Electrical Maintenance 1

NSPSI
ELECTRI
CALENGI
NEERI
NG
ELECTRI
CALMAI
NTENANCEANDFAULTDI
AGNOSI
S
TABLEOFCONTENTS
CODE TOPI
C SUB-
TOPI
C
1 Electri
cal -Correctmaintenanceandservi
cing
mai ntenance procedures
service -Safetyprecauti
onsandstandards
-
Mai
ntenanceact
ivi
ti
esr
equi
red
2 D.
C -
Commonf
aul
tsi
nDCmachi
nes
Machi
nes -
Procedur
esofl
ocat
ingf
aul
ts
-
Functi
onalt
est
srequi
redaf
ter
r
epairofmachi
nes
-
Saf
etyprecaut
ionsnecessar
ywhen
wor
kingwithDCmachi nes
3 A.
C -
Commonf aul
tsassoci
atedwi
thac
machi
nes machi
nes
-
Proceduref
orr
epai
ri
ngf
aul
tsi
nac
machines
-
Funct
ional
test
sforr
epai
red
machi
nes.
-
Safet
yobservati
onrequi
rement
whenmaint
ainingacmachines
4 Di
schar
ge -
Commonf aul
tsi
ndi
schar
gel
amps
l
amps i
nci
rcui
ts
-
Faul
tindi
schar
gel
ampci
rcui
ts
1|NSPSICOLLEGE-KERICHO
-
Saf
etypr
ecaut
ion
TOPI
C1:ELECTRI
CALMAI
NTENANCESERVI
CE
MAI
NTENANCE
I
sthepr
ocessunder
takent
orepai
randr
econdi
ti
onamachi
neorequi
pmentt
oit
s
nor
malf
uncti
onalst
ate.
SERVI
CING
Thi
sistheprocedureunder
takent
oexami
neandr
epai
ramachi
neorequi
pmentt
hat
hasdev
elopedaf aul
t.
TYPESOFMAI
NTENANCE
1)Routi
nemai
ntenance:
Thisi
saty
peofmaintenanceprogr
ammedt otakepl
ace
af
teragi
venperi
odoftimeegondai
l
ybasis,weekl
y,
monthlyorannual
ly
.
2)Cor
rect
ivemaint
enance:
Thi
sisat
ypeofmai
ntenancesubj
ect
edt
oanequi
pment
whi
chisfaul
ty.
3)Pr
eventi
vemaint
enance:
Thi
sinvol
vesservi
cingamachi
newhichisnotf
aul
tyi
n
or
dertomini
mizethepossi
bil
i
tyofoccur
renceofafaul
t.
Iti
ncl
udes:
i
)Saf
etypr
ecaut
ions
i
i
)Useoft
her
ightt
ool
sfort
her
ightj
ob.
i
i
i)Useofmachi
nespr
oper
ly
i
v)Av
oidov
erwor
kingamachi
neorequi
pment
v
)Useofoi
l
sandgr
easet
oreducef
ri
cti
onandov
erheat
ingi
nmachi
nes.
v
i)Cr
eat
eenoughv
ent
il
ati
ont
omachi
nes.
v
ii
)Cl
eani
ngorwashi
ngofmachi
nesandequi
pmentwher
enecessar
y.
v
ii
i)
Repl
acewor
noutpar
tsofmachi
neorequi
pmentatt
her
ightt
ime.
i
x)Ti
ght
enl
oosepar
tsofanequi
pmentormachi
neappr
opr
iat
ely
.
x)
Pai
nti
ngandpol
i
shi
ngofmachi
nesandequi
pmentwher
enecessar
y.
FAULTS
Faul
tsaretechni
calpr
oblemsdev el
opedbyamachi neorequi
pment.
Whena
machineorequipmentdevelopsatechni
calpr
oblem, t
heprobl
em i
sregar
dedas
afaul
tandt her
efor
erequir
esdiagnosisandmaintenance.
Di
agnosi
s
Thi
sist
hepr
ocessunder
takenbyt
het
echni
cianorengi
neert
oident
if
yor
est
abl
i
shaf
aul
tandcr
eat
eorar
rangef
ori
tsmai
ntenanceorcor
rect
ion.
HOW TODI
AGNOSEAFAULT
i
)Byuseofi
nst
rument
s.
i
i
)Vi
sual
inspect
ion
i
i
i)Byt
hef
eel
ofpal
m.
i
v)Byt
hei
nfor
mat
iongi
venatt
hesi
teoft
hef
aul
t.
v
)Pr
oduct
ionofcer
tai
nsounds.
v
i)Pr
oduct
ionofspar
ks.
v
ii
)Smel
l
.
v
ii
i)
Smoke
i
x)Ref
usal
ofamachi
net
ost
art
.
x)
Inef
fi
ciencyofamachi
neorequi
pment
.
xi
)I
rr
egul
armov
ementofmachi
neorequi
pment
.
xi
i
)Wor
noutpar
ts.
xi
i
i)Ov
erheat
ing.
SAFETY
1)
Nosmoki
ngi
nawor
kshop.
2)
Alway
swearpr
otect
ivecl
othi
ngwhi
l
ewor
kingi
nthewor
kshop.
3)
Alway
suset
hecor
rectt
ool
fort
hecor
rectj
ob.
4)
Youmustal
way
sconcent
rat
eony
ourj
ob.
5)
Elect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancesmustal
way
sbehandl
edwi
thgr
eatcar
e.
6)Al
way
sswit
chof
fbef
orepl
uggi
ngi
noroutanel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
anceor
equi
pment
.
7)
Alwaysstandonarubbermatwhenwor
kingonahi
ghv
olt
ageequi
pmentt
o
av
oidthedangerofel
ect
rickshock.
8)Whenwor
kingonhi
ghv
olt
ageequi
pment
,al
way
suseonehandwi
tht
heot
her
handint
hepocket
.
9)Whenworkingonahighvol
tageequipment,ensur
ethatt
her
eisasecond
personpr
esenttohel
pincaseofelect
ricshock.
10)
Youmustal
way
sknowt
heposi
ti
onoft
hemai
nswi
tchandf
ir
efi
ght
ing
equi
pmenti
nawor
kshop.
11)
Pool
sofwat
ert
obeav
oidedi
nawor
kshop.
Gener
alcausesofacci
dent
s.
-
Car
elessness -
Inconsi
der
ati
on
-
Condi
ti
ons -
Over
conf
idence
-
Att
it
udes -
Indi
ff
erence
-
Ignor
ance -
Equi
pment
CARELESSNESS
-
Bynotf
oll
owi
ngi
nst
ruct
ionspr
oper
ly
-
Notconcent
rat
ingony
ourj
ob.
CONDI
TIONS
-
Wor
kingwhi
l
ehungr
y
-
wor
kingwhi
l
esi
ck
-
Wor
kingwhi
l
edr
unk
-
Wor
kingwhi
l
eti
red.
ATTI
TUDES
-
Over
conf
idence
-
Notseeki
ngf
orhel
pwhi
l
eindi
ff
icul
ti
es.
I
GNORANCE
-
Pret
endi
ngt
oknowsomet
hingwhi
l
eyoudon’
tknow.
-
Doi
ngsomet
hingwr
ongl
y.
CARETOBETAKEN
i
)Fol
l
owi
nst
ruct
ions
i
i
)User
ightt
ool
sfort
her
ightj
ob.
i
i
i)Donotwor
kwhi
l
ehungr
y,t
ir
ed,
si
ck,
str
essedorwor
ri
ed.
i
v)Av
oidbei
ngov
erconf
ident
.
v
)Hav
erestwhent
ir
ed.
v
i)Hav
esomer
ecr
eat
ionandcal
mness(
rel
ax)
v
ii
)Donotdr
inkwhi
l
ewor
king(
alcohol
)
v
ii
i)
Donotuseaf
aul
tyequi
pmentormachi
ne.
i
x)Ensur
ethatt
her
eispr
operv
ent
il
ati
onandenoughl
i
ght
ing.
CONDI
TIONSTHATCANCAUSEELECTRI
CSHOCK
-
Shocki
sexper
iencedwhenahumanbodybecomespar
tofanel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
tby
:
1)
Touchi
ngal
i
vewi
reandaneut
ral
wir
eatt
hesamet
ime.
2)
Touchi
ngt
wol
i
vewi
resatt
hesamet
ime.
3)
Touchi
ngaf
aul
tymet
alwor
kwhi
chi
snotear
thed.
4)
Touchi
ngal
i
vewi
rewhi
l
est
andi
ngonuni
nsul
atedgr
ound.
DEGREEOFSHOCKCONDI
TIONI
NAHUMANBODY
Foranelectr
icshocktotakeplace,i
tisnecessaryfort hehumanbodytobein
contactwi
thtwoobjectsofunequal potenti
alsi
nsuchawayt hatthebodyforms
partsofanelect
ri
ccir
cuitinwhichcur r
entwillf
low.Theamountofcur r
ent
fl
owingthroughthebodywi l
lthendecideonhowser ioustheacci
dentwil
l
become.Thedegreeofshockwi l
lbedeterminedbyt heamountofcurrentas
fol
lows:
1-3mil
li
amps:-
Thisi
sknownast
het
hreshol
dofper
cept
ionwhenasl
i
ghtt
ingl
i
ng
sensat
ioni
sfelt
.
10-15mi
ll
i
amps:-
Atthisval
ueofcur
rentthemuscl
esbegintoti
ght
enandi
t
becomesdif
fi
cul
ttorel
easeanyobj
ectheldegali
veconductor
.
25-30mill
iamps:
-Atthiscur
rent
,t
hemusclesarereall
ytightandtheper
sonhas
absolut
elynocontr
ol overt
hem.Thi
sist
hef i
rstdangerousstate.
Over50mi l
l
iamps:
-Att
hiscurr
ent,
fi
bri
ll
ati
onoftheheartoccurswhi
chi
s
gener
all
ylethal
ifi
mmediatespeci
ali
statt
ent
ionisnotgiven.
HOW TOPREVENTELECTRI
CKSHOCK.
1)Byuseofi
nsul
ati
on-
Scr
eeni
ngl
i
vepar
tsandkeepi
ngl
i
vepar
tsoutofr
each.
2)Byeart
hing-
ensur
ingthatanymetal
wor ki
nanel
ect
ri
cali
nstal
l
ationother
thant
heconductori
spr ev
entedf
rom becomi
ngel
ect
ri
cal
lycharged.
3)Av
oidt
ouchi
ngnakedconduct
ors.
4)Al
way
sst
andonar
ubbermat
twhenwor
kingonal
i
neci
rcui
t.
5)Av
oidt
ouchi
ngel
ect
ri
cal
equi
pmentwi
thwethands.
6)Byuseofhandgl
oveswhenwor
kingonhi
ghv
olt
ageequi
pment
.
FAULTTRACI
NGI
NELECTRI
CALI
NSTALLATI
ONS
STEELCONDUI
TS
Acondui
tisanel
ect
ri
cal
pipeort
ube.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofcondui
tsnamel
y;
i
)Met
all
i
ccondui
ts-
alumi
nium,
copperandst
eel
.
i
i
)Pl
ast
iccondui
ts.
USESOFCONDUI
TS
i
)Topr
ovi
deahi
ghdegr
eeofmechani
cal
prot
ect
ion.
i
i
)Hel
ptoconf
ineanumberofcabl
est
oget
her
.
i
i
i)Usedi
nfi
vepr
onei
nst
all
ati
on.
i
v)Ear
thi
ngpur
poses.
TYPESOFFAULTS/
POSSI
BLEFAULTS
i
)Ear
thf
aul
ts-
L&Ecomi
ngt
oget
herI
,
etouchi
ngcondui
t.
i
i
)Shor
tci
rcui
t-
L&N
i
i
i)Badconnect
ions
i
v)Ear
thl
eakages
v
)Openci
rcui
t
v
i)Bl
ownf
use
v
ii
)Looseconnect
ions
v
ii
i)
Excesscur
rent
.
i
x)Cor
rosi
on-
mor
ecommoni
ncondui
ts(
met
all
i
c)
Cor
rosi
veenv
ironment
-
Cementi
ndust
ry
-
Chemi
cal
indust
ry
-
Sal
tindust
ry
-
Col
dst
ores.
-
Condensat
ion
-
Thef
aul
tswi
l
laf
fect
:i)
Thewi
ri
ngsy
stem
i
i
)Thecondui
tsy
stem
EFFECTSOFTHEFAULTS
i
) Unr
eli
abl
esy
stem
i
i)Resul
tsi
nthei
nter
rupt
ionoft
hesuppl
yduet
obl
owi
ngoff
usesort
ri
ppi
ng
ofci
rcui
tbr
eaker
s.
I
ii
)Fai
l
ureoft
heear
thi
ngsy
stem.
i
v)Danger
sofel
ect
ri
cshock.
v
)Thesy
stem i
sexposedt
ofi
rer
isks.
PROCEDUREOFTRACI
NGTHEFAULTS
i
) Vi
sual
inspect
ion
i
i
) Useofinst
rument
s-ohmet
er,
megger
,cont
inui
ty,
i
nsul
sti
onr
esi
stance
test
er.
i
i
i) Feel
i
ng/
sensi
ng
HOW TORECTI
FYTHEFAULTS
i
) Separ
atet
heaf
fect
edconduct
ors
i
i
) Makegoodconnect
ions
i
i
i) Repai
r/
mendt
heaf
fect
edcondui
ts.
i
v) Repl
ace/
rewi
rebl
ownf
usesandr
esetci
rci
tbr
eaker
s
v
) Ti
ght
enl
ooseconnect
ions.
v
i) Pai
ntt
heaf
fect
edcondui
ts
UNDERGROUNDCABLES
Electri
cpowercanbet ransmi ttedordi st r
ibutedei t
herbyov erheadsy stem orby
under groundcabl es.Theunder groundcabl eshav eser ver
al adv antagessuchasl ess
l
iablet odamaget hroughst or
msorl ightning,low
mai ntenancecost ,lesschancesoff aults,smal l
erv olt
agedr opandbet tergeneral
appear ance. Howev er ,t
hei rmaj ordrawbacki st hattheyhav egr eaterinstal
lati
oncost
andi ntroducei nsulat i
onpr obl
emsathi ghv oltagescompar edwi t
ht heequival
ent
overheadsy stem.Fort hisr eason, under groundcabl esareempl oyedwher eitis
i
mpr acticabletouseov erheadl ines.Suchl ocationsmaybet hicklypopulatedareas
wher emuni cipalaut horit
iespr ohibitov erheadl i
nesf orreasonsofsaf ety,oraround
plantsandsubst ati
onsorwher emai ntenancecondi ti
onsdonotper mittheuseof
overheadconst r
uct i
on.
FAULTSINUNDERGROUNDCABLES
i) Shortcircuit
ii
) Opencircuit
ii
i) Ear thfault
iv) Looseconnect ions
v) Openci rcuit
HOW TOTRACETHEFAULTS
i)
Visualinspection
ii
)Instr
ument s–I nsul
ati
onresi
stancet
est
er,
ohmmet
er,
cont
inui
ty
tester
,megger,phasetester.
HOW TORECTI FYTHEFAULTS
1)SHORTCI RCUI TS
Afterlocatingtheposi t
ionoft hef ault
,theaf f
ectedl i
nei sexcavatedandreplaced.
Brokencabl esar eremov edandr eplaced,Shortcircuit
edconduct orsarei
solated
andf aultrepairedanddamagedi nsulationmustber epairedandmadegood.
2)EARTHFAULTS
Incaseofanear thfault
, theaffectedconduct orsar esepar at
edandr epai
red.
3)OPENCI RCUI T
Incaseofanopenci rcuit,theaffectedconduct orsar ereplacedormadegoodby
properjoints.
4)LOOSECONNECTI ONS
Anyl ooseconnect ionsar et i
ghtenedpr operly
.
5)SUPPLYFAI LURE
Incaseofsuppl yfail
ure,consultthepowersuppl yaut horit
y.(
KPLC) .
NOTE: Faultt r
acingandf aultrepairinunder groundcabl esisv er
yexpensi
ve.I
t
takesal otoft imet orepl aceandr epairanunder groundcabl e.
FAULTSONPOWERCI RCUI TS
SOCKETOUTLETCI RCUITS
i
) Shortci
rcui
ts
i
i) Looseconnections
i
i
i) Badconnect ions
i
v) Openci rcuits
v
) Supplyfailure
v
i) Eart
hl eakage
v
ii
) Blownf uses
HOW TOLOCATETHEFAULTS
i
) Vi
suali
nspect ion
i
i
) Useofinstr
ument s:
-Cont
inui
tyt
est
er,
ohmmet
er,
phaset
est
er,
testl
ampand
ammeter.
SHORTCI RCUITS
-
Separatetheaff
ectedconduct or
s
-
Replacethedestroyedpartoftheinsul
ati
on.
-
Replace/r
ewiretheblownf usesandresetci
rcui
tbr
eaker
s
LOOSECONNECTI ON
-Ti
ghtenalll
ooseconnect i
onsandterminat
ions,
maket hem f i
rm,
electr
ical
l
yand
mechanicall
ysound.
BADCONNECTI ONS
Ensurethatterminal
sandpoi nt
sarewir
edaccor di
ngl
yi .e-LtoL,Nt oN,EtoE
OPENCI RCUI T
Mend/ r
epairbrokenconductori
ncaseofanybr okenci
r cuit
.Uset
hemostappr opr
iat
e
j
oints.
Ift
hebr okenpartcannotbeeasi
lyjoi
ntedanditshoul dbereplacedbyanewone.
SUPPLYFAI LURE
-Replacef uses
-Resetcircuitbr eaker s
EARTHFAULT
-Ensureinsul ati
onorcompl eti
onoft heeart
hingcircuit.
FAULTSONLI GHTI NGCI RCUI TS
i) Shor tcircuits
ii
) Looseconnect ions
ii
i) Openci rcuit
iv) Suppl yf ail
ure
v) Earthf aul t
vi) Badconnect ion
HOW TOLOCATETHEFAULTS
i) Visual inspect i
on
ii
) Useofi nst r
ument s:
-Testl
amp,Cont i
nuit
yt ester
,ohmmet
er,
meggerandmul
ti
-
met er.
i) Separ atet heaf fectedconductors
ii
) Tightenl ooseconnect i
ons
ii
i) Makegoodorr epl acebrokenconduct or
s
iv) Ensur et hatgoodandpr operconnecti
onsar emade.
v
) Repai
rtheaff
ectedeart
hingcir
cuit
v
i) Repl
aceblownfuses/r
esetcir
cuitbr
eaker
s.
FAULTSONFLOURESCENTLAMPS
PARTS
i
) Thechoke- Thisunitsuppl
iesahi ghstart
ingvol
tage.I
tal
soli
mit
st hecur
rent
i
nt helampwhent helampi soper at
ing.
i
i
) Thest art
er-
i
i
i) Thecapaci t
or -
Thisisfi
tt
edtocor rectori
mpr ov
et hepowerf
actorby
neutr
al i
zi
ngt heinducti
veeffectofthechoke.
i
v) Lampcaps- Usedforconnectinglampst othesupplyandal
sotoholdlampsin
posit
ion.
APPLI CATI ON
i
) Domest iclight
ingsy
stems
i
i) Fact ories
i
ii
) St r eets
i
v) Shi ps
v) Tr anspor t
(buses)
vi
) Tunnel s
vi
i) Coal mi nes
vi
ii) Hospi tal s
i
x) School s
x) Of fices
xi
) Chur ches
POSSI BLEFAULTS
i
) Looseconnect ions
i
i) Blownchoke
i
ii
) Badconnect ions
i
v) Openci rcui t
v) Shortcircui ts
vi
) Bl ownt ube
vi
i
) Bl ownst ar ters
vi
i
i) Supplyfai lure
i
x) Ear thfaul t
x) Faul tyhol der s/ caps
EFFECTSOFTHEFAULTS
i
) Spar ks
i
i
) Arcing
i
i
i) Highr esi
stance
i
v) Ov erheat
ing
v
) Failureoflampstooper
ate
v
i) Blowi ngoffuses
HOW TOTRACETHEFAULTS
i
) Visuali
nspecti
on
i
i
) Useofi nst
rument
s
i
i
i) Smel l
i
v) Smoke
v
) Sound
v
i) Feeli
ng

i
) Ti
ght enanylooseconnect
ions.
i
i) Ensurethatter
minati
onandj oi
ntsareelectr
ical
lyandmechani
cal
l
ysound.
i
ii
) Replaceanyblownchoke.
i
v) Reconnectanybrokenconductors
v) Replaceblownorfault
ystart
er.
vi
) Makegoodanydamagedi nsulati
on
vi
i
) Replaceblownfusesandresetcircuitbr
eakers.
vi
i
i) Replaceblowntube
i
x) Replacefaul
tycaps/hol
ders
x) Makegoodanyaf f
ectedeart
hingcircuit
.
FLOURESCENTLAMPSTARTERCI
RCUI
T
STROBOSCOPI CEFFECTS
Atafrequencyof50hz, adischar gelampwi l
lli
ghtandgoof fatther ateof100t i
mes
persecond.Machi neryrotatingat100r ev/se.mayappeart obest ati
onarywhi l
ethose
rot
ati
ngatsomeot herspeedsmayappeart obesl owerthant heyact uall
yar e.Thi
s
eff
ectcausesmi sjudgmentoft hehumaney et oseeasi fthosemachi nesarenot
rot
ati
ngandi scalledthest roboscopi cef
fect.
EFFECTS
i
) Potentialdangerr i
skwi t
hthemov i
ngmachi nes(possi bi
lit
yofr isks)
i
i) Machi nesmov i
ngatv eryhighspeedofsay100r ev/secwi llappeart obe
stati
onar ywhileint herealsensetheyar emov ing.
i
ii
) Danger ousmachi ner oomsasr oom ill
uminati
oni saf fected.
i
v) Af fectshumansi ght .
ELI
MINATIONOFSTROBOSCOPI CEFFECTS
i
) Wher et hreephasepoweri sav ai
lable,st
roboscopi cef
fectcanbeel iminat
ed
byconnect ingadjacementl ampst odi ff
er entphasesalt
ernatelysothatatno
ti
mewi lll
ightout putbezer o.
i
i) Insinglephasei nstal
lati
ons, theuseofl eadandl agcir
cuit
susi ngwher e
somel ampsar econnect edt olaggingci rcuit
susingcapacitors.
i
ii
) Mi xingofi ncandescentlampswi t
hf luorescentlampssinet heincandescent
l
ampsr emai noni nthatinstantaneousmomentwhenf l
uorescentlampshave
zerolightout put.Thismet hodi snotcommonl yused.
TROUBLESHOOTI
NGFLOURESCENTLI
GHTI
NGCURCUITS
SYMPTOMS POSSI
BLECAUSES
1)
Fusebl
owswhenl
ampi
sswi
tched -
Ashortci
rcui
tor
on
-
Shor
tedpowerfact
orcapaci
tor
2)
Lampdoesnotl
i
ghtatal
l -
Faul
tyst
art
erswi
tch
-
Brokent
ubeel
ect
rodes
-
Nosuppl
y
3)
Lampfli
cker
srepeat
edl
yinan -
Faul
tyst
art
ingswi
tch
ef
for
ttost
art.
-
Faul
tyl
amp
-
Lowv
olt
age
4)Lampelect
rodegl
owcont
inuousl
y -
Faul
tyst
art
eror
butlampdoesnotli
ght
.
-
Shor
tradi
oint
erf
erence
-
Suppr
essi
oncapaci
tor
.
FAULTFINDI
NGI
NFLOURESCENTLAMPFITTI
NGS
STEP ITEM TESTSTOBEAPPLIED
1 Supplyand -
Checksuppl
yvol
tageati
nputt
othef
it
ti
ng
fuse
-
Checkpol
ari
tyofi
ncomi
ngsuppl
yandensur
ethe
f
rameisear
thed.
-I
fthefuseisblown,suspectci
rcui
torcomponent
andfindthefaultbef
orerepl
aci
ng.
2 Lamp -Checklampinagoodfi
tt
ingandi
fprovedfaul
ty
repl
acewi t
hanewlamp.Remembernev ert
rya
newl ampinafi
tt
ingwhi
chhasfaul
tycomponents
orcir
cuits
3 Ci
rcui
t -Exami
newiri
nginsi
dethefi
tt
ingandi
fpossi
ble
checkagai
nstthewi
ringdi
agram.
-Checki
nsul
ati
onresi
stancebetweent
heci
rcui
t
andthemetalf
rameoft hefi
tt
ing.
-
Ifanear
thf
aulti
sfound,
tracet
hecauseand
r
eplacet
hecomponent
4 Bal
l
astchokes -Examineforsi
gnsofoverheati
ngifpossibl
echeck
conti
nuit
yofwindingsandinsul
ati
onresistance.
STARTLESSFLOURESCENTLAMPCI RCUIT
Thisty
peofci r
cuitdoesnotr equiretheuseofast arterswi
tch.
Thi
smet hod
ofstar
tingi sknownas’ instantstart’
or ’
Quickstart’
.
Thenor malst
arteri
s
repl
acedbyaf il
amentheat i
ngtransformer .
Advantagesofst artlesmet hod
i
) Itisalmostinstantaneousst arti
ng.
i
i) Ther ei
snof li
ckeringandnof alsestart
ing.
i
ii) I tcanstartandoper ateatlowv olt
ageof160- 180V.
i
v ) I tsmaintenancecosti slowerduet otheeli
mi nati
onofanystart
er
swi t
chreplacement s.
v) Itlengt
henst heli
feoft helamp.
TOPI
C2:DCMACHI
NES
Const
ruct
ionofDCMachi
ne(
Gener
ator&Mot
or)
Thedcgenerator
sanddcmot orshav ethesamegeneral
constr
ucti
on.Infact,when
the
machi
neisbeingassembl
ed, t
hewor kmenusual
lydonotknowwhet heriti
sadc
generat
orormotor.Anydcgeneratorcanberunasadcmot orandvice-
versa.
Al
ldcmachi
neshav
efi
vepr
inci
pal
component
s
1.MagneticframeorYoke
2.PoleCoresandPol eShoes
3.PoleCoil
sorFi eldCoil
s
4.Armaturecor e

5.Armaturewi ndi
ng
6.Commut ator
7.BrushesandBear ings
Thedi
agr
am gi
venbel
owr
epr
esent
sthev
ari
ouspar
tsofaDCmachi
ne.
Yoke
Theout
erf
rameory
okeser
vesdoubl
epur
pose:
1.I
tprovi
desmechanicalsupportf
orthepolesandactsasapr
otect
ingcov
erf
or
t
hewhol emachi
ne
2.I
tcarr
iesthemagneti
cf l
uxproducedbythepoles.
Insmall
generatorswher
echeapnessrathert
hanwei
ghti
sthemain
consi
derat
ion,
yokesaremadeof casti
ron.
Butf
orl
argemachi
nesusual
l
ycast
steel
orrol
ledsteeli
semploy
ed.
Themoder nprocessoff
ormingtheyokeconsist
sofr ol
l
ingasteelsl
abrounda
cyl
indr
icalmandrelandt
henweldingi
tatthebottom.
Thefeetandtheter
mi nal
boxet c.
areweldedtotheframeaft
erwar
ds.Suchy okespossesssuf
fici
entmechanicalst
rength
andhav ehi
ghpermeabil
it
y.
Pol
eCor esandPoleShoes
Thefi
eldmagnetsconsi
stofpol
ecor
esandpol
eshoes.Thepol
eshoesser
vet
wo
pur
poses:
1.t
heyspreadoutt
hefl
uxintheairgapandalso,
bei
ngofl
argercr
oss-
sect
ion,
r
educetherel
uct
anceofthemagnet i
cpat
h
2.t
heysupportt
heexci
ti
ngcoil
s(orfiel
dcoi
ls)
Sincearmatureandfi
eldsy
stemsar ecomposedofmat eri
alsthathavehigh
permeabili
ty,
mostofthem.m.f.offi
eldcoi
lsi
srequir
edtosetupf luxintheai
rgap.

Byr educi
ngthelengt
hofai
rgap, wecanreducethesizeoffiel
dcoils(
i.
e.numberof
turns).
Ar
mat
urecor
eandLami
nat
ions
Thear matur
ecoreiskeyedtot
hemachineshaf tandr
otat
esbet
weenthefi
eld
poles.
Itconsist
sofslot
tedsoft-
ir
onl
ami
nat
ions( about0.4t
o0.6mm thi
ck)t
hatar
e
stacked
toform acyl
indri
calcor
easshowni
nfigure.
Thelami nationsar eindi
v i
duall
ycoatedwi thathininsulati
ngf i
lm sot hattheydonot
comei nelectr
icalcontactwi t
heachot her.
Thepur poseofl aminatingthecor ei
st o
reducet heeddycur r
entloss.
Thinnerthelaminati
on, greater
i
st her esi
stanceoffer
edto
theinducede. m. f
.,smallerthe
currentandhencel essertheI ²
Rl ossi nthecore.
The
l
ami nationsaresl ott
edt oaccommodat eandpr ovidemechani cal securit
ytothe
armat urewindingandt ogiveshorterairgapforthef l
uxt ocrossbet weent hepoleface
andt hear mature“ t
eeth”.
Armaturewinding
Theslotsofthear maturecoreholdi
nsulat
edconductorsthatareconnect
edina
suit
ablemanner .Thisisknownasarmaturewinding.Thisisthewindi
nginwhich
“worki
ng”e.m.f.isinduced.Thearmat
ureconductorsareconnectedinseri
es-
paral
l
el;
theconductorsbeingconnect edi
nseri
essoast oincreasethevol
tageandinparal
lel
pathssoast oincreasethe
Cur
rent

fthebrushpr
essurei
sv erylar
ge,
thefri
cti
onproducesheat
ingoft
he
commut at
orandthebrushes.Ontheotherhand,i
fiti
stooweak,t
hei
mper
fect
contactwi
ththecommut atormayproducesparki
ng.
Multi
polemachi neshaveasmanybr ushesast heyhavepoles.Forexampl e,a4-
polemachi nehas4br ushes.Aswegor oundt hecommut ator,
thesuccessive
brusheshav eposi ti
veandnegat i
vepol ari
ti
es.Br usheshav i
ngt hesamepol ari
ty
areconnect edt oget
hersot hatwehav et wot erminalsviz.
,the+veterminaland
the-vetermi nalfthebrushpressureisv erylarge,thefr
icti
onpr oducesheatingof
thecommut atorandt hebrushes.Ont heot herhand, i
fitistooweak, t
he
i
mper fectcont actwiththecommut atormaypr oducesparking.
Multi
polemachi neshav easmanybr ushesast heyhavepoles.Forexample,a4-
polemachinehas4br ushes.Aswegor oundthecommut ator,t
hesuccessive
brusheshaveposi ti
veandnegat i
vepolari
ti
es.Brusheshavingthesamepol ari
ty
areconnectedtoget hersot hatwehav etwoterminalsvi
z.,t
he+v eter
minaland
the-veter
mi nal
ft hebr ushpressureisveryl
arge,thefr
ict
ionproducesheatingof
t
hecommut at
orandthebrushes.Ontheot
herhand,i
fiti
stooweak,
the
i
mperf
ectcontactwi
ththecommut at
ormayproducesparki
ng.
Multi
polemachi neshaveasmanybr ushesast heyhavepoles.Forexample,a4-
hesuccessive
brusheshaveposi t
iveandnegat i
vepolari
ti
es.Brusheshavingthesamepol ar
it
y
areconnectedtogethersot hatwehavet woterminalsvi
z.,
the+v eter
minaland
the-veter
mi nal
Ift
hebr ushpressur
eisverylar
ge,
thefr
ict
ionproducesheat
ingofthe
commut at
orandthebrushes.Ont
heotherhand,ifi
tist
ooweak,theimper
fect
contactwiththecommut at
ormayproducesparki
ng.
Multi
polemachi neshaveasmanybr ushesast heyhavepoles.Forexample,a4-
hesuccessive
brusheshaveposi t
iveandnegat i
vepolari
ti
es.Brusheshavingthesamepol ar
it
y
areconnectedtogethersot hatwehavet woterminalsvi
z.,
the+v eter
minaland
the-veter
mi nal
.
AnEl ectr
icDC mot orisamachi newhi chconv ert
select
ricenergyi nt
omechani cal
energy.TheworkingofDCmot or
i
sbasedont hepr i
nci
plet
hatwhenacur rent
-car
rying
conductorispl
acedinamagnet icfield,i
t
experiencesamechanicalfor
ce.
The di r
ecti
on of mechani calfor ce is given by Fleming’
s Lef t
-hand Rule and
i
ts
magni tudei
sgivenbyF=BI l
Newt on.
Thereisnobasi cdiff
erenceintheconst ruct
ionofaDCgener atorandaDCmot or.In
fact,t
hesamed. c.machi necanbeusedi nterchangeabl yasagener at
ororasamot or.
Likegener atorsDC mot or sareal socl assif
iedi nt oshunt -
wound,seri
es-woundand
compound- wound.
DC mot ors ar e sel dom used i n ordinaryappl i
cati
ons because allelectr
ic supply
compani es f
ur nishal ter
natingcur r
ent.
Howev er,forspeci alapplicati
onssuchasi nst eelmi l
ls,minesandelectr
ictrai
ns,itis
advantageoust o conv ertalternati
ng cur r
enti nto directcur r
enti
nor derto usedc
mot or
s.
Ther easoni sthatspeed/ torquechar acteri
sticsofd. c.mot
orsaremuchmor e
superi
ort othatofa. c.mot ors.Therefore,itisnotsur prisi
ngt onot
ethatforindustri
al
driv
es,d.c.mot orsar easpopul aras3- phasei nductionmot ors.
Wor ki
ngpr i
ncipleofDCMot or
Considerapar tofamul t
ipolard.c.mot orasshowni nFigurebelow.Whent he t
erminal
s
ofthemot orareconnectedt oanext ernalsourceofd. c.supply
:
(i
)thefiel
dmagnet sareexci teddevelopingalternateNandSpol es;

(i
i
)t hearmat ureconductorscarrycur rents.AllconductorsunderN- pol
e carr
ycurr
ents
i
nonedi rect
ionwhi l
eallt heconduct orsunderS- pole car
rycurrentsint heopposit
e
di
recti
on.
Supposet heconduct orsunderN- polecar r

ycur r
ent sintothepl aneoft hepaper
and
thoseunderS- pol ecarrycurrentsoutofthepl aneoft hepaperasshowni n Figure.Since
each armat ureconduct ori scarryi
ng cur r
entand i splaced i
nt he magnet i
cf ield,
mechani calforceact soni t.
Onapplying
Flemi ng’slefthandrul
e, i
tiscl eart hatforce on
each conduct ori st ending tor otatethe ar mat urein anti
clockwi se di recti
on.Al l
these
forcesaddt ogethert oproduceadr i
ving torquewhi chsetsthear mat ur erotati
ng.
Whent heconduct ormov esf rom onesideofa br usht otheother,thecur r
enti nthat
conductori srev ersedandatt hesamet ime i
tcomesundert hei nfl
uenceofnex tpole
whichisofopposi tepolarit
y.
Consequent l
y,t hedi rect
ionoff orceont heconduct or
remainst hesame.
Itshouldbenot edt hatthef uncti
onofacommut atorinthemot orist hesameasi na
generator.By reversingcurrentineachconduct orasi tpassesfr
om onepol et oanot her,
i
thelpst odev elopacont inuousanduni dir
ectional torque.
WhyMot
orFai
ls?MostCommonCauses
Mot
orsareusedev
erywher
einindustr
ial
envir
onmentsandtheyarebecoming
i
ncr
easi
nglycompl
ex
andtechni
cal,
somet i
mesmakingitachal
lengetokeepthem
runningatpeakper formance.
I
t’
simpor t
antt
oremembert hatthecausesofmot orand
driveissuesar enotconf
inedtoasingledomainofexpert
ise–bothmechanical
and
electr
icalissuescanleadtomot orfai
l
ureandbeingarmedwi t
htherightknowl
edgecan
meant hediffer
encebetweencostlydownti
meandi mprovedassetuptime.
Windinginsul at
ionbreakdownandbear i
ngwearar
ethet
womostcommoncausesof
motorf ailure,butthose condit
ions ar
ise f
ormanydi
ff
erentr
easons.This ar
ti
cle
demonst rateshow to det ectt
hemostcommoncausesofwi ndi
ng insul
ati
onand
beari
ngf ailurei
nadvance.
TransientVoltage
Transientvoltagescancomef rom anumberofsour ceseit
herinsideoroutsi
deofthe
pl
ant.Adj acentloadstur
ningonorof f,powerfactorcorr
ect
ioncapacit
orbanksoreven
di
stantweat hercan gener at
et ransi
entv oltages on di
str
ibut
ion syst
ems.These
tr
ansients,whi ch var
yi n ampli
tude and fr
equency ,can er
ode orcause insul
ati
on
breakdowni nmot orwindi
ngs.
Fi
ndingthesour
ceofthesetransi
ent
scanbedi f
ficultbecauseoft
heinfr
equencyofthe
occurr
encesandthefactt
hatthesymptomscanpr esentthemsel
vesindif
fer
entway s.
Forexample,atransi
entmayappearoncont rolcabl esthatdon’
tnecessari
lycause
equipmentdamagedir
ectl
y,butmaydisr
uptoperati
ons.
I
mpact:Mot
orwi
ndi
ngi
nsul
ati
onbr
eakdownl
eadst
oear
lymot
orf
ail
ureandunpl
anned
downt
ime.
VoltageI mbalance
Three-phasedi str
ibutionsystemsoftenservesi
ngle-
phaseloads.Animbalancein
i
mpedanceorl oaddi str
ibut
ioncancontri
butetoimbalanceacrossal
lthr
eeofthe
phases.Pot entialf
aul t
smaybei nthecablingtothemot or
,theter
minati
onsatthe
mot or,andpotenti
allythewindingsthemselves.
Thi
simbalancecanl
eadtostr
essesi
neachofthephaseci
rcuit
sinathr
ee-phase
powersy
stem.Atthesi
mplestl
evel
,al
lthr
eephasesofvol
tageshoul
dalwayshavet
he
samemagni t
ude.
I
mpact:I
mbalancecreat
esexcessi
vecurr
entfl
ow inoneormor ephasest
hatt
hen
i
ncr
easesoper
ati
ngtemperat
ures–l
eadi
ngtoi
nsul
ati
onbreakdown.
HarmonicDi st
or t
ion
Simplystated,har monicsar eanyunwant edadditi
onalsourceofhighf requencyAC
volt
agesorcur rentssupplyingenergytot hemot orwindi
ngs.Thisaddit
ionalenergyis
notused t ot urnt he motorshaf tbutci rcul
ates i
nt he windi
ngs and ul t
imat
ely
contri
but
est ointernalenergylosses.Theselossesdissi
pateinthefor
m ofheat ,whi
ch,
overti
me, wil
ldeteriorat
etheinsulati
oncapabili
tyofthewindi
ngs.
Somehar monicdi storti
onoft hecurrentisnormalonanypar tofthesyst
em serving
elect
roni
cloads.Tost ar
tinvestigat
ingharmonicdistort
ion,
useapowerqualit
yanalyzer
tomoni t
orelectr
icalcur r
entl evelsandt emperaturesattransf
ormerstobesurethat
theyarenotoverstressed.Eachhar monichasadi f
fer
entacceptabl
elev
elofdist
ort
ion,
whichisdefi
nedbyst andardssuchasI EEE519-1992.
I
mpact
:Decreasei
nmot
oref
fi
ciencyr
esul
tsi
naddedcostandan
i
ncr
easei
noper
ati
ng
t
emper
atur
es.
Reflect
ionsondr i
veoutputPWM si gnals
Variabl
ef requencydri
vesempl oyapul sewi dt
hmodul ati
on(PWM)t echni
quetocontr
ol
theoutputv olt
ageandf requencyt oamot or
.Reflect
ionsaregener
atedwhentherei
san
i
mpedancemi smatchbet weent hesour ceandl oad.Impedancemismatchescanoccur
as a resul tofi mproperi nstal
lat
ion,i mpropercomponentsel ecti
on orequipment
degradationov erti
me.I namot ordr i
veci r
cuit
,thepeakoft herefl
ecti
oncouldbeas
highast heDCbusv olt
agel evel.
I
mpact
:Mot
orwi
ndi
ngi
nsul
ati
onbr
eakdownl
eadst
ounpl
anneddownt
ime.
Sigmacurrent
Sigmacurrentsareessenti
all
ystraycurr
entsthatcir
cul
ateinasystem.Thesi gma
curr
entsarecreat
edasar esultofthesi
gnalfr
equency,v
olt
agel
evel
,capaci
tanceand
i
nductanceinconduct
ors.

Theseci
rcul
ati
ngcur
rent
scanf
indt
hei
rwayt
hroughpr
otect
iveear
thsy
stemscausi
ng
nuisancetr
ippi
ngorinsomecasesexcessheati
nwi ndi
ngs.Sigmacurrentcanbe
foundinthemotorcabl
i
ngandi
sthesum oft
hecur
rentofthethr
eephasesatanyone
pointint
ime.
Inaperfectsit
uat
ion,thesum ofthethreecurrentswouldequalzero.I
notherwor ds,
theret
urncur r
entfrom thedr i
vewouldbeequalt othecurr
entt othedriv
e.Sigma
curr
entcanalsobeunder st
oodasasymmet r
icalsignal
sinmulti
pleconduct
orsthatcan
capaci
ti
velycoupl
ecurrentsint
othegr
oundconduct or.
I
mpact
:My
ster
iousci
rcui
ttr
ipduet
opr
otect
iveear
thcur
rentf
low.
Operationalover
loads
Motorov erl
oadoccurswhenamotorisunderexcessivel
oad.Theprimarysymptoms
thataccompanyamot orov
erl
oadar
eexcessiv
ecur rentdr
aw,insuf
fi
cientt
orqueand
overheati
ng.
Excessi
vemotorheatisamaj orcauseofmot orfail
ure.Int
hecaseofanov erl
oaded
motorindi
vi
dualmotorcomponent si ncl
udi
ng bearings,motorwindings,and other
component
smaybewor kingf
ine,butthemotorwil
l conti
nuetorunhot.Forthi
sreason,
i
tmakessensetobeginy ourt
roubleshooti
ngbycheckingformotoroverl
oad.
Because30%ofmotorf
ail
uresar
ecausedbyov er
loadi
ng,
iti
simpor
tantt
ounder
stand
howtomeasur
eforandi
dentif
ymotorover
loadi
ng.
I
mpact
:Prematurewearonmot
orel
ect
ri
calandmechani
calcomponent
sleadi
ngt
o
per
manentf
ail
ure.
Act
ionwhenanel
ect
ri
calmachi
nei
sfl
oodedwi
thseawat
er?
1.Machinei sdisconnectedfrom powersour cesanddismant led

2.All
saltdeposi t
swashedoutwi thfreshwat er
3.I
fdeposi tedwithoil
ybilgewat er,washoutwi t
hElectr
oCl eaner
4.Shouldbeheat edwi t
hl amp,andencl osedorcov eredupt or etaint
heheat
5.Moistureshouldbeescaped, byl i
fti
ngt hecov erconti
nuousl yorperi
odi
call
y
6.Hottestpartofthemachi neshal lnotexceed90° C,whil
eheat i
ng
7.I
Rr eadingsandt emper at
urest akenr egularl
y,unti
lconstantv aluer
eachabout1
megaohms
8.Thenspr aythemachi newi t
hinsul ati
onv anish
9.Assembl eandouti nser v
icewi thlowl oad, i
fpossibl
e
Whydr
yingoutofel
ect
ri
calmachi
ne?
 I
tisessent
ial
,whenmachi
nehasbeenexposedt
oweat
her
,orwhenacci
dent
all
y
i
mmer
sed.
Shor
t,openandgr
oundedci
rcui
ts?
Shor
tci
rcui
t:

Al
owr
esi
stancepat
hthatact
ual
l
yshor
tent
hei
ntendedpat
hfort
hef
lowof
cur
rent
Openci
rcui
t:
Thepathforthef
lowofcur
renti
sbr
oken.Aswi
tchsonemet
hodof
cr
eat
ingan“
open”
i
ntent
ional
ly
Gr
oundedci
rcui
t:
Acir
cuitthathascomeincont
actwiththeear
th,
bycomingincont
act
somewher
ein
i
tsel
f,orbyaconductorwhi
chisconnectedwi
ththeear
th.
Whati
sshor
econnect
iononshi
ps?
 Shor
econnect
ionboxi
spr
ovi
dedatconv
eni
entposi
ti
on,
tor
ecei
veshor
epower
suppl
y,so
thatshi
p’sgener
ator
scanbeshutdown,
inpor
tordur
ingDr
yDocki
ng.
Whatar
eLl
oyd’
srequi
rementonshor
econnect
ion?
1.Connectionboxcont ai
nsaci r
cuitbreakerorisolat
ingswi t
chwi thfuses
2.Provi
dedf ulli
nfor
mat i
onofsuppl ysystem,normal shipvoltageandf requency
forACcur rent
3.MainSwi tchboardmustbepr ovi
dedwi thali
nkswi tchoraci rcui
tbreaker ,
volt
meter ,
ammeter,andanindicatortoshowt hatthecabl eisenergized
4.For3-phasesupplywi theart
hneut r
alandearthingt er
minal mustbepr ovi
ded,f
or
connecti
ng t
hehulltoshoreside.
5.Aphasesequencei ndicat
orisnecessarytoensur ecorrectconnections
6.Meansshal l
beprovidedforcheckingpolari
ty,andterminalsshouldbel abel
ed
Howwi
lly
oucheckt
hef
requencyofshor
epowersuppl
y?
1.Shorepowersupplyconnect
ionboxshowsphasesequenceofshor
epower
generatorwi
th
bri
ghtanddarkli
ght
s
2.FrequencycanbecheckatMainSwitchboar
d,af
tershor
esuppl
yis‘
on’t
hrough
l
inkswitchor
cir
cui
tbreaker
.
Whatar
eCommonf
aul
tsi
nDCGener
atorandMot
ors?
1.Sparki
ngatbrushes
2.Overheati
ng
3.Fai
luretoexci
te
CausesofSpar
kingatBr
ushes?
1.Wrongbr ushposi
tion
2.Di
rtycommut ator
s
3.Br
ushesnotpr operlybedded
4.I
ncorrectspri
ngpressureonbrushes
5.Wronggr adeofbrush
6.Overl
oading
CausesofOv
erheat
ing?
1.Over
loadi
ng
2.Bl
ockingupofv
ent
il
ati
onpassageswi
thdi
rt
Testf
orov
ercur
rentt
ri
p?
Byi
nject
ingcur
rentwi
thi
nject
ors
Testf
orRev
ersePowerTr
ip?
Byr
educi
ngf
requency
Whati
sWar
dLeonar
dSy
stem ?
1.Usedf orf
inecontrol ofshuntmot orspeedf r
om zerot oful
li
nei t
herdi
rect
ion
2.Abletogivethemot orarobusttorquechar act
eri
stic
3.Canbeusedf ormot orsofelectr
icst eer
inggearsofshi pswit
hDCpower
4.Usedonshi pswi t
hACpowerf ordeckmachi nerysuchaswi ndlass,moori
ng
winchetc.
5.Wor ki
ngmot or,whichpower sthest eeri
nggear,windlassorotherequi
pmentisa
DC machine,becausespeedcont rolofthesemadeeasy
How
War
dLeonar
dSy
stem wor
ks?
1.ADCgener at orisdrivenbyACsqui r
rel cagei nducti
onmot or.
2.Output vol
tageofDCgener atorisappliedaspowersuppl yt oarmat ureof
workingmot or .
3.Speedanddi rect i
onofwor kingmot orv ari
eswi thmagni tudeanddi rectionof
appli
edv olt
age
4.Outputv ol
tageofDCgener atorisincreasedordecr easedbyPot entiomet er
,as
magnet i
cf i
eldst r
engthisalteredbychangi ngt hef i
eldcurrenttofieldwi ndi
ngs
ofthegener at or
5.Asout putvol tageoft hegeneratorvaries,speedoft hewor kingmot oralsov ar
ies
6.Changeofcur rentfl
owdi r
ection,al
sobyPot entiometer,
throught hef i
eldpoles
ofthe generat orwillcausethechangei ndirectionofgener atedcurrent ,
suppli
ed
tothewor king motorandt herebyalsot herunni ngdirect
ionoft hemot or
Howt
ocont
rolspeedofACmot
or?
Adj
ust
ingnumberofpol
esbymeansofsel
ect
orswi
tch.
Whatar
emot
orear
thi
ngsy
mpt
oms?
 440V,l
owinsulat
ional
arm
 Eart
hlampsignal
Whatar
etheef
fect
sofmot
orear
thi
ng?
 Overheat
 Burnout
 Getthesmel
l
 Noisy
Speci
fi
cat
ionsoff
usesonshi
ps?
 Amperageoftheci
rcui
t(AC/
DC)
 Ty
peoff usewir
e(Tinorl
eadwi
re)
 St
andardWi r
eGauge(SWG)
Speci
fi
cat
ionsofbat
ter
yonshi
ps?
1.Volt
age
2.Ampere/hour
3.Si
ze
4.Type(LeadAcidorAl
kal
i
ne)
TOPI
C3:ACMACHI
NES
Introduct i
on
Theoper atorsofel ectri
cal dri
vesy st
emsar eundercont inualpressur etoreduce
maintenancecost sandpr eventunscheduleddownt imes, whi chr esul ti
nlost
product i
onandf inanci alincome.Manyoper ator snowuseon- condi tionbased
maintenancest r
at egiesinpar all
elwit
hconv entional plannedmai nt enanceschemes.
Thishasr educedunexpect edfail
ures,i
ncreasedt het imebet weenpl annedshutdowns
forstandar dmai ntenanceandr educedoperational cost s.Theoper ationofelect
ri
cal
machi nesi nanunsaf econdi ti
oncanal sobeav oided.Si ncet heinci denceof
unexpect edf ail
ur esi sreducedt heoper at
orisabl et oexer cisegr eat ercontroli
nthe
preventionofi nci dent swhi chmayhav eenvir
onment allydamagi ngconsequences.I n
hazardousi nstal
lat ions,t
hi srequir
escontinuouson- li
nemoni toringt opreventa
catastrophicf ail
ur e.
SYNCHRONOUSMOTOR
Int
r oduction
Ani nduct i
onmot orcompr i
sesamagnet i
cci rcui
ti nterl
inkingtwoel ectriccir
cuits
whi char eplacedont het womai npar tsoft hemachi ne: (i
)thest ati
onarypar tcal
led
thest atorand( i
i)ther otat i
ngpar tcalledther otor.Poweri stransferredf r
om onepar tt
o
theot herbyel ectromagnet ici
nduct i
on.Fort hisinduct ionmachi neis
referredasanel ectromechani cal energyconv ersiondev i
cewhi chconver t
selectri
cal
ener gyintomechani cal energy[ 1].Rotorissuppor tedonbear i
ngsateachend.
Gener all
y, bot
ht hest atorandr otorconsistoft woci rcuit
s: (
a)anel ectr
icci r
cuitto
carrycur rentandnor mal lymadeofi nsulatedcopperori nsulatedalumi num and
(b)amagnet i
cci r
cuit,showni nFi g.2.2,t
ocar r
yt hemagnet icf l
uxmadeof
l
ami nat
edmagnet icmat eri
alnor mallysteel (
Fig.2. 1).
2.
2Const
ruct
ion
(a)St at or
Thest ator,showni nFi g.2.3, i
st heout erst ationarypar toft hemot or.Itconsi stsof
(i)theout ercy lindr ical frame, (ii
)t hemagnet i
cpat h,and( i
ii)asetofi nsul atedel ectr
ical
wi ndings.
(i)Theout ercy lindr ical frame: Itismadeei therofcasti ronorcastal umi num al loyor
wel dedf abr i
cat edsheetst eel.Thi si ncludesnor mal l
yf eetf orf ootmount i
ngoft he
mot ororaf l
angef oranyot hert ypesofmount i
ngoft hemot or.
(ii
)Themagnet icpat h: I
tcompr isesasetofsl ottedhi gh- gradeal l
oyst eel l
ami nat i
ons
suppor t
edi ntot heout ercy lindrical stat orframe.Themagnet icpat hisl ami natedt o
reduceeddycur rentl ossesandheat ing.
(ii
i)Asetofi nsul atedel ectri
cal wi ndi ngs: Fora3- phasemot or ,thestat orci rcuithas
threeset sofcoi l
s, onef oreachphase, whichi ssepar atedby120°andi sexci t
edbya
three- phasesuppl y .Thesecoi lsar epl acedi nsidet hesl otsoft hel ami nat edmagnet i
c
pat h.
(b)Rot or
Itist her otatingpar toft hemot or .Itispl acedi nsidethest at orbor eandr otates
coaxi al l
ywi tht hest ator.Liket hest ator ,rotori salsomadeofasetofsl ot t
edt hin
sheet s, calledlami nat ions,ofel ect romagnet icsubst ance( speci alcorest eel)pressed
toget heri nt hef or m ofacy l
inder .Thi nsheet sarei nsulat edf rom eachot herbymeans
ofpaper ,varnish[ 2] .Slotsconsi stoft heel ect ri
cal ci
rcui tandt hecy l
i
ndr i
cal
elect romagnet icsubst anceact sasmagnet icpat h.Rot orwi ndi ngofani nduct i
onmot or
maybeoft wot ypes: (a)squi r
rel-caget y peand( b)woundt y pe.Dependi ng
ont her otorwi ndi ngi nduct ionmot orsar ecl assifi
edi ntot wogr oups[ 1–3] :
(i)squi r
rel
-caget ypei nduct i
onmot orand( ii)wound- r
ot ort y pei nduct ionmot or.
(i)Squi r
rel-caget y pei nduct i
onmot or:Her er otorcompr isesasetofbar smade
ofei thercopperoral umi num oral l
oyasr otorconduct or swhi char eembedded
i
nr ot
orslot
s.Thisgiv
esav eryr
uggedconstruct
ionoftherotor
.Rotorbarsare
connectedonbothendst oanendringtomakeacl osepath.Fi
gur
e2. 4showsasqui
rr
el
-cagety
perotor.
(ii
)Wound-r
otortypeinduct
ionmotor:I
nthi
scaser ot
orconductor
sareinsulat
ed
wi ndi ngswhi char enotshor tedbyendr ingsbutt het ermi nal sofwi ndingsar ebr ought
outt oconnectt hem t ot hr eenumber sofi nsul at edsl ip
ringswhi char emount edont heshaf t,asshowni nFi g.2. 5.Ext ernalelectri
cal
connect ionst ot her ot orar emadet hroughbr ushespl acedont hesl i
pr i
ngs.Fort he
pr esenceoft hesesl ipr ingst hi st ypeofmot ori sal socal l
edsl i
pr i
ng
i
nduct ionmot or.Besi dest heabov et womai npar ts, ani nduct ionmot orconsi stssome
ot herpar ts
whi char enamedasf ollows:
(i)Endf langes: Ther ear et woendf l
angeswhi char eusedt osuppor tthetwobear ings
onbot ht heendsoft hemot or.
(ii
)Bear ings: Ther ear et wosetofbear ingswhi char epl acedatbot htheendsoft he
rot orandar eusedt osuppor tt her otatingshaf t.
(ii
i)Shaf t:Itismadeofst eel andi susedt ot ransmi tgener atedt orquet othel oad.
(iv)Cool ingf an: Itisnor mal lyl ocat edatt heopposi t
eendoft hel oadsi de,cal lednon-
dr i
v ingendoft hemot or ,forf or cedcool ingoft hebot hst atorandr otor.
(v)Ter mi nal box: Itisont oporei thersi deoft heout ercy l
indrical f
rameofst atort o
recei vet heext ernal elect rical connect i
ons.
2.3Oper ation
Whent hest atorwi ndi ngofani nduct ionmot ori sconnect edt oat hree-phasesuppl y,a
uni formr otatingmagnet i
cf ieldi spr oducedt her ein[ 3] ,
whi chi nducese. m.f.int her otor
whi chi sf r
eet or ot atecoaxi allywi tht hest atorcor ewi t
ht hehel pofbal lbear ings.Rot or
bei ngshor tci r
cui ted, eithert hrought heendr ingsoranext ernal r
esistance, cur rent sare
pr oducedduet ot hisi nducede. m. f.Thi scur rent inter actswi tht her otati
ngmagnet ic
fieldt odev elopat orqueont her ot ori nthedi rect ionoft her otat ingmagnet icf ield.As
ther otori sfreet or ot ate, thet or quewi l
l
causei tt omov er oundi nt hedi rect i
onoft hest at orf iel
d.Thi smakesat hree- phase
i
nduct ionmot orassel f-star ti
ng.
Int ransf ormi ngt hi sel ectrical ener gyi ntomechani cal ener gy ,inani nductionmot or
somel ossesoccurwhi char easf ol l
ows:
•Fr ictionandwi ndagel osses, 5–15%
•I ronorcor elosses, 15–25%
•St atorl osses, 25–40%
•Rot orl osses, 15–25%
•St rayl oadl osses, 10–20%.
Ful l-l
oadmot oref fi
ci encyv ariesf rom about85t o97%.
Induct ionmot orsar esi mpl er, cheaper ,andef ficient .Amongt hem squi rr
el-cage
i
nduct ionmot ori smor er uggedandwor kmor eef ficient l
ycompar edt owound- rot or
i
nduct ionmot or.I fsuppl yv oltageandf requencyar econst ant , thenasqui r rel-
cage
i
nduct ionmot orr unsataconst antspeedwhi chmakesi tsui tabl eforusei nconst ant
speeddr ive[ 1,2] .Sev eral st andar ddesi gnsofsqui rrel -
cagei nduct i
onmot or sar e
av ai l
abl ei nthemar kett of ulfill ther equi rement sofdi ff
er entst arti
ngandr unni ng
condi tionsofv ariousi ndust ri
al appl ications.Thesear ecl assi fied[4]ascl assA,
classB, classC, andcl assD.I nTabl e2. 1, acompar isonofdi ffer entclassesofsqui rrel
-
cagei nduct i
onmot orsi spr esent ed.
2.4Faul ts: CausesandEf fect s
Induct ionmot orsar er ugged, lowcost ,lowmai nt enance, reasonabl ysmal lsized,
reasonablyhi ghef ficient ,andoper ati
ngwi thaneasi lyavai
lablepowersuppl y .Theyare
reli
ableinoper ationsbutar esubj ectt odifferentt y
pesofundesi rabl ef aults.
Fr om the
studyofconst ructionandoper ationofani nduct ionmot or,itr
ev eal st hatt hemost
vulnerablepar t
sf orf aul tintheinduct i
onmot orar ebearing,statorwi ndi ng,rotorbar,
andshaf t.Besidesduet onon-unif ormit
yoft heai rgapbet weenst ator -i
nnersur faceand
rotor-
outersur facemot or,f
aultsal sooccur .Di fferent
studieshav ebeenper f ormedsof artostudyr eli
abi l
ityofmot ors, theirper formance, and
fault
soccur red[ 5, 6].Thest ati
stical st
udiesofI EEEandEPRI( El ect r
icPowerResear ch
Insti
tute)formot orf aul tsarecitedi n[7,8].Par toft hesest udieswast ospeci fythe
percentageofdi fferentf aul
tswi thr especttot het otalnumberoff aults.
Thest udyofI EEEwascar ri
edoutonv ariousmot orsi ni
ndustrial appl icati
ons.Asper
theIEEESt andar d493- 1997t hemostcommonf aultsandt heirst atisticaloccur r
ences
areshowni nTabl e2. 2.UnderEPRIsponsor ship, ast udywasconduct edbyGener al
Electri
cCompanyont hebasi soft hereportoft hemot ormanuf act urer.Aspert heir
reportthemai nmot orf aul t
sarepr esentedi nt het ablebelow.
Faultsini nduct ionmot or

scanbecat egorizedasf oll
ows:
(a)Electrical-rel
at edf ault
s: Faul t
sundert hisclassi f
icati
onareunbalancesuppl yvol
tage
orcur r
ent ,singlephasi ng,underorov ervoltageofcur r
ent,r
eversephasesequence,
earthfaul t,
ov erload, inter
-tur nshort-cir
cuitfault
, andcr awli
ng.
(b)Mechani cal -
relatedf aults: Fault
sundert hi
scl assifi
cati
onarebrokenr ot
orbar,mass
unbalance, airgapeccent ricity,bearingdamage, rotorwi ndi
ngfail
ure,andstat
or
windingf ailure.
(c)Environment al -r
elatedfaul ts:Ambi enttemper atureaswel l
asext er
nalmoisturewil
l
affecttheper formanceofi nduct ionmot or.Vibrationsofmachi ne,duetoanyr eason
suchasi nst all
ationdef ect,f oundationdef ect,etc.,
alsowi l
laf fecttheper f
ormance.
Faul tsshowni nTabl e2. 3ar einbr oadsense; statorfaultmaybeofdi ff

erentkinds, and
dif
f erentt ypesoff aultsmayoccuri nrotoritsel
f.Foridentificati
on, f
aultsininduction
mot orsmaybel istedasf ollows—( i
)brokenbarf ault
,(i
i)rotormassunbal ancef ault,(i
ii
)
bowedr ot
orf ault, (
iv)bear ingf ault,(
v)statorwi ndingfault,(vi)si
nglephasi ngfault,etc.
Besi des, t
hephenomenoncal ledcr awlingwhenmot ordoesnotaccel er
ateupt oits
ratedspeedbutr unsatnear lyone- seventhofi t
ssy nchronousspeedi salsoconsi dered
asaf aul tofani nduct ionmot or .Fault
sl i
sted
(i
)–( ii
i)ar eingener al statedasr ot
orfaultwhi chcont ri
butesabout8–9%oft hetotal
mot orf ault
.I nthiswor k,br okenbarf ault
, r
otormassunbal ancef aul
t,statorwinding
fault,singl ephasi ngf ault,andcr awli
ngar econsi dered.
Inani nduct ionmot ormul tiplef ault
smayoccursi multaneousl yandi nthatcase
deter mi nationoft hei niti
al probl em i
squi tediff
icult[
10].Ef fectsofsuchf aultsin
i
nduct ionmot orresul tinunbal ancedst atorcurrentsandv oltages,oscil
lati
onsi ntorque,
reduct ioni nef fici
encyandt orque, ov erheat ing, andexcessi vev i
brat ion[11] .Mor eov er,
thesemot orf aul t
scani ncr easet hemagni tudeofcer tainhar moni ccomponent sof
current sandv oltages.I nduct ionmot orper for mancemaybeaf fectedbyanyoft he
faults.Int henextf ewpar agr aphs, causesandef f
ectsofdi fferentf aults
i
ni nduct ionmot orsar edi scussed.
2.5.2CausesofBr okenRot orBar
Ther ear eanumberofr easonsf orwhi chr ot orf aul t
smayoccuri nani nduct ionmot or
[12].Ithasbeenobser vedt hati nsqui rrel-
cagei nduct ionmot orrot orasy mmet ryoccur s
mai nlyduet omanuf actur ingdef ect ,suchasdur ingthebr azingpr ocessnonuni f
or m
met allur gical stressesmayoccuri ncageassembl ywhi chledt of ailuredur ingr ot ation
ofther ot or .Alsoheav yendr ingsofr ot orr esul tinl argecent ri
fugal forceswhi chmay
causeext rast ressesont her ot orbar s.Becauseofanyoft her easonsr ot orbarmayget
damagewhi chr esult sinasy mmet rical distribut ion
ofrot orcur rents.Al so, f
orsuchasy mmet ryorf orlongr unoft hemot orifanyoft he
rotorbarget scr ackedov er heat ingwi l
l occuri nt hecr ackedposi tionwhi chmayl eadt o
breaki ngoft hebar .Nowi foneoft hebar sbr eaks, t
hesi debar swi llcarryhi gher
current sf orwhi chlar gert her mal andmechani cal str
essesmayhappenont hesesi de
bars.I ft her otorcont i
nuest or ot atei nt hiscondi tion,thesi debar smayal sogetcr acked
[13]—t husdamagemayspr ead, leadi ngt of ract ureofmul t
iplebar soft her otor .Thi s
crackingmayoccuratv ar iousl ocat i
onsoft her ot or,
suchasi nbar s, inendr ings, orat
thejoi ntsofbar sandendr ings.Possi bi l
ityismor eatt hejointsofbar sandendr ings.
Mor eov er, possi bil
itiesofcr acki ncr easei fmot orst art-upt i
mei slongandal soi fmot or
i
ssubj ectt of requentst ar tsandst ops
2.5Br okenRot orBarFaul t
2.5.1Gener alDescr ipti
onofBr okenRot orBar
Thesqui rrel cageofani nduct ionmot orconsi stsofr ot orbar sandendr ings.I foneor
mor eoft hebar si spar tiallycr ackedorcompl et elybroken, thent hemot orissai dt o
hav ebr okenbarf aul t.Figur e2. 6showsr otorandpar tsofbr okenr ot orbar .
Themai n
causesofr ot orbr okenbarofani nduct i
onmot orcanbement ioned, pointwise, as
foll
ows:
•manuf act ur i
ngdef ect s
•ther mal stresses
•mechani cal stresscausedbybear i
ngf aults
•frequentst artsoft hemot oratr atedv oltage
•duet of atigueofmet al oft her ot orbar .
2.
5.3EffectofBrokenRotorBar
Cr
ackedorbr okenbarfaultpr
oducesaser
iesofsi
debandf
requenci
es[
15,
16]
,i
nthe
st
atorcurrentsi
gnatur
egivenby
wherefi
sthesuppl
yfrequency,sisthesli
p,andkisanint
eger
.
Thi
shasbeendemonst r
atedasr i
ppleef
fectin[16]
,whi
chexpl
ainsthatt
helower
si
debandatf(
1–2s)isthestrongestwhichwill
causeri
ppl
esoftorqueandspeedata
frequencyof2sfandthi
sinturnwil
linduceanuppersi debandatf(1+2s)andthi
s
effectwil
lcont
inuet
ocreatetheabov eseriesofsi
debands,i
.e.
,f(
1±2ks).Magni
tudeof
thislowersi
debandf(
1−2s)ov erthef undamentalcanbeusedasani ndi
cat
orofrotor
brokenbarfault[
17]
.
2.6Rot orMassUnbal ance

From t heknowl edgeofconst ructionofmot oriti sknownt hatr otorispl acedi nsidet he
statorbor eandi trotatescoaxi al
lywi ththest at or.I naheal thymot or,rot oriscent rally
ali
gnedwi ththest atorandt heaxi sofr otationoft her ot ori sthesameast he
geomet ri
calaxisoft hest ator.Thi sresultsi nident ical ai rgapbet weent heout ersur face
ofther otorandt hei nnersur f
aceoft hest ator.Howev er, i
fther otorisnotcent rall
y
ali
gnedori tsaxisofr otat i
onisnott hesameast hegeomet rical axisoft hest ator,then
theairgapwi l
l notbei dent i
cal andt hesituat i
oni sr ef er redasai r-gapeccent ri
city.I
n
factair-gapeccent r
icit
yiscommont orotorf aulti nani nduct i
onmot or.Ai r-gap
eccent ri
cit
ymayoccurduet oanyoft her ot orfaul tsl iker otormassunbal ancef ault,
bowedr otorfault,etc.Duet othisair-gapeccent ricityf aul t,i
nani nduct ionmot or
electromagnet icpul lwil
l beunbal anced.Ther ot orsi dewher et he
airgapi smi nimum wi l
lexper iencegr eaterpul landt heopposi tesi dewi ll experience
l
owerpul landasar esultrotorwi l
l t
endt omov ei nt hegr eat erpul ldirect i
onacr osst hat
gap[ 18].Thechanceofr ot orpulloverisnor mal lygr eat estdur i
ngt hest artingper iod
whenmot orcur r
enti salsot hegr eatest.Insev erecaser otormayr ub
thest atorwhichmayr esultindamaget ot her ot orand/ orst ator[ 19].Air-gap
eccent ri
cit
ycanal socausenoi seand/ orv ibration.
2.6.1Gener al Descr i
ptionofRot orMassUnbal ance
Thisr otormassunbal anceoccurmai nl
yduet omanuf acturi
ngdefect,i
fnotmayoccur
evenaf t
eranext endedper i
odofoper ati
on,fornonsymmet r
ical
additi
onorsubtr
act i
on
ofmassar oundt hecent erofrot
ati
onofr otororduet ointernal
misali
gnmentorshaf t
bendi ngduet owhi cht hecenterofgrav i
tyofther ot
ordoesnotcoincidewiththecenter
ofr otati
on.I nsev erecaseofr otoreccentri
city
, duetounbalancedelectr
omagneticpull
i
fr otorrubst hest atort henasmal lpartofmat eri
alofrotorbodymaywearoutwhi chis
beingdescr ibedher eassubt racti
onofmass,
resultinginr otormassunbal ancefault.Fi
gure2. 7showsr otormassunbalancefault.
2.6.2Cl assif
icati
onofMassUnbal ance
Ther ear ethreetypesofmassunbal ancedrotor:
(a)St ati
cmassunbal ancedr otor
(b)Coupl eunbalancer ot
or
(c)Dy nami cunbalancer ot or.
2.6.2.1St at
icMassUnbal ancedRot or
Fort hisfaultshaftrotati
onal axisandweightdistr
ibut
ionaxisofrotorar
eparall
elbut
offset,asshowni nFig.2. 8.Wi thoutspeci
al equi
pmentthistypeofeccentr
ici
tyi
s
diffi
culttodet ect[20]
.2.6. 2.2Coupl eUnbalanceRotor
I
ti sshowni nFig.2.9.Ifthisf aultoccurst
hent heshaftr
otati
onalaxisandweight
distri
but i
onaxi sofrotorint ersectatthecenteroftherotor
.Fig.2.
8
2.6.2.3Dy namicUnbalanceRot or
Itisshowni nFig.2.
10.Ifthi
sfaul
toccur sthenshaftrotati
onalaxi
sandwei ght
distri
butionaxisofrotordonotcoincide.Itist
hecombi nat
ionofcouplingunbalance
andst aticunbalance.
Themai ncausesofr otormassunbal anceinani nducti
onmot orcanbement ioned,
pointwise, asfoll
ows:
•manuf acturi
ngdefect
•internalmi sal
ignmentorshaftbending
•itmayoccuraf t
eranextendedperi
odofoper at
ion,fornonsymmet r
icaladdi
ti
onor
subt r
actionofmassar oundthecenterofrotati
onofr otor.
2.6.3Ef f
ectofRot orMassUnbal ance
I
fi nani nduct i
onmot orrot
ormassunbal anceoccur s,it
seffectwillbeasf ol
l
ows:
•Massunbal ancepr oducesdy namiceccent ri
cit
ywhi chresultsi
nosci l
lati
onintheair
gapl ength.
•Osci ll
ati
oni nt heairgaplengthcausesv ariati
oninai rgapfluxdensity,andhence
variati
oni ninducedv ol
tageinthewi ndi
ng.
•Inducedv oltagecausescur rentwhosef requenciesar edeterminedbyt hefrequencyof
theai rgapf l
uxdensi tyharmoni cs.Thestatorcurrentharmoni cs[21,22]isgi
venby
2.7Bear ingFaul t
Twoset sofbear i
ngsar epl acedatbot htheendsoft her otorofani nductionmot orto
suppor tther otati
ngshaf t
.Theyhel dther otorinpl aceandhel pittor otatef r
eelyby
decreasi ngt hefri
ctions.Eachbear ingconsi stsofani nnerandanout err i
ngcal l
ed
racesandasetofr oll
ingelement scalledbal lsinbet weent heset wor aces.
Nor mally,incaseofmot or,innerracei sat t
achedt otheshaf tandl oadi stransmi tt
ed
throught her otati
ngbal ls—thi sdecreasest hef rict
ion.Usi nglubricant( oilorgrease)in
betweent her acesfricti
oni sf ur
therdecr eased.Fi gure2. 11showsat y pi
cal bal
l beari
ng
andFi g.2. 12showsadi ssect edballbear i
ng.
Anyphy sical damageoft hei nnerraceori nt heout erraceoront hesur faceoft heballs
i
st ermedasbear ingf ault
.Int ermsofi nduct i
onmot orf ail
ure,bearingi stheweakest
componentofani nduct i
onmot or.Iti
st hesi nglelargestcauseoff aultininduction
mot or.Aspert hestudyofI EEEandEPRI ,giveni nTabl e2.3,41–42%ofi nduction
mot orfaul tsareduet obear i
ngf ai
lure[7, 9]
.Fi g.2.11
Causesandef fectsofbear i
ngf ailure:
1.Excessi vel oads, tightf it
s, andexcessi vet emper atur er ise:all ofthesecananneal the
twor acesandbal lmat erials.Theycanal sodegr ade, ev endest roy,thel ubri
cant .Ift he
l
oadexceedst heel ast icl i
mi toft hebear ingmat eri
al ,br inelli
ngoccur s.
2.Fat iguef ailure: t
hi si sduet ol ongr unoft hebear ings.I tcausesf ractur eand
subsequent lyr emov al ofsmal ldiscretepar ticlesofmat er i
alsfrom t hesur f
acesof
racesorbal ls.Thi sty peofbear ingf ail
urei spr ogressi ve, thatis, i
foncei nit
iatedwi l
l
spreadwhenf urtheroper ationofbear i
ngst akespl ace.Fort hisbear ingf ail
ur e,vibrati
on
andnoi sel ev el ofmot orwi ll increase[ 23] .
3.Cor r
osi on: thi sresul t sifbear ingsar eexposedt ocor rosi vefluids( acids,et c.
)or
corrosi v eat mospher e.I flubr icant sdet eri
or ateort hebear ingsar ehandl edcar elessl y
duringi nst allat i
on, thenal socor rosionofbear i
ngsmayt akepl ace[ 23].Ear l
yf ati
gue
fail
ur emaycr eepi nduet ocor rosion.
4.Cont ami nat ion: itisoneoft hel eadingf actor sofbear ingf ail
ur e.Lubr icantsget
cont ami nat edbydi rtandot herf oreignpar t
icleswhi char emostof t
enpr esentin
i
ndust rial env ironment .Hi ghv i
brat i
onandwearar et heef fectsof
cont ami nat ion.
5.Lubr icantf ai l
ure: forr est rictedf lowofl ubricantorexcessi v
et emper aturet hi
st akes
place.I tdegr adest hepr oper tyoft helubricantf orwhi chexcessi vewearofbal lsand
racest akespl acewhi chr esul tsi nov erheating.I fbear i
ngt emper atureget st oohi gh,
grease( thel ubr i
cant )mel tsandr unsoutofbear ing.Di scol oredbal lsandbal lt
racksar e
thesy mpt omsofl ubr icantf ailure.
6.Mi salignmentofbear ings: fort hi s, weari nt hesur f acesofbal l
sandr acest akespl ace
whi chresul tsi nr isei nt emper at ureoft hebear i
ngs. I
ti sobser vedt hatf oranyoft he
bear i
ngf ailur es, nor mal lyfrict ioni ncr easeswhi chcausesr iseint emper at ur eoft he
bear i
ngsandi ncr easei nv i
br at ionoft heconcer nedmachi ne.Fort his,bear ing
temper at ureandv ibrationcanpr ov ideusef ulinformat ionr egar di ngbear ingcondi t
ion
andhencemachi neheal th[ 23, 24] .
2.8St atorFaul t
Statorofani nduct ionmot ori ssubj ect ed[ 25]t ov ariousst ressessuchas
mechani cal,elect rical,ther mal ,andenv ironment al[18] .Dependi ngupont hesev erit
yof
thesest ressesst atorf aul t
smayoccur .Iff orawel l-
desi gnedmot oroper at ionsand
mai ntenancear edonepr oper ly ,thent hesest ressesr emai nundercont rol .Thest ator
faultscanbecl assi fiedas( i
)f aul tsi nl ami nat ionsandf r
ameofst atorand( ii
)f ault
si n
statorwi ndi ng.Outoft heset hesecondonei st hemostcommonst at orf aul t.
Aspert hest udyofI EEEandEPRI ,gi veni nTabl e2. 3, 28–36%ofi nduct ionmot orfaul ts
arest atorwi ndi ngf aul t[7,9] .Maj or it
yoft hesef aul t
sar eduet oacombi nat ionofabov e
stresses.
2.8.1St atorWi ndingFaul t
Thisf aultisduet of ail
ur eofi nsul at i
onoft hest atorwi ndi ng.I tismai nlyt er medasi nter-
turnshor t-
circui tf ault.Dif f
er entt y pesofst atorwi ndingf aul tsar e( i)shor tci rcuit
betweent wot urnsofsamephase—cal ledt urn-to-turnf aul t,(i
i)shor tci rcui tbet ween
twocoi lsofsamephase—cal ledcoi ltocoi lfault,(iii
)shor tci rcuitbet weent urnsoft wo
phases—cal ledphaset ophasef aul t ,
( i
v )shor tci r
cui tbet weent urnsofal lthreephases,
(v)shor tci r
cui tbet weenwi ndi ngconduct or sandt hest atorcor e—cal l
edcoi l t
ogr ound
fault,and( v i
)open- circuitf aul twhenwi ndingget sbr eak.
Differentt ypesofst atorwi ndi ngf aul tsar eshowni nFi g.2. 13.Shor t
-circui twi ndingf aul
t
showsupwhent ot alorapar tial oft hest atorwi ndingsgetshor ted.
Open- circuitf aul tshowsupwhent otal orapar t
ial oft hest atorwi ndingsget
disconnect edandnocur rentf lowsi nt hatphase/ line( Figs.2. 14and2. 15) .
2.8.
2CausesandEf fectsofSt atorWi ndingFaul ts
(i
)Mechani cal Stresses—t hesear eduet omov ementofst at
orcoilandrotorstri
ki
ngthe
stat
or[25].Coi lmov ementwhi chi sduet ot hest atorcurrent(asforceisproporti
onalt
o
thesquareoft hecur r
ent[26])
mayl oosent het opsticksandal somaycausedamaget o
thecopperconduct orandi t
sinsulat i
on.
Rotormayst r
iket hest atorduet orotor-t
o-st atormi sal
ignmentorduet oshaf t
defl
ecti
onorduet obear ingfailureandi fstrikest henthest r
iki
ngf or
cewillcausethe
stat
orlaminat i
onst opunct urethecoi li
nsul ati
onr esulti
ngcoi lt
o
groundfault.Hi ghmechani calvibrati
onmaydi sconnectt hestatorwindi
ngpr oduci
ng
theopen-circuitfault[27].
(i
i)Elect ri
cal St resses—t hesear emai nlyduet ot hesuppl yv oltaget ransi ent .Thi s
transientar i
sesduet odi ff erentf aults( likel i
ne- to-li
ne, li
ne- to-gr ound, ort hr ee-phase
fault),duet ol ight ning, openi ng, orcl osi ngofci rcui tbreaker s
orduet ov ariabl ef requencydr i
v es[ 25] .Thi st ransi entv oltager educesl ifeofst ator
wi ndingandi nsev erecasemaycauset ur n-t
o- turnort urn-to- groundf ault.
(i
ii)Ther mal st resses—t hesear emai nl yduet ot hermal ov erloadi ngandar ethemai n
reason, amongt heot herpossi blecauses, f
ordet eriorationoft hei nsul ationoft hest ator
wi nding.Ther mal st r
esshappensduet oov ercur rent
fl
owi ngduet osust ainedov er l
oadorf aul t,hi
gherambi entt emper atur e,obst r
uct ed
vent i
lati
on, unbal ancedsuppl yv ol t
age, et c.[25] .At humbr ul eist her ewhi chst atest hat
wi ndingt emper atur ewi ll incr easeby25%i nt he
phasehav i
ngt hehi ghestcur renti fther ei sav ol tageunbal anceof3. 5%perphase[ 18].
Wi ndingt emper atur ewi llal soi ncr easei fwi t
hinashor tspanoft i
meanumberofst arts
andst opsar emadei nt hemot or.Whatmaybet he
reason, ifwi ndi ngt emper at urei ncr easesandt hemot orisoper atedov eri tst emper ature
l
imi t,thebesti nsul at i
onmayal sof ailqui ckly.Thet humbr ul e,int hisr egar d,st atest hat
forev ery10° Ci ncreasei nt emper atur eabov et he
statorwi ndingt emper atur el imi t,thei nsul ati
onl ifeisreducedby50%[ 28, 18] .Tabl e2. 4
showst heef fectofr i
seoft emper atur eabov eambi entont hei nsul ationofwi nding[ 18].
(i
v )Env i
ronment al stresses—t hesest ressesmayar i
sei fthemot oroper at esi nahost il
e
env i
ronmentwi tht oohotort oocol dort oohumi d.Thepr esenceoff orei gnmat erialcan
cont ami natei nsul at i
onofst atorwi ndi ngandal somay
reducet herat eofheatdi ssi pat i
onf rom t hemot or[ 29],resul tingr educt ioni n
i
nsulati
onli
fe.Ai
rfl
owshoul
dbef r
eewherethemot
ori
ssi
tuat
ed,other
wisetheheat
generat
edintherot
orandstat
orwil
li
ncr
easethewi
ndi
ngt
emperaturewhichwil
l
reducethel
ifeofi
nsul
ati
on.
2.
9Singl
ePhasingFaul
t
Thisi
sapowersupply-
rel
atedel
ect
ri
calf
aul
tincaseofaninduct
ionmotor.Forathree-
phasemotorwhenoneofthephasesget
slostt
henthecondit
ionisknownassingle
phasi
ng.
2.
9.1CausesofSinglePhasingFaul
t
Si
nglephasi
ngfaultinaninduct
ionmotormaybeduet o
•Adownedlineorabl ownfuseoftheuti
li
tysystem.
•Duetoanequipmentf ai
l
ureofthesupplysystem.
•Duetoshortci
rcuiti
nonephaseoft hestar
-connect
edordel
ta-
connect
edmot
or.
2.9.2Eff
ectsofSinglePhasi ngFaul t
Effect
sofsi ngl
ephasingf aultareasf oll
ows:
•Forsinglephasingfaultmot orwi ndingsgetov erheated, pri
mar i
lyduetofl
ow of
negativ
esequencecur r
ent.
•Ifduri
ngr unni
ngcondi t
ionoft hemot orsinglephasingf aultoccursmotorconti
nuest
o
runduet othetorqueproducedbyt her emaini
ngt wophasesandt hi
stor
queis
producedaspert hedemandbyt heload—asar esulthealthyphasesmaybeov er
l
oadedandhenceov erheatedr esultingincrit
icaldamaget othemot ori
tsel
f.
•At hr
ee-phasemot orwillnotst artifasinglephasingf aultalr
eadypersi
stsinthe
supplyli
ne.
2.10Crawling
Iti
sanel ectr
omechanicalf
aultofaninduct
ionmotor.Whenaninducti
onmotor,t
hough
theful
l
-loadsupplyi
spr ov
ided,doesnotacceler
atebutrunsataspeednear
lyone-
sevent
hofi tssy
nchronousspeed, t
hephenomenoni sknownascrawli
ng.
2.10.
2CausesofCr
awl
ing
Crawli
ngi
scausedbyt
he7thharmoni
c.The7thharmoni
cisint
roduceddueto
abnormal
magnetomoti
vefor
ce.Anot
herreasoni
shighhar
moniccontenti
nthepower
suppl
ytothemotor
.
2.10.
3Ef f
ectsofCr awling
Foll
owingar etheef fectsofcrawl i
ng:
•Mot orunderl oadedcondi t
ionwi l
lnotaccel
erat
euptoit
snormalspeed.
•Loadedmot orwi l
lremai nr
unni ngataspeednearl
yone-
sevent
hofthesynchr
onous
speed.
•Therewi l
lbemuchhi gherstatorcurr
ent.
•Mot orvi
brationandnoi sewill
behi gh.
2.11Ov erVoltage,UnderVol tage,Ov erl

oad, andBlockedRot or
Ov erandunderv oltagesoccurduet ochangeofv oltagelev elatsupplyend.Ov er
voltagecausesst ressoni nsulati
on, whereasunderv ol
tagecausesexcessi v
el i
ne
currenti ncr
easingt emper at
ureoft hewi nding.Thesef aultsarenor mallydetect
edby
over /undervoltager el
ays.Ov erl
oadoccur sduet oincr easeofmechani call
oadabov e
ther ati
ngoft hemot or.Atexcessivemechani call
oad, rotorfailstorot
ateandget s
blocked.Thi ssituationisequivalenttoshor tcir
cuit.Normal ly,overl
oadandbl ocked
rotorar eprotectedbyov ercurrentrelayorsimplyfuse.
2.12Condi ti
onMoni t
oringandI t
sNecessi t
y
Induct i
onmot or
sar ethemai nwor khorseofindustrialpr
imemov ersduetot heir
ruggedness, l
owcost ,l
owmai nt
enance,reasonablysmal lsi
ze,r
easonabl
yhi gh
effi
ciency,andoper ati
ngwi thaneasilyavail
ablepowersuppl y.About50%oft hetotal
gener atedpowerofanat ionisconsumedbyt heseinducti
onmot ors[30]
.Thisst at
isti
cs
givesani dearegardingt heuseofhugenumberofi nducti
onmot ors,
buttheyhav e
somel i
mi t
ati
onsint heiroperati
ngconditi
ons.Iftheseconditi
onsexceedt hensome
prematurefai
luremayoccuri nstatoror /andr otor.Thisfail
ure,i
nmanyappl i
cationsi
n
i
ndust r
y,mayshutdown, even, t
heent ireindustrialprocessresult
ingl
ossofpr oducti
on
ti
meandmoney .Hence,i
tisani mportanti ssuet oav oi
danyki ndoffai
lur
eofi nducti
on
motor.Operatorsandtechnici
ansofi nduct ionmot or
sar eunderconti
nualpressureto
preventunscheduleddowntimeandal sot or educemai ntenancecostof
motors.Maintenanceofel
ect r
icalmotor scanbedonei nt hr
eef or
ms:breakdown
maintenance,fi
xed-t
imemai ntenance, andcondi t
ion-
basedmai nt
enance.
ACGENERATOR/
ALTERNATOR
Cl assi fi
cat i
onoft hemaj orfault
sofel ect r
icalmachinesandt heirsy
mpt oms
Mostoft hesur veysoff ail
uresinelectri
cal rot
ati
ngmachi nesindicat
et hati ngeneral,
failuresar edomi natedbybear i
ngandst atorwindingfai
lureswithrot
orwi nding
probl emsbei nglessf r
equent .Therepor t
edper centagefai
luresbycomponent sforthe
sampl ewasasf oll
ows
-bear ingr elated41%
-stat orrelated37%
-rot orrelated10%
-ot hers12%
Themaj orfaul t
sofel ectri
calmachi nescanbr oadlybeclassif
iedast hef ollowi
ng:
a)St atorf aultsresult
ingint heopeningorshor t
ingofoneormor eofast at orphase
wi ndi ng,
b) abnor mal connectionoft hestatorwi ndings,
c)br okenr otorbarorcr ackedr otorend-rings,
d) stat i
cand/ ordynami cair-
gapi rr
egulariti
es,
e)bentshaft(dy
nami ceccentri
cit
y)whichcanresul
tinarubbet
weent
her
otorand
stator
,causingseri
ousdamaget ostat
orcoreandwindings
f)
shortedrotorfi
eldwindi
ng, and
g)beari
ngandgear boxfail
ures.
Thesef aul
tsproduceoneormor eof
thesymptomsasgi
venbel
ow:
a)Unbalancedair-
gapv ol
tagesandli
necurrent
s,
b)Incr
easedt or
quepulsations,
c)
decr easedaveragetorque,
d)incr
easedlossesandr educti
onineff
ici
ency,and
e)excessiveheati
ng.
Thedi agnost i
cmet hodst oident i
fytheabov efault
smayi nvol
vesever
aldif
ferentty
pes
off i
eldsofsci enceandt echnology .Theycanbedescr ibedas:
a)electromagnet i
cf iel
dmoni tori
ng, sear
chcoi l
s,coi
lswoundar oundmotorshafts(axi
al
fl
uxr elateddet ection),
b)temper at uremeasur ement s,
c)i
nf r
aredr ecogni ti
on,
d)radiof requency( RF)emi ssionsmoni t
oring,
e)noiseandv ibrationmoni tor
ing,
f)
chemi cal analysis,
g)acoust icnoi semeasur ement s,
h)mot orcur r
entsi gnat ureanal ysi
s( MCSA) ,
i
)model ,artif
icialintell
igenceandneur alnetworkbasedtechni
ques.
Oftheabovetypesoffaul
ts1)t
hestatororarmatur
efault
s,ii
)thebrokenbarandend
ri
ngfaul
tsofinduct
ionmachi
nes,i
i
i)beari
ng,iv
)theeccentr
ici
tyrel
atedfaul
tsaret
he
mostpreval
entonesandthusdemandspecialatt
enti
oninourresearch.
Vari
oustypesoffault
sandthei
rdetect
iontechni
ques.
A.Beari
ngf aults
Themaj ori
tyofel ectricalmachi nesusebal lorrolli
ngel ementbear i
ngs.Eachoft hese
beari
ngsconsi st soft wor ings,onei nnerandt heot herout er.Asetofbal lsorr ol
li
ng
el
ement splacedi nr aceway srot ateinsidetheser ings.Ev enundernor mal operati
ng
condit
ionswi thbal ancedl oadandgoodal ignment ,fat i
guef ail
uresmayt akepl ace.
Thesef aul
tsmayl eadt oi ncreasedv ibrati
onandnoi sel ev els.Flakingorspal l
ingof
beari
ngsmi ghtoccurwhenf at
iguecausessmal lpiecest obr eakl oosef r
om thebear i
ng.
Otherthanthenor mal internaloper atingst r
esses, causedbyv i
br ati
on, i
nherent
eccentri
cit
y,andbear ingcur rentsduet osolidstatedr ives, beari
ngscanbespoi l
edby
manyot herext ernal causessuchas:
a)cont
ami nati
onandcor rosioncausedbypi tti
ngandsandi ngact ionofhar dand
abrasi
vemi nutepar ticlesorcor rosiveact i
onofwat er ,acidet c.
b)i
mproperl ubricat i
on; whi chincl udesbot hov erandunderl ubri
cat i
oncausi ng
heati
ngandabr asion.
c)I
mproperi nstallationofbear ing.Byi mproper l
yfor cingt hebear ingontot heshaf tor
i
nt hehousing( duet omi sal i
gnment )i ndentati
onsar eformedi nt her aceway s
(bri
nell
ing).
Thoughal most40-45%ofal lmotorfai
l
uresi sbear
ingrel
ated,ver
yli
ttl
ehasbeen
report
edi nli
ter
atur
er egardingbeari
ngrelatedfaul
tdetecti
on.Beari
ngfault
smi ght
mani f
estthemselvesasr otorasymmet ryfault
s,whichareusuall
ycoveredunderthe
categoryofeccentri
cityrel
atedfault
s.
B.St at
ororar mat uref aults
Thesef aul
t sar eusual l
yr elatedt oinsulati
onf ai
lur
e.I
ncommonpar l
ancetheyare
gener all
yknownasphase- to-groundorphase- to–phasefault
s.I
tisbeli
evedthatthese
faultsst ar
tasundet ectedt urn-to-t
urnfaults,whichfi
nal
lygrowandculminateinto
maj orones.Al most30- 40%ofal lr
eportedinduct i
onmotorfai
lur
esfall
sinthi
scat egor
y.
Ar matur eorst atorinsulat i
oncanf ailduet oseveralr
easons.Pri
mari
esamongt hese
are:
a)highst atorcor eorwi ndingt emper atures,
b)slackcor elami nation,slotwedgesandj oints.
c)Loosebr acingf orendwi ndi ng.
d)Cont ami nationduet ooi l
, moistureanddi r
t.
e)Shor tcir
cuitorst arti
ngst r
esses
f)Electri
cal di
schar ges
g)Leakagei ncool ingsy stems
Ther ear eanumberoft echni quest odet ectt hesef aults.[Penman1997]wasabl et o

detectt urntot urnf aultsbyanal y singt heaxi alfluxcomponentoft hemachi neusi nga
l
argecoi lwoundconcent rical lyaroundt heshaf tofthemachi ne.Ev enthef aultposi t
ion
couldbedet ect edbymount ingf ourcoi lssy mmet ri
callyinthef ourquadr antsoft he
mot oratar adiusofabouthal fthedi stancef r
om t heshaf ttot hestatorendwi nding.
[Tolyi
at1995]hasshownt hroughbot hmodel l
i
ngandexper iment at ionthatt hesef aultsr esulti nasymmet ryinthemachi nei mpedance
causingt hemachi net odr awunbal ancephasecur r
ent s.Thisisther esultofnegat ive
sequencecur r
entsf l
owi ngi nt hel ineasal sohav ebeenshowni n[Wi ll
i
amson1984] .Howev er,
negat i
v esequencecur rentscanal sobecausedbyv oltageunbal ance, machi ne
saturationet c.[ Kli
man1996]model theseunbal ancewhi chal soincludesinst rument
asymmet ri
es.I tisrepor tedt hatwi tht hesemodi f
icati
onsi tispossi bleevent odet ecta
onet urn“ bolted”f aul toutofat otal 648t ur ns.St ati
sticalprocesscont r
ol (
SPC)
techniqueshav ealsobeenappl i
edt odet ectst atorfaul t
s
C.Brokenr otorbarandendr ingf aul ts
Unlikest atordesi gn, cager ot ordesi gnandmanuf actur i
nghasunder gonel it
tlechange
overt hey ears.Asar esultrot orfailuresnowaccountf oraround5- 10%oft otal i
nduct ion
mot orf ail
ures.
Cager otorsar eoft wot ypes: castandf abr icated.Pr eviouslycastr otorswer eonl yused
i
nsmal lmachi nes.Howev er, withtheadv entofcastduct edr otors;casti
ngt echnol ogy
canbeusedev enf ort her otor sofmachi nesi nther angeof3000kW.Fabr icat edr otors
aregener al
lyf oundi nlargerorspeci alappl icationmachi nes.Castr otorsthoughmor e
r
uggedthant
hefabr
icat
edtype
,
canalmostnev
erberepai
redoncef
aul
tsl
i
kecr
ackedorbr
okenr
otorbar
sdev
elopi
n
t
hem.
Ther easonsf orr ot orbarandendr i

ngbr eakagear esev eral.Theycanbecausedby :
a)ther mal st r
essesduet ot her mal ov erloadandunbal ance, hotspot sorexcessi v e
l
osses, spar king( mai nlyf abr icat edr ot or s) .
b)Magnet icst ressescausedbyel ect romagnet icfor cesunbal ancedmagnet i
cpul l,
elect r
omagnet i
cnoi seandv ibr ation.
c)Resi dual stressesduet omanuf act ur ingpr oblems.
d)Dy nami cst ressesar isingf rom shaf ttor ques, cent rifugal for cesandcy cli
cst resses.
e)Env ironment al st ressescausedbyf orexampl econt ami nat ionandabr asi onofr ot or
mat er ial duet ochemi cal sormoi stur e.
f)Mechani cal stressesduet ol oosel ami nat i
ons, fatiguedpar ts,bear i
ngf ai
lureet c.
[Kliman1988] ,[Thomson1988] , [Filippet ti1996] ,[Elkasabgy1992]usedspect rum
anal ysisofmachi nel inecur rent( MCSA)t odet ectbr okenbarf aul ts.Theyi nvest igat e
thesi debandcomponent sar oundt hef undament al fordet ect ingbr okenbarf aul ts.
[Elkasabgy1992]hasal soshownt hatbr okenbarf aul tscanal sobedet ect edbyt i
me
andf requencydomai nanal ysi sofi nducedv oltagesi nsear chcoi l
spl acedi nter nal l
y
aroundst at ortoot ht ipandy okeandext ernallyonmot orf rame.Fol lowi ngt hewor kof
[Penman1986] , det ectionoft hesef aul tsi sal sopossi bl eby
frequencydomai nanal ysisofshaf tf luxormor egener allyaxial l
eakagef luxwhi chi s
moni tor edbyusi nganext er nal sear chcoi lwoundar oundt heshaf tofamachi ne.
Model lingofr otorbarandendr ingf aul tshav ebeendescr ibedby[ Tol yiat1995] .Br oken
bardet ect i
onusi ngst at eandpar amet erest i
mat iont echni queshav eal sobeenr epor ted
[Cho1992] .Howev er,thecur rentspect rum andt hepar amet erest imat i
onappr oach
hav ebeencompar edandt hef or merhasbeenf oundmor eef ficient[ Fi
lipet ti1994] .
D.Eccent rici t
yr elat edf aul ts
Machi neeccent r i
ci tyist hecondi ti
onofunequal ai r
-gapt hatexi stsbet weent hest ator
andr ot or[ Vas1993] ,[Camer on1986] .Wheneccent ricitybecomesl arge, ther esul ting
unbal ancedr adi al forces( alsoknownasunbal ancedmagnet icpul lorUMP)cancause
statort or ot orr ub, andt hiscanr esul ti nt hedamageoft hest at orandr ot or.Ther ear e
twot ypesofai r-gapeccent ricity: thest at icair-gapeccent r i
cityandt hedy nami cai r-gap
eccent ricity .Inthecaseoft h
est aticai r-gapeccent ri
city ,theposi tionoft hemi nimal radi al air-gapl engt hi sf ixedi n
space.St at iceccent r
icitymaybecausedbyt heov alityoft hest at orcor eorbyt he
i
ncor rectposi ti
oni ngoft her ot ororst at oratt hecommi ssi oni ngst age.I fther otor -shaft
assembl yissuf fici ent l
yst i
ff, thel ev el ofst aticeccent ricitydoesnotchange.I ncaseof
dy nami ceccent rici ty,the
cent reoft her ot ori snotat t
hecent reoft her otat ionandt heposi ti
onofmi ni mum ai r-
gapr ot ateswi t
ht her otor .Thi smi sal i
gnmentmaybecausedduet osev eral fact ors
suchasabent
rotorshaf t, bear ingwearormi sal ignment ,mechani cal resonanceatcr i
tical speed, etc.
Dy nami ceccent ricityi nanewmachi nei scont rolledbyt het ot al indi catedr eadi ng( TIR)
or“ run- out ”oft her otor[ Thomson1997] .Anai r-gapeccent r
ici t
yofupt o10%i s
per mi ssi ble.Howev er,manuf act ur ersnor mallykeept het ot al eccent ri
citylev el ev en
l
owert omi nimi seUMPandt or educev i
brati
onandnoi se.Thepr esenceofst aticand
dynami ceccent ri
cit
ycanbedet ectedusingmot orcur rentsignat ureanalysis-MCSA
[Vas1993] ,[Camer on1986] .Model li
ngbasedappr oachest odetecteccent r
icityrelated
component si nlinecur renthav ebeendescr i
bedi n[Nandi 1998- 1],[
Nandi 1998- 2]
.The
simulationr esultsobtai nedt hrought hemodel sar ealso
wellsuppor tedbyper meanceanal y
sisandexper iment alresult
s.Vi brati
onsi gnal scan
alsobemoni toredtodet ecteccent ri
cit
y-r
elatedfaults.Thehi ghf requencyv i
brat i
on
component sf orsta
ti
cordy nami ceccent ricityaregi venby[Camer on1986] .Timest eppi ngfinit
eel ement
met hodshav ebeenempl oyedr ecentl
ytocompar esimul atedresul tswithexper iment all
y
obtainedst atic
eccent r
icit
ycomponent sinl i
necur rent
s[Barbour1997] .Stati
ceccent r
icit
yhasal so
beenmodel ledusi ngWi ndingFunct i
onAppr oach[ Toli
y at1996].Ot herappr oaches, such
asmoni tor
ingt hest atorv oltageandCur r
entPar k’
sVect or[Cardoso1993]t odet ect
eccent r
ic
i
tyini nductionmot or,canal sobef oundinliter
ature.[Tol y
iat1997]haspr ovided
simulationandexper i
ment al r
esultsforsynchronousmachi neswi thdy nami c
eccent r
icit
yr elatedfaul ts.
Al
lki
ndsoff
aul
tsi
nanal
ter
nat
orandt
hei
rpr
otect
ion.
Wecandi videalternatorfault
si ntwotype-Int
ernalfault,
Exter
nalfault.Thereisinternal
Faultli
ke1. Stat
orWi ndingFaul t(mostsevere),2.
Excitati
oncircui
tfaultorfail
ureof
rotorfi
eld,3.Unbalancedl oading.Ontheot herhand,thereisexter
nal f
aultlike3.Fail
ure
ofpr i
meMov er,4.Ov ercurr
ent, 5.
Over/underVol t
age, 6.
OverSpeed; 7.over/under
frequency.
8.Lossofsy nchronism orpull
i
ngoutofst ep.9.Overorunderf requencyf aul
t
ofalternat
or (
newl yadded) .
01.St
atorwi
ndi
ngf
aul
t.
I
tisthemostsev er
ef aultandconsi
deredmostimport
antforalter
natorpr
otect
ion.Thi
s
vi
talpr
otecti
onofalternatorstat
ori
sDiff
erent
ial
cir
cul
ati
ngcur r
entschemeorMer t
z
pr
icedif
ferent
ial
currentpr ot
ecti
onschemeofalter
nat
orisdiscussedinaseparatepost
.
02.Al
ter
nat
orPr
imeMov
erf
ail
uref
aul
torr
ever
sepowerf
aul
t-
Whatispr i
memov erinanal ternator -
Weknowaboutpr i
memov er.It
sthemechani cal
syst
em thatrotatesther otorinal t
er natororjustinsi mplewor drunst healternator.
Typi
calprimemov ersar ediesel orgasengi nes,
st eam turbine,
wi nd–t i
dal force,water
fl
owstaticforceinhy droelectricpl antwithdam et c.
Nowt hatweunder standabout
pri
memov er,i
tisclearlyunder standablet hatanyt imeapr imemov ermightf ai
ltokeep
theal
ternatorrunning.Ther ootcausesar esosimpl eli
kef uelf
lowshutupi ngas
/di
eselengine,inadequat ewat erflowi nhy droelect r
icpl
ant setc.
Theef
fectofpr
imemov
erf
ail
urei
nanal
ter
nat
or–wecani
magi
net
hesi
tuat
ion,
an
alt
ernatoriscoupledwi thprimemov errunni
ng, anditi
sdirectl
yconnectedtot hegridor
somepar allelel
ectri
cal bussuppl
yingpower.Whent heprimemov erfai
l
s, i
tisstil
l
connectedt otheliv
eel ectri
cbus.Thenthealternatorfai
l
st osuppl
ypowerbutst art
s
recei
vingpowerf rom li
v eelect
ri
cbus.Thisti
met hesynchronousalt
ernatortakes
poweract sasansy nchronousmot orandrunt heenginesorturbi
neinuncont r
olledhigh
speed.Thisi scal
ledrev ersepower.
Sev eri
tyofreversepower :Forgast ur
bineandanyhy droel
ectri
csy st
em theturbi
ne
i
nst al
lediscapabl eofrunni
nginv eryhighspeeds,sowhenhi ghspeedoccur sduet o
reversepower ,anytechnici
ancandecoupl ethecircuitbreaker.Butfordi
esel/engine
system, t
her eversepowerissodanger ous,astheov erspeedlimitofenginesre
nomi nall
ike120%ofr atedspeed.Asexampl eourpl ant’sWartsil
aenginesratedspeed
was750RPM, andi t
shi ghspeedlimitwas840/ 880RPM.
Remedy- Arever
sepowerr elayi
srecommended. Butthisrel
ayshouldhavetimedel ay
toavoidfal
setri
pi ncaseofshor tti
mesy st
em distur
bance,phaseswingi
ngand
fl
uctuati
oninsynchronizat
ion.Thuswhenar eversepowerpr obl
em occur
s,thef i
rst
thi
ngistodecoupl ethecorrespondingci
rcui
tbreakertodisconnectt
healternatorf
rom
l
iveli
ne.Ifi
tisstuck,thenshutdownt hewholebus, i
fthattooisnotpossi
blet henshut
thewholepowerpl antforenginebasedpowerpl antonl
y .
03.Ov
ercur
rentf
aul
tonanal
ter
nat
or.
Causesofov ercurr
entf aultonanalter
natorist hePar t
ialbreakdownofi nt
er nal
windinginsul
ation,Ov erl
oadont hesupplysystem. Overcurrentprotecti
onf or
alt
ernatorisunnecessar ybecauseofhi ghinternalimpedanceofal ternator
, Modern
designconceptofal ternatorist
osethighinternalimpedanceofal t
ernator.
Thusi fov
er
curr
entf aul
toccurs,duet ohighint
ernali
mpedanceal ternatorcanwithstandshor t
ci
rcuitforawhi l
e.I
tcanmanual l
ydisconnectfrom thebus.
Falsetri
ppingonanal ter
natorbyovercurr
entprotect
ionr el
ay
isneedtobeconsi
dered
ast hi
smi ghtdi
sconnectalt
ernat
orfr
om busf orsomef aul
toutsideofpl
ant.
Thi
swill
causeinterrupt
ionofconti
nuousoperat
ion,soovercurrentrel
ayusedmusthaveti
me
del
ay .
04.Ov ervol
tageprot
ecti
onofanal ter
nator:
Ifwetalkaboutovervol
tageofanalternator,
itsi
nter
nalovervol
tage.Overvol
atgef
aul
t
ofanal t
ernat
orisver
yrare,
ast heexci
tationcurr
entthatcont
rol
st hevol
tagehas
closedsupervi
sionwi
thAVR, automati
cv olt
ageregul
atorsyst
em.
Howev er
,ifsomehowalternat
orsuddenlydi
sconnect
edf r
om t
heload,it
sspeed
exceedsratedspeed,ov
erv ol
tagemightoccur
.Soanov ervol
tagerel
ayis
recommencedt oinst
allwherealt
ernat
orrpm i
snotclosel
ysupervi
sed.
05.Unbal
ancedl
oadi
ngofanAl
ter
nat
or
Thisisnotadi rectfault ,
justasy mptom ofsomesev er
ef aul
ts.Butwecansummar ize
thosef aul
t si
nonef aul tcategorytoapplyacommonpr otect
ionschemef ori
t.Fi
rstof
all
,unbalancedl oadingmeanst her
earediff
erentcurrentinthreephasesofalter
nator.
Innormal condition,thedi ff
erenceinphasecurrentvaries+/-5%, butwhenthis
dif
ferenceexceeds-t heni ti
sunbalancedconditi
on.Asi ti
sstatedearl
i
erthatthi
s
unbalancedi snoti t
selfaf ault,
doesnotapplyanyham butt hecauseofunbalancedi s
harmf ulli
kegr oundi ngofonephase, orshortci
rcuitofphaset ophase.
Tosenseandpr otecttheunbal ancedloadi

ngasi mpleconcepti
onisusedthatthe
thr
eephasecurrentisequal i
nmagni tudebut120degr eesepar
atebyphaseangle.So
whenwev ector
icall
ysum upt hreephasecur r
ent-ther
esulti
szero.Thuswecanapply
somesi mpl
einstr
umentt ransformertowat choutthesummat i
onofthreephaseto
zer
o, i
fbysomemeanst hereissomev al
ueot hert
hanzerothati
snotintherangeof
tol
erabl
e,t
henthiscircui
tcansendat ri
psignal.
Thebelowci rcui
tfol
oowtheaboveconcepti
on.Seethesecondar
iesofthreeCT’sar
e
short
ed,sot hesum ofnormalphasecurr
entsi
szero,nocurr
enti
nt het
ripcoi
l.Bysome
i
nstanceifthereissomeunbalanced,
thenther
ewillbesomecurrenti
nthesecondary,
thatwil
leventual
lysentr
ipsi
gnal.
Unbal
ancedl
oadi
ng
f
aul
tpr
otect
ionofanal
ter
nat
orwi
thapr
otect
ionr
elay
.
06.St
atori
ntert
urnpr
otect
ionofal
ter
nat
or
Thisspeci
fi
cpr otect
ionisforalternat
orswithmulti
plecoi
lsturnsli
keindoublephase
windi
ngusedi nlargesteam turbinealt
ernator
s.Theconceptisthatthi
sprotecti
on
schemecov er
st hestatorcoili
nterturntoturnshor
tcir
cuit
,notcoiltocoi
l(
phaset o
phase)orcoil
togr ound(phaset oground).I
tsli
kealocalf
aultinoneofthecoi l
.
Thepr
otect
ionschemet
ocov
erst
atori
ntert
urnf
aul
tissi
mpl
ybasi
ssi
ngt
het
heor
yof
diff
erenti
altheor
y .I
nnormal condi
ti
on,thet wocoi lormul t
icoil
sindi
v i
dual
lycarr
ysame
magni t
udeofcur rentbutwit
haphasedi spl acement .I
fthiscurr
entissummedupi na
commonci rcui
tthentheresultwil
lbezero.Sowecanj ustplacesomeCT’ swiththei
r
secondariesshortedandprimarieswithindividualcoil
s.Ifsomef aul
tpersi
sts,t
hen
therewil
lbecur r
entinthesecondar i
eswhi chwi l
lenergizethetri
pcircui
t.
07.LossofSy
nchr
oni
sm orpul
li
ngoutofst
epf
aul
tofal
ter
nat
or
Thi
stypeoffaultweusedt
oseeinpowerplant
.Suddenl
yoneofalt
ernat
orshutdown
andi
nprotecti
onrel
ayfaul
tlogdi
spl
ayshows“Lossofsysnchr
oni
sm”.
Tounderstandthi
sfaultwecanhavesomebr i
eftheory
.Asinallel
ectr
icalr
otat
ing
machine,t
hecommonwor kingpr
inci
pleisthatther
eissomedi sal
ignmentgenerat
ed
betweentwoflux-r
otorfl
ux&statorf
lux.Thusaf orcei
sexert
edt ostr
aight
enthisdi
s
al
ignment-
whichisharnessedasworkingforce.
Fp=resul
tantair
-gapfluxperpol
e
Fw=mmfoft hedcfieldwindi
ng
Drf=electr
icalphaseanglebetweenmagnet
icaxesofFp&Fw
Theadj
ust
mentoft
her
otort
oit
snew
angul
arposi
ti
onf
oll
owi
ngal
oadchange
Asthepri
me-movertorqueisincr
eased,t
hemagnitudeofDrfmustincr
easeuntilt
he
el
ectr
omechani
caltorquebalancestheshaf
ttor
que.Thereadjust
mentprocessis
act
uall
yadynamicone, r
equit
ingachangeinthemechanicalspeedoft
herotor.
Ascanbeseenf rom Fig,anincr easeinprime-

mov ertorquewi l
lresulti
na
correspondi ngincreaseinthet or queangle.WhenDr fbecomes90° , t
he
electromechani caltorquereachesi t
smaxi mum value,knownast hepull-
outtor
que.Any
furtherincreaseinpr i
me-mov ert or
quecannotbebal ancedbyacor respondingi
ncrease
i
nsy nchronousel ectr
omechani caltorque,wi
ththeresultthatsynchronism wil
lno
l
ongerbemai ntainedandt her otorwillspeedup.Thisphenomenoni sknownasl ossof
synchr onism orpulli
ngoutofst ep.
Asremedy –Undert heseconditi

ons,thegener at
ori susuall
ydi sconnect edfrom the
ext
er nalel
ectri
calsystem bytheautomat icoperationofcircuitbr eakers,andtheprime
mov erisquickl
yshutdownt opreventdanger ousov erspeed.Thev alueofthepull-
out
tor
quecanbei ncreasedbyi ncr
easingeitherthefieldcurr
entort her esul
tantair
-gapfl
ux.
Howev er,thi
scannotbedonewi thoutli
mi t
;thefieldcurr
enti slimi t
edbyt heabili
tyto
coolthef i
eldwinding,andtheair-
gapf l
uxislimitedbysat urati
onoft hemachi neiron.
08.Ov
erf
requency&Underf
requencyf
aul
tandpr
otect
ionf
oral
ter
nat
or
Thef requencyhasaconst antst

ableval
ue, def
inedbyt heequat i
on(Ns=120f/p).But
frequencyv ar
iescausingoverandunderfrequencyf aul
t.Overorunderfrequencyhas
i
tsownsev ereeffectonboththeloadsi
deandgener at
ingequipmentside,Wear e
talki
ngher eaboutthegenerati
ngset–alternator.Thef i
rstt
hingweliketoknowwhy
theov erorunderfrequencyoccurs.
Thefr
equencyvari
ati
oncr
eatedbytheloaddemand(excessorlesst
hengenerat
ion)
.
Saywhenagenerati
ngst
ati
onproduci
ngpowerthatequalsthenetconsumpt
ionplus
theloss,thenthesystem wil
lbestabl
e.Butwhent
heloaddemandi shigherthen
producti
on, t
hati
spr oducti
onisl
owt henuse/
demandthen fr
equencywillbelow,on
theotherhandwhent heloaddemandislesst
henproduct
ionorproducti
onisexcess
thenfrequencywil
lbehi gher.
Wecansummar izeover&underfr
equencyi
namathemat
ical
conceptt
ounder
stand
andmemor i
zeasbelow-
Product
ion>Loaddemand=f requencyhi
gh
Product
ion<Loaddemand=f requencyl
ow
Product
ion=Loaddemand=f requencyst
able.
Ther emedyorpr ot
ectionofoverandunderprotecti
onissimple.Whenunderf r
equency
occursthatismor epowerconsumert henthecov er
ingcapacit
y,t
hentheonlysolut
ion
i
st oeffectl
oadsheddi ngorincr
easethepowergener at
ion.Foroverf
requencytheonly
soluti
onistolowert hepowergenerati
on.Arel
aycanbeusedt oautomatical
l
ycontrol
theloading,
unloadingofgeneratororeff
ectt
hel oadshedding.
Whatar
ethev
ari
ousf
aul
tsi
n3phasei
nduct
ionmot
or?
Induct
ionmotorf
ault
smaybecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
aul
tsonst
atorandr
otor
.Themost
commont ypeoffai
l
uresar
e:
 St
atorf
aul
tsr
esul
ti
ngi
ntheopeni
ngorshor
ti
ngofoneormor
eofst
atorphase
wi
ndi
ngsst
art
ingf
rom i
nter
-t
urnshor
tci
rcui
ts.
 Abnor
mal
connect
ionoft
hest
atorwi
ndi
ngsr
esul
ti
ngi
nunbal
ancedai
r-
gap
voltagesandl inescurrent
sandi ncr
easeintor
quepulsat
ionsr
esul
ti
nginhi
gh
vibrati
ons
 Brokenr otorbarorcrackedr ot
orend-ri
ngs
 Staticandordy namicair-
gapirr
egular
it
ies
 Bentshaf t(akintodynami ceccentr
ici
ty)whi
chcanresul
tinarubbet
weenthe
rotorandst ator
 Bear i
ngandgear boxfail
ures
CommonFaul
tsi
nbot
hACandDCMot
ors
Ifanelect
ri
calmotoristhoughttohav eaprobl
em,ther
earefiv
ecommonar easwhere
thefaultmayl
ie.Theinit
ialprobl
em (andmostcommoni ssuewithmal
funct
ioni
ng
mot or
s)maybewi ththepowerci rcui
torqual
it
yofthepowersupply
.Br
eakagescan
alsohappenwhent herearefault
swi t
hinsul
ati
onoranairgap,al
ongwi
thpossibl
e
defect
swi t
hthemot or’
sstatororrotor
.
Here,werev
iewsomecommonpr
obl
emswi
thACandDCmot
orsandt
hei
rpossi
ble
causes:
TheMot
orI
sNotMount
edCor
rect
ly
Inadequatemount i
ngofthemot orcanl eadtodefect
swheni ti
snotcorrect
lyl
evelled
aspar toftheinst
all
ati
onprocess.Ift hehousingisnotproper
lybol
tedtotherestofthe
assembl yorthesurr
oundings,unev enst r
essesmayar i
se.Thi
sissometimescalled
‘
softfoot’andleadstoirr
egularoper ati
on,dist
ort
ionofthebeari
ngsandphy si
calfail
ure
overtime.Tocor r
ectthi
s,stai
nlessst eelshi
msmaybeusedunderhi ghfeetorpartsof
thebaset olevelt
hem.
TheMot
ori
sCl
oggedWi
thDust
Inphysicallydir
tyenvir
onment s,theaccumulat
ionofdustinsi
deamot orcanleadto
short-
circuiti
ng.I
ndust ycondi
t i
ons,i
tisimport
anttokeept hesurr
oundingareaclean
andtoempl oyDI P(dusti
ngresspr ot
ecti
on)measures.Forprefer
ence,mot or
swithIP
dustrati
ngsof5( li
mitedingr
ess–nohar mfuldeposi
t)or6( t
otal
lyprotect
edagainst
dust)aret hemostr el
iabl
eintheset ypeofoperat
ingcondi
tions.
Wat
eri
sInsi
det
heMot
or
Wateringressisasimil
arhazard–i
fli
quidsgetint
ot heter
minalboxorst
atorcoi
ls,
short-
cir
cuit
ingwill
occurandthemotorwil
lburnout.Indamp,humidorwetareas,
suff
ici
entprotect
ionmeasuresneedtobedeployed.
TheMot
ori
sOv
erheat
ing
Overheati
ngcanoccuri ft hemotori
st oosmallf
orthet ask,notfi
tforpurposeorif
changest otheloadoccur .Hi
ghambientt emper
atur
esar ealsoacauseofov erheat
ing.
Prot
ectioncircuit
ryagainstover
-t
emper atur
eoperat
ioni srecommended, sothatift
he
motorov erheatsitshut
sdown.Boost erfanscanhelp,alongwi t
hvari
ablespeeddr i
ves.
TheMot
orHasBeenSt
oredI
ncor
rect
ly
Storageforextendedper i
odsi noneposi ti
onmeanst hati
nter
nalbeari
ngscanetchint
o
themet aloftheshaft.Therefore,i
tisadvisabl
etorotatet
heshaftaquarterofatur
n
(ninetydegr
ees)everymont h.Simil
arproblemscanoccurwi t
hbearingsetchi
ngmarks
i
ntot hemot orshaftwhent hereisvibr
ation,sost
orageoncushionedmat sis
recommended.
Final
l
y,tomini
misefail
ures,
r egul
arpr
event
ati
vemaint
enancei
nspect
ionsandtasks
shouldbecarr
iedout.Powersupplyci
rcui
tr
yshoul
dincl
udeover
loadprot
ecti
onto
removetransi
entvol
tagespikes.
TOPI
C4:
DISCHARGELAMPS
Forappl
icati
onswherehighbri
ghtnessisrequi
redtoi
ll
umi
natelar
geareas,
fori
ndoor
pl
antgrowingandforothersi
milarcases,
aspecifi
cty
peofbulbsarer
equir
ed.The
mostcommonoft hesear e:
 Fl
uor
escentl
i s(
ght usedi
ndoor
s);
 LEDl
i s(
ght whil
eLEDbulbsar
ealsowi
del
yusedashousehol
dli
ght
ing,
ther
ear
e
speci
alhi
ghwat
tageLEDl
i
ght
ssui
tabl
efori
l
lumi
nat
ingl
argear
eas)
;
 HI
Dorhi
ghi
ntensi
tydi
schar
gel
i s(
ght whi
chwewi
l
lcov
eri
nthi
sar
ti
cle)
.
Ther
ear
ethr
eemai
ncat
egor
iesofl
i
ghtbul
bs:
 I
ncandescentbul
bst
hatemi
tli
ghtbyheat
ingt
ungst
enf
il
amentunt
ili
tst
art
sto
ow(
gl incandescentandhal
ogenbul
bs)
;
 Gasdi
schar
gel
ampst
hatpr
oducel
i
ghtbycr
eat
inganel
ect
ri
cdi
schar
get
hrough
i sedgas(
oni highi
ntensi
tydi
schar
gebul
bsandl
owi
ntensi
tydi
schar
gebul
bs)
;
 Li
ght
-emi
tt
ingdi
odeswher
eli
ghti
sgener
atedbypassi
ngcur
rentt
hrougha
semi
conduct
ormat
eri
al(
LEDl
i
ght
s).
Whileal mostanyoneknowswhatarei ncandescentbulbs,notsomanyknowwhatar e

gasdi schargel
amps,alt
houghtheyhad( andstil
lhave)ani mport
antrol
einindoorand
outdoorl i
ghti
ng.Somegasdi schar
gel ampsmayl ookmor esimil
artoincandescent
l
ights,whileother
s,suchasfl
uorescentlight
s,canhav ecompl et
elydif
fer
entsizeand
shape.
Thewor kingpri
ncipleofgasdischargelampsi sverydif
ferentf r
om incandescentbul bs,
i
nst eadofheat ingaf i
lamentt
opr oducelight(whichisnotv eryef f
ective,becauseal ot
ofener gyget swast edasheat )
,theypr oducel i
ghtbycr eatinganel ectricdischarge
throughani oni
sedgas.Thi sall
owst ocreat
el i
ghtatvari
ouscol ors,dependi ngont he
typeofgasusedi nthelamport heinnercoati
ngoft hetube,andal sonot ablyimproves
theef f
iciencyandl i
fet
imeofthebul b.Gasdischargelampsal sorequi r
especi alball
asts
tocont rolcurr
entflowsuppli
edtot helamp.
Gasdischargel
ampscanbeseparat
edint
ot wocategor
iesbythepr
essur
eoft hegas
i
nsi
de oft he l
amp – hi
gh pr
essur
e gas dischar
ge l
amps and l
ow pressur
e gas
di
schargelamps.
Hi
ghpr
essur
edi
schar
gel
amps
Hi
ghpressur
edischar
gel
ampscontai
npressur
izedgasessuchasar
gon,xenon,
neon,
kr
ypt
on,mercur
y,sodi
um andot
her
sinsi
deasmal lar
ctubelocat
edi
nthelamp.Gas
i
nsidehighpressuredischar
gelight
shassi mil
arorhi
gherpr essure(upto30Barand
mor e)t
hanat mosphere(appr
ox.1Bar )andsomeoft heselampsoper ateatveryhi
gh
temperatur
esupt o3000°C( 5400°F).Becauseofthehighpr essureandint
ense
dischar
ge,theseli
ghtscanbemadei nasmal l
ersi
zethanlowpr essur
edischar
ge
l
amps.
Thankstot heirpowerandbrightness, hi
ghpressur
edi schargelampsareusedt o
i
ll
uminatelargei ndoorandoutdoorar eassuchasst adiums,arenas,warehouses,
parki
nglots,shopsandot her
s.Exampl esofhighpressuredischargelampsar emercur
y
vaporlamps, highpressur
esodium v aporlampsandmet alhali
delamps.
Lowpr
essur
edi
schar
gel
amps
Lowpressur
edischargelampshav egasinsi
dethebulbinmuchlowerpr
essure(about
30mill
iBarf
orfluorescentl
i
ghts)thanatmospher
icpr e(
essur appr
ox.1Bar)andthey
oper
ateatmoder at
et emper
aturesatabout40°C(104°F).
Lowpr essuredischargelampsar eknownf ortheirhighenergyeff

iciency,sobulbssuch
asfluorescentandcompactf l
uorescentarecommonl yusedinhousehol dandof f
ice
l
ighti
ng.Someexampl esoflowpr essuredi
schargel ampsarepreviouslymentioned
fl
uorescentlamps, l
owpr essuresodium lamps(whi chareoneoft hemostef fi
cient
art
if
iciall
ightsources)andneonl ights.
Highintensit
ydischargelampsi sanothercategoryofgasdischargel
amps.These
l
ightswor kbycreati
nganel ect
ri
car cbetweenelectrodes(usual
lymadef
rom tungst
en)
l
ocatedi nasemi -
tr
ansparentortransparentarctube.Themostcommonexampl esof
highintensi
tydi
schargelampsar emet alhali
delamps, sodi
um vaporl
amps,mercury
vaporlampsandxenonar clamps.
HI
GHI
NTENSI
TYDI
SCHARGELAMPS
Whatar
eHI
Dli
ght
s?
Phi
l
ipsmet
alhal
i
deHI
Dbul
b
HIDorhi ghtintensi
tydischargeli
ghtsareaty
peofgasdi schargelampswhi chproduce
l
ightbycr eati
ng an el ect
ri
c arcbetween two elect
rodest hr
ough an ioni
sed gas.
Elect
rodes,gasandmet alsals(
t forsomeHIDl amps)areher meti
cal
lysealedinsi
dea
specialarcdischargetubemadef rom quar
tz
orsint
eredalumina.
HIDlampsal sohaveanout
erglassbulbthatpr
otect
sthei
nnerpart
soft
hebul
b,bl
ocks
ul
travi
oletli
ghtonsomebul bstypes,keepsmor eheati
nsi
det hebul
bandprot
ects
peoplearound,i
fthel
ampwast oexplodeandbreak.
HIDlampsdon’
tneedanycoat
inginsi
dei
tstubesbecauset
hearcit
sel
femi
tsv
isi
ble
l
ight
,unl
ikefl
uor
escentl
i
ghtsthathavephosphorcoat
ingt
hatgl
owswhenUVl i
ght
str
ikesit
.However,f
ew met
alhali
deandlotsofmer cur
yvaporlampshavephosphor
coatingi
nsi
dethebulbt
oimprov
etheli
ghtspect
rum andcol
orrender
ingoft
helamp.
Highintensi
tydischar
gelightbulbscomei
nwat t
agesfrom 25watt
sforsel
fball
ast
ed
metalhalidelampsand35wat tsforhi
ghi
ntensitysodi
um vaporl
ampsto1000wat t
s
forhighintensi
tymer cur
yv aporandsodi
um v aporlampsand1500wat tsformetal
hali
delamps.
Onet hingt hatdif

fersgasdi schargelampsf r
om ot hert
ypeofbul bssuchashal ogenis
t
hatt heyr equirespecialcontrolgearcal
ledbal l
asttooperate.Ballastperf
ormscert
ain
functi
onssuchasr egulat
est heamountofcur rentsuppl
iedtothei nnertubeoft
hebulb,
i
gnitest helightandsuppor t
sot herfunct
ionssuchasdi mmi ngthel amp.
HowdoHI
Dli
ght
swor
k?
Thewor ki
ngprinci
pleofeacht ypeofhighi ntensi
tydi
schargel
ampi sabi
tdi
ff
erent
,but
theysharesomesi mil
ari
ti
est hatwil
lbecov erednext
.Forhoweachspeci
fi
ctypeofHID
l
ightworks,headtothepar agraphsdedicatedspecifi
call
ytoeachty
peofHIDlamp
(Mercuryvaporlamp|Met alhali
delamp| Highpressuresodi
um l
amp).
1.EveryHI Dl ampconsi stsofanar ct ubewhi chi sf il

ledwi thgas,whatt ypeofgas
i
suseddependsont het y
peofHI Dl amp,f orexampl emet alhal i
del ampcan
contai nast artinggassuchasar gon,mer cur yandmet alsalt
s,whi leahi gh
pressur esodium lampcancont ainaxenongas,mer curyandsodi um.Insi dethe
arctubear etwomai nelectrodes( most lymadef rom tungsten),t
het ubei tselfis
usual l
ymadef rom quartztowi thstandt heexcessi veheatt hatdev elopswhi l
e
thel ampoper ates.Mostbul bshav eanout ergl asst oi mprovepr otectionand
effi
ciencyoft hebul b.Thereisal soabal l
astf oreachHI Dl ampt hatcont rolsthe
currentt hatget spassedt obot hel ectrodes,bal l
astsar erequiredt ost artthe
l
ampandensur eitoperatescor r
ect l
y .
2.Thef i
rststepf orli
ghttowor kist ost artacur rentfl
owbet weenbot ht ungsten
electrodest hrought hegas.Becauset herei sahi ghpr essureinsidet hear c,a
veryhi ghv olt
agei sr equir
edt ost artthecur rentf l
ow.OnsomeHI Dl ampsa
speci ali
gniterisusedt hatpul sest hear ct ubewi thhighv olt
ageunt ilitst r
ikes.
Whent hecur r
entf l
owbet weenbot hel ectr
odeshasbeenest abli
shed, t
hev ol
tage
i
sr educed.Thecur rentiscont r
olledbyt hebal lastoft helamp.
3.
HowHI
Dli
ght
swor
k.Sour
ce–t
hei
nter
net
.
Anar ci
screatedbetweenbothelectr
odesthatwil
lbeusedt
ovapour
izemercur
y,
sodium,met alsals(
t orothersubstancesdependingonthet
ypeoft hel
amp)
i
nsidethequartztubeandproduceintensel
ight
.
4.Thegasinsidethetubeisi onisedandactsasaconduct or.Freeelectronsfl

ow
betweenbothelect
rodesi nt heelectri
cfi
eldandcolli
dewi t
hgasmol ecul
es,
knocki
ngelect
ronsintoahigherl evel
,whentheygobacki ntothepreviouslevel
,
theyemitener
gyinf orm ofradiati
on.Thecolorofthelightwi l
ldependont he
typeofmetalvaporusedi nthel amp.Whatdiffer
slow pressuredischargeand
high pr essur e di schar ge lamps i st hatt he second ones hav e much hi gher
concent rationofexci tedmol ecul esi nt het ube,soi nr esultt heycanpr oduce
muchbr i
ght erlight.
5.Whent hear chasbeencr eat edandl ampi soper ating,t het emper atur eand
pressur ei nsidet het ubebui l
ds,whi chal soheat st hemet alsal tsl ocatedi nt he
tube,thisev ent uall
yincr easest heint ensi tyandbr i
ght nessoft hel ightpr oduced
bythel amp.MostHI Dl ampssuchassodi um v aporr equiref ewmi nutesofst art-
upt i
meunt i
lt heheatandpr essurei nsi det het ubei shi ghenoughf orthel ampt o
reacht hemaxi mum br i
ghtness( i
ncaseofsodi um v aporl ightsf orsodi um t o
vaporise) .
6.Thecol orandi nt ensityoft hel i
ghtandal sot heef f
icacyoft hel ampwi lldepend
onv ar i
ousf act orssuchast het y peofgas ( xenon,ar gonet c.)andmet als
(mercur y ,sodi um et c.)usedi nt hel ampandt heheatandpr essur ei nsidet he
tube.Toi mpr ov ethecol oroft hel ampot hermet alsal tscanal sobeusedi nside
thetube.
7.IfHIDl amphasbeenr unningf orawhi leandr eachedi t
sopt i
mal temper atur eand
theni st urnedof f,mostHI Dl ampscannotbei nst ant l
yt urnedonagai n,ast hey
needt ocool downbef oretheywi l
lr e-strike, t
hecool ingpr ocesscant akeev enup
to10or20mi nut esdependi ngont het y peofHI Dl amp.
8.HIDl ampsgener all
yhav egoodl ifespan,especi allywhencompar edt ohal ogen
orincandescentl i
ghts.Theav eragel ifespanofmer curyv aporl ampsi sabout
24000hour s,ofmet alhal i
deabout10000–15000hour sandofhi ghi ntensi t
y
sodium v aporl ampsabout10000–24000hour s.Thel i
fespanofaHI Dl amp
dependsont het otalamountofont imeandnumberofon/ of fcy cles,si mi larto
othergasl amps.
Att heendoft helif

e,HIDbulbsst ar
tt oactdifferent l
y,forexampl e,somebul bs,
ast heygetol der,requir
ehi ghervoltaget omai nt ainanel ectr
icar cbet ween
electr
odeswhi chincreasestheheati nsidethet ube.I nar esul
t,thef ixtureturns
offandneedst ocooldownbef orei
tcant ur
nonagai n.Thisprocesswi l
lrepeat
mor efrequentl
yast helampget solder.Also,whenaHI Dlampget scl osertot he
endofi tslif
e,itcanst ar
ttol oosecol oroftheemi t
tedlightori not herwor ds,
starttofade.Thepr ocessalsohappensbecauset helampneedshi gherv oltage
to operate,whi ch i
ncreases the temper at
urei nside the dischar ge tube and
result
sinaf ai
lureofthelamp.
anelect
ri
clampinwhichanencl
osedgasorv
aporgl
owsorcausesaphosphorcoat
ing
onthelamp'si
nnersur
facet
oglow.
Incandescencewasempl oyedi nTungst enFi l
amentl amps.Hal ideswer eempl oy edt o
reducebl ackeningoft hebul b.Lumni escenceandFl uor escencei ncr easeef f
ici
encyf ar
beyondi ncandescence.Di schar geofel ectricitythr oughat ubecont aini
ngaconduct ing
medi um l eadingtoel ectronFl owi sempl oy edi nLumni escence.Thi scallsforan
abundantsuppl yofel ectrons.El ectronEmi ssi onEl ect ronemi ssi oni sapr ocessby
whichabundantsuppl yofel ectr onsi sobt ained.El ectricFi eldEmi ssionisempl oyedi n
Coldcat hodeLamps.El ect r
onsar epul ledoutbyappl icationofHi ghPot ential.
Ther mi oni cEmi ssioni sempl oy edi nHotcat hodeLamps.El ectronsar eemi ttedev enat
alowv ol tagebyheat ing.Bar i
um /st rontium oxi deonabaseofi ronorTungst eni sused
asCat hode.Phot oel ectricEmi ssi on: Strikingwi thLi ghtRadi ationofPhot ons,emi ssion
i
sachi ev ed.Thusgas/v apormadeLumi nousbyanel ect ri
cdi schar ge.Col or/i ntensity
oflightar edependentonGas/v aporempl oy ed.I ntensi tyispr opor t
ionaltot hecur rent.
Commonl yusedgasesar eNeon, Mer cur yandSodi um.Col dCat hodeneedsl arge
ener gyconsumpt ionatt hecat hodewi thdecr easedef fici
ency .Thi smayl eadt o
disi
nt egr ationofcat hodewi thhi ghv elocityposi ti
v eionsduet ol ar gePot entialdropat
thecat hode.Bl ackeni ngofcat hodedoesoccur .Theyhav eLongDi schargeTubeswi th
Lowv olt ageLamps.Mer curyVaporLampsgi vel ightofBl uishGr een, defi
cientinr ed
rays.Int hiscasecol orr ender ing( CRI )impr ovesathi ghPr essur es.Consi derable
distortioni ncolor soccur s.Mer cur y–oxi decoat edCat hodes( El ectrodes)ar eempl oyed.
Inat ypi cal di
schar gel ampcoat edt ungst enwi r
eel ect rodeswi th
Stront
ium Oxi
deorBar
ium oxi
decoat
ingar
elocat
edatt
heopposi
teendsofagl
ass
tube.
Mer cur yVaporLamp
Arci saConst antCurrentPhenomenon.Thest artingelectr
odesareconnect edt olower
electrode
throughar esistance(R).Arctubecont ai
nsMer cur yatthedesir
edv aporpr essure.Pure
Argon
i
nitiatesar cpr iortovapor i
zati
onaspr essur
ei sincreased–Radi ati
onmov esintov i
si
ble
spect rum.St andardRatingar e100,250,.
..
..
.3000W wi t
hat ypi
cali
lluminationof35l m/
W.
Arci niti
ationt akesplaceat20Vatabout5A.Ar gonar clastsfor2mi nwi thabl uish
Glow.At
about137V, 3.2A–Mer curyvapori
zesandt akesov er.Runupt i
meorar ci ni
ti
ation
ti
mei sup
to30mi nutes.Lowestr unupt i
mei saround2mi nutes.Ball
astisar eactorinseriesthat
l
imi ts
thecur rent .Ty pi
calPowerf actor≈0.65–0.7capaci t
orsaddedacr osst heLamp
i
mpr ovepower
factort o0. 94.

Electrical Maintenance 1

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Electrical Maintenance 1

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NSPSI

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