Semiconductor Materials: Content

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ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
Chapter 2
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
CONTENT
I. INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIALS
II. P/N JUNCTION
III. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
IV. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
V. THE HALL EFFECT
VI. NANO TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
VII. OPTICAL FIBER AND APPLICATIONS
2
I. INTRODUCTION TO
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
 Semiconductor definition
 Intrinsic semiconductors
 Extrinsic semiconductors
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Semiconductor Materials
 A Conductor is a material that supports a

generous flow of charge when a voltage source of
limited magnitude is applied across its terminals.
 An Insulator is a material that offers a very low
level of conductivity when a voltage source is
applied across its terminals.
 A Semiconductor is a material that has a
conductivity level somewhere between an
insulator and a conductor
4
Semiconductor Materials
Energy Levels
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Covalent Bonding and

Intrinsic Materials

Intrinsic Materials

Intrinsic Materials
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Intrinsic Materials
(Law of mass action)
 For silicon at 300°K,

ni  1.5 X 1010 electrons/cm3
10
Semiconductor Energy Band Model
11
Electron and Hole Current
12
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Electron and Hole Current
13
Extrinsic Semiconductors
14
n-type materials
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n-type materials
ND > NA
16
p-type materials
17
p-type materials
NA > ND
18
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Current in Semiconductors
 At T≠ 0 the free carriers are in constant random

motion due to their thermal energy
 The net motion in any particular direction is zero,
Total current I = 0
• There are two principle mechanisms by which charge move in a

particular direction, thus creating an electric current:
 Drift.
 Diffusion.
20
Drift Current
 Applying an electric field across a semiconductor

material, results in both types of carrier moving in
opposite directions thus creating current flow.
E E
Hole motion Electron motion
Current Current
direction direction
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Drift Current
 The magnitude of the electric field in volts/cm is given by:
V
E 
L
 And the effective velocity of the carrier moving by the drift
action of an applied electric filed is given by:
vn   n E vp   p E
 where n = 1350 cm2/V-s and p = 480 cm2/V-s are the

electron and hole mobility constants respectively.
22
Conductivity
 It is a measure of the material’s ability to carry

electric current.
 It is given by:
 q n n  p p 
1
 

  1/.cm  S/cm
where  is the material resistivity which
measured by .cm 23
Current Density
 Current per unit cross-sectional area.
I
J
A
Q

t A
Q
  nqE
dA / v
   E A/cm2
24
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Diffusion Current
 Diffusion current occurs because of the physical

principle that, over time particles undergoing
random motion will show a movement from a
region of high concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
25
Diffusion Current
 Current density is directly proportional to the

gradient of carrier concentration.
 dn   dp 
J n  qDn   J p   qD p  
 dx   dx 
 Dn and Dp are the diffusion constants for

electrons and holes respectively.
26
II. P/N JUNCTION
The semiconductor materials

used in electronic devices are
doped under precise conditions
to control the concentration
and regions of p- and n-type
dopants.
A single semiconductor crystal

can have many p- and n-type
regions; the p–n
junctions between these
regions are responsible for the
useful electronic behavior.
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II. P/N JUNCTION
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Formation of Depletion region
29
Formation of Depletion region
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Biasing of diode
31
Forward Biasing
32
Forward Biasing
33
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Forward Biasing
34
Reversed Biasing
35
Reversed Biasing
36
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Reversed Biasing
37
Reversed Biasing
38
• Laser diode
• Light-emitting diode
• Photodiode
• Tunnel diode
• Zener diode
39
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Laser Diode
A laser diode, or LD also known as injection laser

diode or ILD, is an electrically
pumped semiconductor laser in which the active laser
medium is formed by a p-n junction of a semiconductor
diode similar to that found in a light-emitting diode.
41
Laser Diode
The laser diode is the most common type of laser produced with a
wide range of uses that include fiber optic communications, barcode
readers, laser pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray Disc reading and
recording, laser printing, laser scanning and increasingly directional
lighting sources.
42
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Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a

two-lead semiconductor light
source. It is a p–n
junction diode that emits light when
activated.
When a suitable voltage is applied

to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron
holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons.
43
This effect is
called electroluminescen
ce, and the color of the
light (corresponding to
the energy of the
photon) is determined
by the energy band
gap of the
semiconductor.
44
LEDs are typically small (less than 1 mm2) and

integrated optical components may be used to
shape the radiation pattern.
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46
Color Wavelength [nm] Voltage drop [ΔV] Semiconductor material
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
: Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Traditional green:
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9[75] < ΔV < 4.0
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) (385-400 nm)Diamond (235 nm)[76]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[77][78]
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3 < ΔV < 4.1 Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[79]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)—down to 210 nm[80]
Blue with one or two phosphor layers,

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added afterwards,white with pink
Pink Multiple types ΔV ≈3.3[81]
plastic,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye over top.[82]
Dual blue/red LEDs,

Purple Multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Cool / Pure White: Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
White Broad spectrum 2.8 < ΔV < 4.2
Warm White: Blue diode with orange phosphor
47
Photodiode
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that

converts light into an electrical current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
A small amount of current is also produced when no light
is present.
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Photodiode
Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and

may have large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually
have a slower response time as their surface area
increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
49
Tunnel diode
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type

of semiconductor that is capable of
very fast operation, well into
the microwave frequency region, made
possible by the use of the quantum
mechanical effect called tunneling.
50
Tunnel diode
These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction that is

about 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping results in a
broken band gap, where conduction band electron states on
the n-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole
states on the p-side.
51
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Zener diode
A Zener diode is a particular type

of diode that, unlike a normal one, allows
current to flow not only from its anode to
its cathode, but also in the reverse
direction, when the so-called "Zener
voltage" is reached. Zener diodes have a
highly doped p-n junction.
Normal diodes will also break down with a

reverse voltage but the voltage and
sharpness of the knee are not as well
defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal
diodes are not designed to operate in the
breakdown region, but Zener diodes can
reliably operate in this region. 52
IV. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 Definition
 Dependency
 Structure and composition
Silicon and Germanium
 Doping
Intrinsic semiconductor
53
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
❖ Holes
❖ NPN - PNP
❖ Diffusion
❖ (B)ase
❖ (C)ollector
❖ (E)mitter
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Hole
NPN
(not pointing in)
PNP
(point in proudly)
❖ NPN - (B) current amp to make
(C) and (E) current bigger
❖ PNP - (B) current leaving is
amp in (C) 55
56
Field effect transistor (FET)
❖ Uses electric field to

control electrical behavior
❖ High impudence at low
frequency
❖ Drain (D), source (S), gate
(G), body
❖ Junction field-effect
transistor (JFET), Metal-
oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET)
57
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Junction field-effect transistor (JFET)
❖Simpliest form
of FET
❖Electronically-
controlled amps
or switches
❖Garden hose
similarities
58
Metal-oxide-semiconductor
field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
❖Misnomer
❖Polysilicon
❖Used for amplifying
or switching signals
❖No input current to
load needed
❖Operates upon
voltage from Gate
59
60
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Double-diffused MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
❖ First commercially
introduced
❖ Channel length could be
reduced to sub-micron
dimensions by controlling
the diffusion depths of
the P-base and N+
source regions
❖ Circuits operating at low
voltage (<100V) 62
❖ Better than BJT
Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
❖ Extremely important to PC
❖ No depleting mode
❖ Normally-off MOSFET
❖ Drain current is controlled by gate potential
63
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Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
❖ MOSFET + BJT
❖ 3-terminal switch
❖ P-N-P-N controlled by MOS
❖ High efficiency and rapid

switching
❖ Cannot conduct in reverse
64
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
65
Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

 UJT are constructed from separate P-type and N-type.
 The N-type channel basically consists of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in
series with an equivalent diode, D representing the p-n junction
connected to their center point. Suppose a voltage VBB is applied
across the UJT between B2 and B1 so that B2 is biased positive
relative to B1.
66
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Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
 UJT applications
is triggering
device for SCR’s
and Triacs
 The simplest of
all UJT circuits is
the Relaxation
Oscillator
producing non-
sinusoidal
waveforms.
67
V. THE HALL EFFECT
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VI. NANO TECHNOLOGY AND

APPLICATIONS
79
NANO & TECHNOLOGY

 A Nanometre is a unit of length in the metric system,
equal to one billionth of a metre(10-9).
 Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of
tools, machines and techniques, in order to solve a
problem or perform a specific function.
80
Defination
 Nanotechnology is the study

of manipulating matter on an
atomic scale.
 Nanotechnology refers to the
constructing and engineering of
the functional systems at very
micro level or we can say at
atomic level.
 A Nanometer is one billionth of
a meter, roughly the width of
three or four atoms. The
average human hair is about
25,000 nanometers wide.
81
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History
 The first ever concept was presented in

1959 by the famous professor of physics
Dr. Richard P.Feynman.
 Invention of the scanning tunneling

microscope in 1981 and the discovery
of fullerene(C60) in 1985 lead to the
emergence of nanotechnology.
 The term “Nano-technology" had

been coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974
82
History
 The early 2000s also saw the

beginnings of commercial
applications of nanotechnology,
although these were limited to
bulk application of
nanomaterials.
 Silver nano platform for

using silver- nanoparticles as an
antibacterial agent,
nanoparticle-based
transparent sunscreens,
and carbon nanotubes for
stain-resistant textiles.
83
Timeline
84
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Carbon Nanotube (CNT)
 Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical

nanostructure.
 They have length-to-diameter ratio of upto 132,000,000:1.
 Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family.
Their name is derived from their long, hollow structure with
the walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of carbon,
called graphene.
85
Single-walled carbon Multi-walled carbon

nanotubes (SWCNT) nanotubes (MWCNT)
86
Structure of single-walled tubes
87
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 Properties
 Highest strength to weight ratio,
helps in creating light weight

spacecrafts.
 Easily penetrate membranes
such as cell walls. Helps in
cancer treatment.
 Electrical resistance changes
significantly when other
molecules attach themselves to
the carbon atoms. Helps in
developing sensors that can
detect chemical vapours.
88
 Properties
89
 Properties
90
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 Application
 Easton-Bell Sports, Inc.
using CNT in making bicycle

component.
 Zyvex Technologies using
CNT for manufacturing of

light weight boats.
 In solar cells
 In fabrics
91
 Application
 Replacing transistors from the silicon chips as they are
small and emits less heat.

 In electric cables and wires
92
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94
Nanobots
 Close to the scale of 10-9.

 Largely in R&d phase .
 Nanobots of 1.5 nanometers across, capable
of counting specific molecules in a chemical sample.
 Since nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it
would probably be necessary for very large numbers
of them to work together to perform microscopic and
macroscopic tasks.
 Capable of replication using environmental resources.
 Application:
 Detection of toxic components in environment.
 In drug delivery.
 Biomedical instrumention.
95
Application Of
Nanotechnology
96
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Nanotechnology in Drugs(Cancer)
 Provide new options for drug delivery and
drug therapies.
 Enable drugs to be delivered to precisely the
right location in the body and release drug
doses on a predetermined schedule for
optimal treatment.
 Attach the drug to a nanosized carrier.
 They become localized at the disease site, i.e
cancer tumour.
 Then they release medicine that kills the
tumour.
 Current treatment is through radiotherapy or
chemotherapy.
 Nanobots can clear the blockage in arteries.
97
Nanotechnology in Fabrics
 The properties of familiar materials are

being changed by manufacturers who are
adding nano-sized components to
conventional materials to improve
performance.
 For example, some clothing
manufacturers are making water and
stain repellent clothing using nano-sized
whiskers in the fabric that cause water
to bead up on the surface.
 In manufacturing bullet proof jackets.
 Making spill & dirt resistant,

antimicrobial, antibacterial fabrics. 98
Nanotechnology in computers
 Instead of making transistor components

and assembling them on a board,
nanoscale transistors are grown together
on a silicon wafer. They look much
NANO TRANSISTOR
different from the traditional transistors
TRANSISTORS
 Because of nanotechnology,
the speed of computers has
increased while the price of
computing has decreased
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 Moore’s Law describes a trend of technology. It states

that the number of transistors that can be put on a single
chip will double every two years
100
 Chips produced by Intel before ―i‖ series processors were

between 65nm -45nm.
 Later with the help of nanotechnolgy 22nm chips were
made which itself is a milestone.
 Advantages of using carbon nanotubes:
 Faster and smaller- carbon nanotubes can be used to
produce smaller and faster components.

 This will also result in computers that consume less
energy.
 High speed and high capacity memory.
 Allows circuits to be more accurate on the atomic level.
101
Nanotechnology in Electronics
 Electrodes made from nanowires

enable flat panel displays to be
flexible as well as thinner than
current flat panel displays.
 Nanolithography is used for
fabrication of chips.
 The transistors are made of
nanowires, that are assembled on
glass or thin films of flexible
plastic.
 E-paper, displays on sunglasses
and map on car windshields.

102
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Nanotechnology
in Memory and Storage
 This is a 2 gigabyte hard drive. It
weighs about 70 pounds. It was
first used in the 1980s. Its cost at
that time ranged from $80,000 to
$140,000.
 2 GB in 1980s: $80,000
 2 GB in 1990s: $200
 2 GB in 2010: $5
 Current research shows that by
using nanotechnology ,1000GB
of memory can fit on the head of
this pin. 1000 GB is 1 Terabyte.
103
Nanotechnology in Displays
These layers contain transparent electrodes
 Nanotubes are small enough

that they cannot be seen, so
they can be great
conductors to be used as
transparent contacts.
 Carbon nanotubes on a
glass or plastic sheet
allow manufacturers to
make clear conductive
panels for displays that
are extremely thin
104
VII. OPTICAL FIBER &

APPLICATION
Table of Contents
01 What are Optical Fibers?
02 Evolution of optical fiber
03 Structure of optical fiber
04 Workings principle of optical fiber
05 Classification of optical fiber
06 Optical fiber communication system
07 Advantages / Disadvantages of Optical fiber
08 Applications of Optical fiber
09 Conclusion and Q&A
105
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What are Optical Fibers?
 Optical fiber is flexible, transparent fiber made of silica or

plastic slightly thicker than a human hair
 It is a form of guided or wired non conducting medium
 Its working is based on principle of Total Internal Reflection
 It permits transmission
over longer distances
and at higher
bandwidths than other
forms of communication
106
History of optical fiber
• In 1870, Tyndall introduced concept of Total

Internal Reflection with a demonstration.
• In the same year, Alexander Graham Bell,

developed a optic voice transmission, which
he named the photo phone
107
History of optical fiber
• Later around 1954, Brien, Hopkins & Kapany achieved low

loss transmission through 75 cm bundle of thousand fibers
• Jun-ichi Nishizawa, was the first to propose the use of optical
fibers for communications in 1963
• The first working fiber-optical data transmission system was
demonstrated by German physicist Manfred Börner at
Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965.
• Same year Kao and Hockham were first to reduce
attenuation in optical fibers below 20 (dB/km), making it a
practical communication medium which earned Kao the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.
108
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Structure of Optical fiber
• Core: Glass or plastic – carry the signal

• Cladding: Outer optical material surrounding the core -
helps to keep the light within the core
• Buffer: Protect the fiber during manufacturing process
• Jacket: Provide more protection for the core
109
Workings principle of optical fiber
• Its working is based on principle

of Total Internal Reflection.
110
Attenuation
+ Modern fiber material is very pure, but there is still some

attenuation.
+ The wavelengths used are chosen to avoid absorption bands:
-850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm
-Plastic fiber uses 660 nm LEDs
111
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Losses in fiber
• Absorption Losses- due to material, impurities &

atomic defects in glass fiber
• Geometric Effects- due to manufacturing defects
like irregular diameter of core
• Rayleigh Scattering- Change in local refractive
index due to local microscopic variation density. It is
a scattering loss
112
Classification of optical fiber

• All fused-silica-glass fiber: have silica-core and
silica-cladding.
• Plastic-clad-silica (PCS) fiber: have silica core and
plastic cladding.
• All-plastic fiber: have both core and cladding
made up of plastic.
• Compound glass fiber such as fluoride glass fiber.
113
114
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Based on basic number of modes:

• Single-mode fibers
+ Only one mode can propagate through.
+ small core diameter(5um)
• Multi-mode fiber
+ Allows a large number of modes
+ The core diameter is (40um)
+ Larger relative refractive index larger
115
Based On the basis of Refractive index:

• Step index fiber:
+ The refractive index of core is
constant.
+ The refractive index of
cladding is also constant.
Graded Index fiber:
+ In this type of fiber core has a
non uniform refractive index.
+ The cladding has a uniform
refractive index.
116
Optical fiber communication system
117
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118
- Light source:
- Amount of light emitted is proportional to the drive current
- Two common types:
+ LED (Light Emitting Diode)
+ ILD (Injection Laser Diode)
- Source–to-fiber-coupler (similar to a lens):
A mechanical interface to couple the light emitted by the source
into the optical fiber
- Light detector:
+ PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type)
+ APD (avalanche photo diode)
+ Both convert light energy into current.
Note- For long links, repeaters are used to compensate for signal
loss
119
Optic equipment In the

telecommunications industry
120
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• Faster and Longer communication. • Cumulative losses due to large

• Immune towards environmental hazards size of fiber couplers.
& electromagnetic interference • Hazardous emissions like glass
• Immune to most chemicals. shards & optical radiation.
• Safe. • Requires technicians with
• Easier to handle and install. special expertise for installation
• Smaller size & weight. & maintenance.
• Signal Security.
• Use less costly metal conductor.
Advantages / Disadvantages of Optical fiber
121
Applications of Optical fiber
122
Applications
• Telecommunications
• Medical
• Defence/ Government
• Networking
• Video transmission.
• Broadband Services.
• Data storages
• High EMI areas.
• Sensor.
123
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Future Application
• In Research field, fiber is enabling the creation of clocks that
are more accurate before. By combining a laser with an optical
fiber, these clocks allow scientists to measure time accurately
than they have been able to previously, enabling better, more
precise.
124
42

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7/12/2021

ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

 A Conductor is a material that supports a

Covalent Bonding and

Covalent Bonding and

Covalent Bonding and

Covalent Bonding and

(Law of mass action)

 For silicon at 300°K,

Semiconductor Energy Band Model

Electron and Hole Current

Electron and Hole Current

 At T≠ 0 the free carriers are in constant random

• There are two principle mechanisms by which charge move in a

 Applying an electric field across a semiconductor

 The magnitude of the electric field in volts/cm is given by:

 where n = 1350 cm2/V-s and p = 480 cm2/V-s are the

 It is a measure of the material’s ability to carry

 Current per unit cross-sectional area.

 Diffusion current occurs because of the physical

 Current density is directly proportional to the

 Dn and Dp are the diffusion constants for

II. P/N JUNCTION

The semiconductor materials

A single semiconductor crystal

II. P/N JUNCTION

Formation of Depletion region

Formation of Depletion region

III. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

III. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A laser diode, or LD also known as injection laser

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a

When a suitable voltage is applied

LEDs are typically small (less than 1 mm2) and

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) (385-400 nm)Diamond (235 nm)[76]

Blue with one or two phosphor layers,

Dual blue/red LEDs,

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that

Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and

A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type

These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction that is

A Zener diode is a particular type

Normal diodes will also break down with a

IV. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Structure and composition

Silicon and Germanium

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Field effect transistor (FET)

❖ Uses electric field to

Junction field-effect transistor (JFET)

Double-diffused MOSFET (D-MOSFET)

❖ Better than BJT

Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)

Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

❖ High efficiency and rapid

Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

Unijunction Transistor (UJT)