set in Revil and
Mahardika 2013). ∇· j = 0 (6)
In conductive materials, the source current density
jS is responsible for an electrical field and the tangen- The combination of Equations. 5 and 6 yields the
tial component of this electrical field is measured at following elliptic partial differential equation for the
10
6
Self-potential (mV)
2
Ref
0 .
−2
Modeled self-potential
−4
−6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
4 7 mV
Lake Flow pa
th
2 7 mV
4 mV
Clay core
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 28 28
Distance (m)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water saturation
Figure 2. Example of SP modeling on an earthen dam with a clay core. We have created a flowpath with an increased
permeability channeling water through the clay core. The groundwater flow is used to simulate the SP signals. The SP signals
are collected at the ground surface to create the SP profile (adapted from Bolève et al. 2009). Note that the position of
the positive SP anomaly coincides with the seepage area. Computation performed with the finite-element package Comsol
Multiphysics 3.5.
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
P1 Crest P3 Position (in m)
0 Resistivity (in ohm m)
Water P2 40 50 70 100 200 300
−2 Vadose zone
−4
P4
Depth (in meters)
−6 Seep
Aquifer P5
−8
Path 2
−10
River
−12
−14 Bedrock
Iteration 4, RMS 5%
−16
Figure 4. Example of 2D resistivity and SP profile normal to the dam structure (Profile P6, see position in Figure 1a). The
grey area corresponds to the area where seepage A2 can be observed at the ground surface. This seepage is associated with
a relative 20 mV positive SP anomaly with respect to the local minima on its flanks (surrounding values).
crest and 1 m for profiles perpendicular and oblique to associated SP data are shown in Figures 4 to 6. Data
the crest. At each SP station, a shallow hole was exca- quality was excellent due to a very good contact between
vated to expose moist soil and reduce contact resistance the stainless steel electrodes and the ground (contact
between the roving electrode and the ground. Stations on resistance generally < 1 k as discussed earlier).
the crest and some stations perpendicular to the west abut- Five profiles (P1 to P5) were also inverted in 3D
ment were watered with reservoir water to reduce contact with the software ERTLab (Morelli and Labrecque 1996,
resistance. The maximum contact resistance for all SP Santarato et al. 2011) using the finite-element method
stations was 40 k and on average was less than 15 k, with tetrahedrons. The 3D inversion only incorporated
much smaller than the internal impedance of the volt- the profiles collected parallel to the dam crest, the
meter (100 M). The potential difference was measured profiles normal to the dam were spaced too far apart
between the reference and roving Petiau electrodes before to bring pertinent information. The whole data set for
and after acquiring each 1049 station survey to correct the 3D inversion was composed of 319 electrodes,
for electrode drift. Telluric currents were assumed to be 2357 quadripoles, and 323 topographic data points. The
negligible due to the small, confined nature of the field inversion converged in three iterations leading to a low
site and were not monitored. Some SP profiles are shown RMS error of 5%. The topography was taken into account
in Figures 4 to 6 together with the resistivity profiles. A in the inversion. The mesh grid size was equal to 1.25 m in
SP map is shown in Figure 7. all directions. The result of the 3D tomography is shown
in Figure 8.
10
−10
−20
−30
0 50 100 150
Position (in m)
10
West East
5
Spillway B
0
Depth (in meters)
−15
Bedrock
−20 Iteration 4, RMS 3.0%
−25 Resistivity (in ohm m)
Figure 5. Example of 2D resistivity and SP profile parallel to the dam crest (Profile P2). The high density of measurement
can be used to determine the standard deviation to be 3 mV. This profile shows the lateral zone of saturation associated with
the aquifer. The SP signals are essentially uniform indicating a rather uniform seepage in the upper part of the dam.
is interpreted as the vadose zone above the capillary The low-resistivity area below the crest (see Figure 5)
fringe. This is consistent with the fact that the water table is interpreted as a seepage zone of the groundwater that
is approximately 1 to 2 m below the ground surface at has entered the dam cross section from the reservoir.
piezometer Pz1 (see position in Figure 3a). Beneath the crest, the phreatic surface is uniformly
The resistivity profiles show areas of low-resistivity distributed in Profile P2 (see Figure 5), suggesting a
anomalies (on the order of 40 to 50 m, see Figures 4 uniform entry of reservoir water into the upstream slope of
to 6 and Figure 8). The conductivity of the pore water is the dam. The seepage separates into preferential flowpaths
σ w = 0.052 S/m (19 m resistivity, 529 μS/cm) measured in a downstream direction as shown in Profiles P2 and P5
in the field in piezometer Pz2 on July 9, 2012 (on parallel to the crest (Figure 6). Seepage starts to deviate
July 9, 2012, the background conductivity in piezometer from uniform into preferential channels in Profile P4 (not
Pz1 was measured and was 549 μS/cm). The referenced shown here) along the midsection of the downstream
values were 440 μS/cm and 308 μS/cm August 9, 2011 slope. In Profile P5 (Figure 6), we can clearly observe
during the reconnaissance survey. The porosity of the three localized channels in the dam shown by conductive
dam material is estimated to be around 0.30 (30%). anomalies (see also Figure 8 where these seepages are
This implies a formation factor F of about 11 (using named Paths 1, 2, and 3). Flow through the central path
a cementation exponent of 2.0 as default value, see appears to be the primary contribution to the observed
Archie 1942). σ = 0.025 S/m (using 40 m from the seep at the downstream dam toe (see position of the seep
resistivity tomogram) implies a surface conductivity σ S in Figures 4 and 7). Indeed, the high-conductivity seepage
of 0.020 S/m. This is a rather high value indicating that “Path 2” correlates at its termination with the position of
the earth material could be clayey. We interpret the low- the observed seep.
resistivity zones as areas of relatively high permeability SP data are complementary to the 2D/3D electrical
and the value of the permeability will be discussed further. resistivity tomograms in deciphering the position of the
However, as mentioned earlier, great care should be taken flowpaths. The positive SP anomalies (∼15 to 30 mV
in analyzing resistivity as it is influenced by the clay with respect to the reference electrode) are observed
content, the clay mineralogy, and porosity. downstream of the dam, in its central portion (see the
−5
−10
−15
−20
10 0 50 100 150
West Position (in m) East
5
Spillway S1 Spillway S2
Green vegetation
0
Depth (in meters)
−5
Path 3
Path 1
−10
Path 2
−15
Bedrock
−20
−25
Iteration 4, RMS 5.1%
−30
Resistivity (in ohm m)
Figure 6. Example of 2D resistivity and SP profile parallel to the dam crest (Profile P5). The high density of measurement
allows determining the value of the standard deviation (about 3 mV). This profile shows three well-developed flowpaths named
Path 1, Path 2, and Path 3. Path 2 is responsible for the observed seepage on the downstream toe of the dam. Its seepage is
associated with a positive SP anomaly with respect to the background value.
anomalies A1 and A2 in Figure 7). The maximum A2 (Figure 7) during the summers of 2009 and 2010.
positive SP anomaly was observed in Profile P6 (see A2 and A3 were also observed to have increased soil
Figure 4). Note that both spillways were carrying moisture (although not as significant as A1) with respect
water during the survey. The positive SP anomalies to surroundings.
on the downstream slope of the dam are interpreted
as zones of water upwelling in the vicinity of the
ground surface (see for instance the simulation shown in Self-Potential Tomography
Figure 2). The localization of these zones is consistent The goal of this section is to show how the SP
with the position of the preferential flowpaths interpreted data along Profile P6 can be interpreted quantitatively to
from the DC resistivity profiles. A clear seep is only estimate the Darcy velocity. For this purpose, we first
observed at the bottom of Profile P6 (see Figure 4). determine the streaming potential coupling coefficient of
However, other indicators of seepage (for instance green a core sample from the dam and then we proceed to invert
and abundant vegetation) have been observed at some the SP data in terms of source current density distribution,
locations on the downstream slope that are consistent which is then converted into a spatial distribution of Darcy
with positive SP anomalies (>10 mV with respect to velocity.
the background, see for instance Figure 6). The location
of anomaly A1 in Figure 7 has been consistently Laboratory Investigation
observed over several months to have significantly greener A sample of material representative of the aquifer
vegetation with respect to surroundings. This area was shown in Figure 4 has been collected at a depth of 2 m
noted to show increased soil moisture content with with an auger. The sample was estimated to be predom-
respect to surroundings and a “sloshing” sound when inantly silty clay through visual and textural analysis. It
DC electrodes were installed in this location. Tall, was representative of the texture and composition to the
dense vegetation and noxious weeds have been observed embankment fill materials described in the lithologic logs.
sprouting from the downstream slope at the location of The embankment fill materials is a disturbed version of
Elevation (m)
2415
5
2410
Seep −5
2405 A1
A3 A2
372080 −15
0
830 372060 −25
438
8280 372040
438
0
26 372020
88
Northing (m) 43
0
24
88 372000 Easting (m)
43
2 20
88
43
Area 2
(b) Thresholded resistivity tomography
Area 1
Seepage 3
Seep
Seepage 2
Seepage 1
Figure 7. SP and resistivity data. (a) SP map (total of 1049 SP stations). Negative SP anomalies on the abutments and
downstream slope in the approximate range of −15 to −30 mV are a result of flow through preferential paths imaged in
DC resistivity tomography. The positive SP anomalies in areas A1 to A3 may correspond to the upflow of water as shown
in Figure 2. Anomaly A2 indicates the potential for upflow paths near the observed seepage zone. The areas A1 and A3 are
characterized by very green vegetation. “Seep” corresponds to the position of the observed seep downstream the dam. (b)
Threshold resistivity distribution showing the anomalies less than 50 m in magnitude.
the soils excavated from on-site borrow areas, which have increasing with depth. The water table was encountered
been reported to be silty clays, although no quantitative at a depth of 15 m in Pz1 during installation. Pz1 is slot-
geotechnical data are available to confirm this assump- ted between depths of 11.5 and 15 m. The lithologic log
tion. The silty clay assumption, as well as the textural in Pz2 indicates that embankment fill was encountered
characteristics observed and recorded during the sample between depths of 0 m and 4.6 m and has the same char-
excavation, do justify the use of this high value. The acteristics as those encountered in Pz1. The gravel layer
hydraulically conductive nature of the sediments indicated encountered in Pz1 was also encountered in Pz2 between
by the slug test is in agreement with lithologic logs of depths of 4.6 and 8.6 m. The water table was encoun-
piezometer installation. Boring logs for piezometers Pz1 tered at a depth of 5.3 m during installation. Pz2 is slotted
and Pz2 were supplied by Hepworth-Pawlak Geotech- between 5 and 8.6 m. The logs show a more hydraulically
nical. Borings were drilled on July 28, 2004 using a conductive layer underneath the embankment fill.
track-mounted drill rig during a low pool storage condition Our goal was to use this sample to get an estimate of
in the reservoir. Unfortunately, geotechnical analysis of the streaming potential coupling coefficient to connect the
boring samples was not performed in a laboratory. Boring source current density to the Darcy velocity. The experi-
logs of Pz1 indicate that embankment fill was encountered mental setup used is shown in Figure 9a and the streaming
between depths of 0 m and 11 m consisting of sandy grav- potentials vs. hydraulic heads are shown in Figure 9b.
elly clay, scattered cobbles. The fill was medium stiff to Water from the reservoir was used for this experiment.
very stiff, moist, and dark brown in color. Gravel was The value of the streaming potential coupling coefficient
encountered below the embankment fill between depths is determined from the slope of the streaming potential vs.
of 11 and 15 m. The gravel was noted to be dense, sandy, hydraulic head data, which is equal to −2.6 ± 0.2 mV/m.
and silty with cobbles and small boulders and was red We also measured the resistivity (40 m) and the perme-
in color. It was also noted to be moist with saturation ability (k = 3.8 × 10−12 m2 , corresponding to a hydraulic
3
(b)
Water
h
2
R2 = 0.98
Ref
V 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Permeable Porous sample Hydraulic head (m)
membrane
−10
−20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Horizontal distance (m)
(b)
Darcy velocity from the self-potential data (P6)
Crest Pz1
0
Δ
2
Ground surface
4
Depth (m)
6 Pz2
Aquifer
8
Seepage
10
12
Bedrock
14
0 10 20 30 40 50
Horizontal distance (m)
Figure 10. Result of the inversion of the SP data along Profile 6 and flow Path #2. (a) Best fit of the experimental data at the
third iteration of the Gauss-Newton algorithm. The standard deviation on the data is considered to be 3 mV from the scatter
in the SP data. (b) Result of the Darcy velocity distribution assuming an excess of charge density of 1.5 C/m and the inverted
source current density obtained at the third iteration. The dashed line represents approximately the interface between the
bedrock and the aquifer determined from the resistivity data. The white area between the water table and the ground surface
corresponds to the vadose zone.
value. From the shape of the vadose zone shown in DC resistivity and SP during an instance of maximum
Figure 4, the head gradient is estimated to be on the reservoir capacity and therefore peak hydraulic loading. A
order of 0.33. Therefore, the Darcy velocity is about series of 2D resistivity profiles were inverted individually
3 × 10-6 m/s in the vicinity of the piezometer Pz1. The and combined for 3D inversion. SP data were collected
SP tomogram converted into Darcy velocity distribution along the resistivity profiles for comparison. The SP data
(Figure 10) indicates a higher Darcy velocity on the order were inverted to estimate Darcy velocities. The following
of 3 × 10−5 m/s in this region so it is possible that the conclusions have been reached:
SP tomogram slightly overestimates the Darcy velocity
possibly because of the value of QV chosen previously.
1. Resistivity identifies three potential flowpaths; how-
ever, resistivity is not a direct indicator of permeability
and fluid flow.
Conclusions 2. SP can be directly tied to permeability and the
A small earthen dam exhibiting concentrated internal source current density responsible for the SP signals
seepage and a visible seep at the toe was imaged using is proportional to the Darcy velocity. However, the