BIOSCI

 Fluid Mosaic Model

CELLS AND TISSUES
o Two lipid layers arranged tail-to-tail in which protein
molecules float
CELLS o Most of the lipid portion are phospholipids
 Structural units of all living things
o A substantial amount of cholesterol is found in the plasma
 Cell Theory
membrane
o A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
o The polar heads of the phospholipid molecules are
organisms
hydrophilic and are attracted to water
o The activity of an organism depends on the collective
o Nonpolar tails are hydrophobic
activities of its cells
o Phospholipids allow biological membranes to reseal
o According to the Principle of Complementarity, the
themselves when torn
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by the relative
o The cholesterol helps keep the membrane fluid
number of their specific subcellular structures
o Proteins can be:
o Continuity of life has a cellular basis
 Carriers
 Interstitial Fluid
o Derived from the blood  Bind to a substance to move it through the
membrane
o All exchanges between cells and blood are made through
 Glycoloproteins
this
 Sugar proteins
ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL
 Determine your blood type
 Generalized Cell
o Demonstrates many features  Act as receptors that certain bacteria, viruses, or
toxins can bind to and play a role in cell-to-cell
o Three Main Regions of Cells
recognition and interactions
 Nucleus
 Adhesive or cellular glue
 Located near the center of the cell; surrounded by
 Membrane Junctions
the cytoplasm
o Tight Junction
 Cytoplasm
 Impermeable junctions that bind cells together into
 Enclosed by the plasma membrane
leakproof sheets that prevent substances from passing
 Plasma Membrane
through the extracellular space between cells
 Outer cell boundary
o Desmosomes
The Nucleus
 Anchoring junctions scattered like rivets along the
 Control center for cells
sides of abutting cells
 Contains genes
 Prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress from
 Deoxyribonucleuic Acid (DNA)
being pulled apart
o A blueprint that contains all the instructions needed for
o Gap Junctions
building the whole body
 Commonly seen in the heart and in between
o Has instructions for building proteins
embryonic cells
o Necessary for cell reproduction
 Allow communication
 Three recognizable structures: Nuclear Envelope, Nucleoli,
 Connexons
and Chromatin
 Hollow cylinders that connect neighboring cells
 Nuclear Envelope
CYTOPLASM
o A double membrane barrier bounding the nucleus
 The cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the
o Between the membranes is a fluid-filled “moat” or space
plasma membrane
o At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope  The site of most cellular activities
fuse and Nuclear Pores penetrate through the fused  Factory area of the cell
regions  Three major elements: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions
o Allows some but not all substances to pass through it  Cytosol
o Nucleoplasm o Semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements
 Jelly-like fluid that encloses the nuclear membrane  Organelles
 Nucleoli o Metabolic machinery of the cell
o Sites where ribosomes are assembled o Has specific functions per organelle
o Ribosomes  Inclusions
 Sites of protein synthesis o Chemical substances that may or may not be present,
 Chromatin depending on the specific cell type
o DNA combined with protein with a loose network of  Cytoplasmic Organelles
bumpy threads o Little organs with specialized cellular compartments each
o Chromosomes performing its own job to maintain the life of the cell
 A divided cell with two daughter cells o Mitochondria
 Rod-like bodies  Powerhouses of the cell
PLASMA MEMBRANE  Consists the mitochondrial wall which has two equal
 A fragile parent barrier that contains the cell contents and membranes placed side by side
separates them from the surrounding environment  Enzymes dissolve in the fluid within the mitochondria

 Cristae Membranes
 Carry out the reactions in which oxygen is used to
break down foods
o Ribosomes
 Made of proteins and one variety of RNA called
Ribosomal RNA
 Actual sites of protein synthesis
o Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Network within the cytoplasm
 A system of fluid-filled cisterns hat coil ad twist
through the cytoplasm
 Minicirculatory system for the cell as it provides a
network of channels for carrying substances from one
part of the cell to another
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
 Studied with ribosomes
 Cell’s membrane factory
 The proteins made on its ribosomes migrate into
the tubules of the Rough ER and dispatched to
other parts of the cells with the Transport Vesicles
 Make and export proteins
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER)
 Communicates with the Rough ER
 Functions in lipid metabolism and detoxification of
drugs and pesticides
o Golgi Apparatus/Body
 Stack of flattened membranous sacs associated with
swarms of tiny vesicles
 Traffic director for cellular proteins
 Modify and package proteins
o Lysosomes
 Membranous bags containing powerful digestive
enzymes
 Capable of digesting worn-out or non-usable cell
structures and foreign substances that enter the cell
 Cell’s demolition site
o Peroxisomes
 Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase
enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify
harmful or poisonous substances
 Disarm dangerous free radicals
 Free Radicals
 Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons
that can scramble the structure of proteins and
nucleic acids
 Convert free radicals to Hydrogen peroxide
o Cytoskeleton
 Cell’s bones and muscles by furnishing internal
framework that determines cell shape, supports other
organelles, and provides the machinery for
intracellular transport
 Made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments and
microfilaments
 Intermediate Filaments
 Help form desmosomes and provide internal guy
wires to resist pulling forces on the cell
 Microfilaments
 Involved in cell motility and in producing changes
in the cell shape
 Microtubules
 Determine the overall shape of a cell and the
distribution of organelles
o Centrioles
 Rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each
other; internally they are made up of a pinwheel array
of fine microtubules
 Generate microtubules
 Direct the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell
division
Cell Extensions
 Cilia and Flagella
o Cilia
 Whiplike cellular extensions that move substances
along the cell surface
o Flagella
 Long projections formed by the centrioles
 Ex. Sperm
Cell Diversity
 Cells that connect body parts
o Fibroblast
 Along the cable-like fibers that it secretes
 Has an abundant Rough ER and a large Golgi
Apparatus to make and secrete the protein building
blocks of these fibers
o Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cell)
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream
 Provides extra surface area for the uptake of oxygen
and streamlines the cell so it flows easily through the
bloodstream
 Abundant in oxygen-carrying pigment
 Cell that covers and lines body organs
o Epithelial Cell
 Allows epithelial cells to pack together in sheets
 Abundant intermediate filaments that resist tearing
when the epithelium is rubbed or pulled
 Cells that move organs and body parts
o Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
 Abundant contractile filament
 Shorten forcefully and move the bones or change the
size of internal organs
 Cell that stores nutrients
o Macrophage (A Phagocytic Cell)
 Extends long pseudopods to crawl through tissue to
reach infection sites
 Cells that gathers information and controls body functions
o Nerve Cell (Neuron)
 Has long processes (extensions) for receiving
messages and transmitting them to other structures in
the body
 Cells of reproduction
o Oocyte (Female)
 Largest cell in the body
 Contains several copies of all organelles for
distribution to the daughter cells that arise when the
fertilized egg divides to become an embryo
o Sperm
 Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
 Its flagellum acts as a motile whip to propel the sperm
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
Membrane Support
 Solution
o A homogeneous mixture of two or more components
 o Solvent
 Substance present in the largest amount in a solution
o Solute
 Substances present in smaller amounts
 Intracellular Fluid
o A solution containing small amounts of gases, nutrients,
and salts dissolved in water
 Interstitial Fluid
o Continuously bathes the exterior of our cells
 Selective Permeability
o A barrier allows some substances to pass through it while
excluding others
o Allows nutrients to pass through it while excluding others
 Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration
o Diffusion
 Important means of passive membrane transport for
every cell body
 Process by which molecules and ions move away from
a region where they are more concentrated to a region
where they are less concentrated
o Filtration
 Occurs only across capillary walls
 The process by which water and solutes are forced
through a membrane or capillary wall by fluid or
hydrostatic pressure
 A passive process and a gradient is involved
 Filtration is necessary for the kidneys to do their job
properly
 Not selective
 Hydrostatic Pressure
 Usually exerted by the blood
 Pressure Gradient
 Pushes solute-containing fluid from the higher-
pressure area to the lower pressure area
 Active Process
 When a cell uses some of its ATP supply to move
substances across the membrane
 Unable to pass in the desired direction by diffusion
 Uphill against the concentration gradients
 Active Transport
Cell Division
 Solute pumping
 Uses ATP to energize its protein carriers
 Solute Pumps
 Protein carriers
 Amino Acids are needed to build cellular proteins
but are too large to pass through the membrane
channels and are not lipid-soluble
 Combine specifically and reversibly with the
substances to be transported across the membrane
 Facilitated Diffusion
 Driven by the kinetic energy of the diffusing
molecules
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
 Simultaneously carries Sodium ions out of and
Potassium ions into the cell and is necessary for
normal transmission of impulses by nerve cells
 Vesicular Transport
 Some substances cannot get through the plasma
membrane by passive transport or active transport
 Involves help from ATP, moves substances into or
out of cells without their actually crossing the
plasma membrane
 Exocytosis and Endocytosis
 Exocytosis
 Moves substances out of the cell
 Cells actively secrete hormones, mucus, and
other cell products or eject cellular wastes
 The product to be released is first packaged by
the Golgi Apparatus into a small membranous
sac called the Vesicle
 Involves a docking process in which
transmembrane proteins on the vesicles
recognize certain plasma membrane proteins
 Vesicle
Migrates to the plasma membrane, fuses
with it, and then ruptures, spilling the sac
contents out of the cell
 Endocytosis
 Includes those ATP-requiring processes that
take up, or engulf, extracellular substances by
enclosing them in a small membranous vesicle
 Detaches from the plasma membrane and
moves into the cytoplasm and fuses with a
lysosome and its contents are digested
 Phagocytosis
Cell-eating
Scavenger cells that police and protect the
body by ingesting bacteria and other foreign
debris
Protective mechanism
 Pinocytosis
Cell drinking
Gulps droplets of extracellular fluid
Functions in absorption
 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Main cellular mechanism for taking up
specific target molecule
Plasma membrane receptor proteins bind
only with certain substances
 Cell Life Cycle
o The series of changes a cell goes through from the time it
is formed until it divides
o Two major periods: Interphase and Cell Division
o Interphase
 Cell grows and carries on its usual metabolic activities
 Metabolic Phase
o Cell Division
 Reproduces itself
 Produce more cells for growth and repair processes
 Preparations: DNA Replication
o Nucleotides
 Form DNA
 Join in a complementary way
 Adenine (A)
 Bonds to Thymine (T)
 Guanine
 Bonds to Cytosine (C)
 The order of the nucleotides on the template strand
determines the order on the new strand
  Events of Cell Division
o Mitosis
 Division of the nucleus
 Formation of two daughter nuclei with exactly the
same genes as the mother nucleus
 Prophase
 Chromatin threads coil and shorten to that visible
chromosomes appear
 Chromosome
 Each chromosome is made up of two
chromatids held together by a centromere
 The centrioles separate and begin to move toward
opposite sides of the cell directing the assembly of
a Mitotic Spindle
 Mitotic Spindle
 Provides a scaffolding for the attachment and
movement of the chromosomes during the later
mitotic stages
 Nuclear Envelope and Nucleoli have broken down
and disappeared
 Chromosomes have attached randomly to the
spindle fibers by their centromeres
 Metaphase
 The chromosomes cluster and line up at that
metaphase plate so that a straight line of
chromosomes is seen
 Anaphase
 Centromeres that have held the chromatids
together split
 Chromatids begin to move slowly apart, drawn
toward opposite ends of the cell
 The chromosomes seem to be pulled by their half-
centromeres with their arms dangling behind them
 Chromosomes stop moving
 Telophase
 Prophase in reverse
 The chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell
uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again
 Spindle breaks down and disappears
 Nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin
mass
 Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei
o Cytokinesis
 Begins when mitosis is nearly completed
 Division of cytoplasm
 Begins during late Anaphase and completes during
Telophase
 A contractile ring made of microfilaments forms a
cleavage furrow over the midline of the spindle and
squeezes the original cytoplasmic mass into two parts
 Product: 2 Daughter Cells
Protein Synthesis
 Genes: The Blueprint for Protein Structure
 Gene
o A DNA segment that carries the information for building
one protein or polypeptide chain
 Fibrous (Structural) Proteins
o Major building materials for cells
 Globular (Functional) Proteins
o Do things other than build structures
o Enzymes
 Biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in
the cells that are functional proteins
o DNA
 Regulates cell activities by specifying the structure of
enzymes
 Amino Acids
 Building blocks of proteins and are joined during
protein synthesis
 The Role of RNA
o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 Messenger and decoder
 Single-stranded
 Has ribose sugar
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) Molecules
 Small cloverleaf-shaped molecules
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Molecules
 Where proteins are built
 Messenger (mRNA) Molecules
 Single nucleotide strands that resemble half of a
DNA molecule and carry the message containing
instructions for protein syntheses from the DNA
gene in the Nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
o Two Major Phases of Protein Synthesis
 Transcription
 When complementary mRNA is made at the DNA
gene
 The same information is transformed from one
form or format to another
 Involves the transfer of information from DNA’s
base sequence into the complementary base
sequence of mRNA
 Only DNA and mRNA are involved in transcription
 Triplet
 Three-base sequence specifying a particular
amino acid on the DNA gene
 Codon
 Corresponding three-base sequences on mRNA
 Translation
 When the information carried in mRNA molecules
is decoded and used to assemble proteins
 The base sequence of nucleic acids is translated
into the language of proteins (amino sequence)
 Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major
varieties of RNA
 Once the mRNA attaches to the ribosome, tRNA
comes into place. Its job is to transfer amino acids
to the ribosome, where they are bound together by
enzymes in the exact sequence specified by the
gene and its mRNA
BODY TISSUES
 Tissues
o Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function
o Epithelium (covering), connective (support), nervous
(control), and muscle (movement)
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 The lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body
 Covering and lining epithelium covers all free body surfaces
and contains versatile cells
 Protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion
 Absorb substances lines some digestive system organs
Special Characteristics of Epithelium  Highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium that
 Except for glandular epithelium, later epithelial cells fit forms the lining of only a few organs
closely together to form continuous sheets  Urinary bladder, ureters and part of the urethra
 Apical Surface  Basal cells are columnar or cuboidal
o Exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of an
internal organ
 Basement Membrane o Glandular Epithelium
o Lower surface of an epithelium  Gland
o Structureless material secreted by both the epithelial cells  Consists of one or more cells that make and secrete
and the connective tissues cells that abut the epithelium a particular product
 Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of their own  Its product contains protein molecules in an
(Avascular) and depend on diffusion aqueous fluid
Classification of Epithelium  Two major types of glands develop from epithelial
 Simple Epithelium sheets
o One layer of cells  Endocrine Glands
o Concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration  Lose their connection to the surface
o Simple Squamous Epithelium  Often ductless glands
 One layer of cuboidal cells  Diffuse directly into the blood vessels that
 Common in glands and their ducts weave through the glands
 Forms walls of the kidney tubules and covers the  Exocrine Glands
surface of the ovaries  Retain their ducts
o Simple Columnar Epithelium  Secretions empty through the ducts to the
 Single layer of tall cells that fit closely together epithelial surface
 Goblet cells are often seen in this type  Sweat and oil glands
 Lines the entire length of the digestive tract from the CONNECTIVE TISSUE
stomach to the anus  Connects body parts
 Mucosae  Found everywhere in the body
 Epithelial membranes that line body cavities and  Most abundant
open to the body exterior  Protecting, supporting, and binding together other tissues
 Goblet Cells Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue
 Produce a lubricating mucus  Variations in blood supply
o Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium o Well vascularized
 Some of itself are shorter than the others o Tendons, cartilages and ligaments have a poor blood
 Nuclei appear at different heights above the basement supply
membrane  Extracellular Matrix
 Absorption and secretion o Connective tissues are made up of many different types of
 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium cells plus varying amounts of a nonliving substance found
 Variety of Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium outside the cells
 Lines most of the respiratory tract Extracellular Matrix
 Stratified Epithelium  Produced by connective tissue cells and then secreted to their
o More than one cell layer exterior
o Free surface  Has two main elements: structureless ground substance and
fibers
o Describes the shapes of its cells
o Ground Substance
 Squamous
 Composed largely of water plus some adhesion
 Flattened like fish scales
proteins and large, charged polysaccharide molecules
 Cuboidal
o Collagen (White) Fibers
 Cube-shaped like dice
 High tensile strength
 Columnar
o Elastic (Yellow) Fibers
 Shaped like columns
 Ability to be stretched then recoil
o Stratified Squamous Epithelium
o Reticular (Fibers
 The most common stratified epithelium in the body
 Fine collagen fibers that from the internal skeleton of
 The cells at the free edge are squamous cells, whereas
soft organs such as the spleen
those close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or
o Monomers
columnar
o Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar Epithelia  Building blocks of fibers
Types of Connective Tissue
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
 Bone, Cartilage, Dense Connective Tissues, Loose Connective
 Has two cell layer with the surface cells being
Tissue, and blood
cuboidal in shape
 Bone
 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
o Composed of osteocytes sitting in cavities called Lacunae
 Columnar cells but its basal cells vary in size and
shape
o Transitional Epithelium
 o Surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix that contains o Consists of blood cells surrounded by nonliving, fluid
calcium salts in addition to large numbers of collagen matrix called blood plasma
fibers o The fibers of blood are soluble protein molecules that
 Cartilage become visible only during blood clotting
o Less hard and more flexible than bone o Transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system
o Its major cell type is chondrocytes MUSCLE TISSUE
o Found in few places of the body  Specialized to contract or shorten to produce movement
o Hyaline Cartilage Types of Muscle Tissue
 Most widespread cartilage  Skeletal Muscle
o Forms the structures of the larynx, attaches the ribs to the o Packaged by connective tissues sheets into organs
breastbone o Attached to the skeleton and can be controlled voluntarily
o Covers the ends of many bones where they form joints o Form the flesh of the body
o Fibrocartilage o Long, cylindrical, multinucleate, and have obvious
 Forms the cushionlike disks between the vertebrae of striations
the spinal column  Cardiac Muscle
o Elastic Cartilage o Found only in the heart
 Found in structures with elasticity o Intercalated Discs
 Dense Connective Tissue  Contain gap junctions that allow ions to pass freely
o Dense Fibrous Tissue from cell to cell, resulting in rapid conclusion of the
o Has collagen fibers as its main matrix element exciting electrical impulse across the heart
o Crowded between the collagen fibers are rows of o Under involuntary control
fibroblasts  Smooth Muscle
o Fibroblasts o Visceral muscle
 Manufacture the building blocks of the fibers o No striation are visible
o Forms strong, ropelike structures such as tendons and o Single nucleus and spindle-shaped
ligaments o Found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach
o Tendons o Peristalsis
 Attach skeletal muscles to bones  A wavelike motion that keeps food moving through the
o Ligaments small intestine
 Connect bones to bones at joints NERVOUS TISSUE
 More stretchy and contain more elastic fibers  Involves neurons
 Loose Connective Tissue  Neurons
o Softer and have more cells and fewer fibers than any other o Receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from one
connective tissue type part of the body to another
o Areolar Tissue  Irritability and Conductivity are the two major functions of
 The most widely distributed connective tissue variety Nervous Tissues
in the body  Neuroglia
 Cushions and protects the body organs it wraps o Insulate, support, and protect the delicate neurons in the
 Universal connective tissue structures of the nervous system
 Helps to hold the internal organs together in proper TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)
positions  Inflammation
 Edema o Body response that attempts to prevent further injury
 When a body region is inflamed, the areolar tissue  Immune Response
in the area soaks up the excess fluid like a sponge o Extremely specific and mounts a vigorous attack against
and the area swells and becomes puffy recognized invader
o Adipose Tissue  Tissue repair or wound healing occurs in two ways;
 Commonly called fat regeneration and fibrosis
 An areolar tissue where adipose cells predominate o Regeneration
 Forms the subcutaneous tissues beneath the skin,  Replacement of destroyed tissues by the same kind of
where it insulate the body and protects it from bumps cells
and extremes of both heat and cold o Fibrosis
 Protects some organs individually  Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissues, that is, by
o Reticular Connective Tissue the formation of scar tissue which occurs depending
 Consists of a delicate network of interwoven reticular on what type:
fibers associated with reticular sells which resemble  Tissue is damaged
fibroblasts  Severity of the damage
 Forms stroma or internal framework which can o Incisions
support many free blood cells  Heal much more successfully than ragged tears of the
 Blood tissues
o Vascular tissue  Tissue injury sets a series of events into motion:
o Inflammation sets the stage
  Release of inflammatory chemicals that make the
capillaries more permeable
 Allows fluid rich in clotting proteins and other
substances to seep into the injured area from the
bloodstream
 Constructs a clot to stop the loss of blood, holding the
edges of the wound together and preventing bacteria
o Granulation Tissue Forms
 Granulation Tissue
 Pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries
that grow into the damaged areas from undamaged
blood vessels nearby
 Contains phagocytes that eventually dispose of the
blood clot and connective tissue cells that produce
the building blocks of collagen fibers to
permanently bridge the gap
o Regeneration and Fibrosis Effect Permanent Repair
 The scab soon detaches and the final result is a fully
regenerated surface epithelium that covers an
underlying area of fibrosis
 The ability of the different tissues types to regenerate varies
widely
o Epithelial tissues regenerate beautifully
o Skeletal Muscles regenerate poorly
o Cardiac muscle and nervous tissues within the brain and
spinal cord are replaced largely by scar tissue
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES
 Cell division is important during the body’s growth period
 Hyperplasia
o Certain body tissues may enlarge because there is some
local irritant or condition that stimulates cells
 Atrophy
o Decrease in size
o Can occur in an organ or body area that loses its normal
stimulation