CELL
o Despite their wide morphological
Cell
o It is the basic morphological and
functional unit of all living things.
o It is the smallest entity that has the
capacity to perform all of life's functions.
o it is capable of independent existence,
under favorable environmental
conditions.
Human as Multicellular
o A human being actually starts as a
single cell when the fertilized ovum, also
known as Zygote
o it results from the union of the male and
the female gamete through the process
of Fertilization.
o Multiplication of the fertilized ovum and
differentiation of its progenies eventually
give rise to an extremely complex
organism that consists of a staggering
number of cells which are classified into
hundreds of cell types based on
morphology and function.
o To ensure the human being's survival,
the cells that comprise the human body
form into tightly knit and highly
organized society.
cells that perform the same general
functions are linked together by some
amount of?→intercellular materials and cell
junctions.
This can form what we call tissue←it
is a group of cells that bonds together in
varying proportions to form more complex
functional structures.
Cell characteristics
o The cells of the body vary in size,
shape, and forms.
o These variations are largely dictated by
variations, human cells-like eukaryotic
cells-share a common basic structure.
o They consist of a mass of cytoplasm
that is encased by a cell membrane, and
a nucleus, a structure that is encased by
a nuclear envelope and embedded in
the cytoplasm.
CELL MEMBRANE
Cell Membrane
o It serves as an envelope that delimits
the cell from its surroundings.
o In many cell types, it forms specialized
junctions with the cell membrane of
adjacent cells, or the extracellular
matrix.
o It allows for cell-to-cell recognition.
o It receives and sends out stimuli.
o It provides binding sites and receptors
for enzymes and other substances.
o it regulates the movement of these
substances to and from another cell.
o It provides attachment for the
cytoskeleton
o It determines which substances can
move in and out of the cell which is
Semipermeable
Characteristics of Cell Membrane
o The cell membrane thickness can range
up to 8-10 nm
o It is too thin to be distinguished under
the light microscope (LM) whose
resolving power is only 0.2 um (0.2 ×
10meter)
o the cell membrane appears as a
trilaminar structure consisting of two
electron-dense sheets that sandwich a
 thin electron-lucent layer using
Transmission electron microscope
Cell junction
o It is a specialized junctional structure in
localized regions of their cell membrane
that are in contact with other cells or
with the extracellular matrix.
o These specialized junctions that enable
the cells to adhere to one another or to
the extracellular matrix, or communicate
with each other.
o Fingerlike cytoplasmic processes that
interlock or interdigitate with those of
adjacent cells.
o Junctions that enable the cells to
communicate with each other
(communicating junctions) are
exemplified by gap junctions (nexus;
communicating junctions), chemical
synapses, and motor end plates.
Two classification of cell junction
1. Occluding Junctions
Zonula occludens
2. Adhesive Junctions
Zonula adherens
Fascia adherens
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm
o It refers to the material within a living
cell, excluding the nucleus.
o It includes cytosol, organelles,
inclusions, and fibrillar elements.
Cytosol
o It is mainly made up of 70% water
where a host of inorganic ions and
organic molecules are dissolved.
o It is the site of many essential
biochemical processes
o it provides a suitable milieu for the
organelles in performing their functions.
o It is a cytoplasmic matrix that is viscid,
translucent, and colloidal in nature.
Inclusions↑
o It is generally temporary and inert
structures in the cell that may or may
not be membrane-bound.
o They vary in size, shape, and content.
o Some are useful while others are
harmful to the body.
o Not all cells contain inclusions and no
cell contains all the known inclusions.
o The kind and number of inclusions a cell
contains depend on its function and
state of activity
Examples of Inclusions
Fat or lipid droplets
o It is present in many cell types, but
one cell type in particular is
specialized to store lipid, which is the
adipose cell.
o Adipocyte In this cell, the lipid droplets
come together to form a single huge
 blob that can occupy more than 90%
of the cell.
o fat droplets are not enclosed by
membranes because they are in direct
contact with the cytoplasmic matrix.
o lipid is extracted by the reagents used
and the areas previously occupied by
lipid droplets are seen as mere round,
clear areas.
Glutaraldehyde and Osmic
acid← what reagent are use when lipid
droplets are preserved and appear as gray-
or black-staining globules.
Glycogen
o the storage form of carbohydrates, is an
inclusion that is present in many cells.
o It is particularly abundant in liver and
muscle cells.
o It is not distinguishable in routine
histologic preparations but it can be
appreciated in special preparations such
as those utilizing → the Periodic-Acid
Schiff method - which appear as
granules that are colored
purple/magenta.
o In electron micrographs, glycogen
inclusions manifest as electron-dense
granules that are not enveloped by
membranes.
o They occur in two sizes
• large (alpha) particles→90 nm
in diameter
• small (beta) particles→20 to 30
nm in diameter
Zymogen granules
o It is a characteristic of secretory
epithelial cells.
o They are synonymous with secretory
granules, wherein the membrane-bound
proteins coming from the Golgi complex
that are destined to be released by the
cell to the extracellular space by the
process of exocytosis.
Crystals
o It is an inclusion that are present in only
a few cell types in the body, notably the
interstitial cells (of Leydig) and Sertoli
cells of the testes.
o Their exact chemical composition has
not been established yet.
o They are not membrane-bound, and
occur free in the cytoplasm.
o They are often rod-shaped but they can
occur in various other shapes.
o They have no known functions.
o They are probably degenerative
products because they are more
common in cells of older individuals.
o They are probably degenerative
products because they are more
common in cells of older individuals.
Dust particles
o It is a particle that is either brown or
black membrane-bound structures that
contain exogenous materials such as
dust and particulate carbon.
o They are numerous in the cytoplasm of
phagocytes of the lungs
o Pulmonary alveolar macrophage or Dust
cells
 Examples of pigment
granules Inclusions
Melanin
o It is the pigment that accounts for the
brown-to-black coloration of the skin.
o It is synthesized by cells called
melanocytes
After its synthesis, it is transferred
to and becomes a permanent inclusion of
Melanin.
Keratinocytes ← the most
numerous cells in the epidermis of the skin.
Hemosiderin
o It is a brown pigment that is the product
of the lysosomal digestion of
hemoglobin, the iron-containing pigment
responsible for the color of red blood
cells (RBCs).
o It is seen in the form of granules in cells
such as those in the spleen that
phagocytize dying RBs.
o It is actually residual bodies and are
therefore membrane-bound.
o They can easily be distinguished from
other pigments by using stains that
selectively stain iron such as→ Prussian
blue.
Lipochrome
o AKA lipofuscin pigments/lipofuscin
granules
o It is a membrane-bound structures that
consist of group of residual bodies →
which are undigested residues of
lysosomal activity.
o They are yellowish-brown bodies that
are common in long-lived cells such as
cardiac muscle cells and Sertoli cells in
the testes.
Fibrillar Elements
Cytoskeleton
o the cell's cytoplasm contains a complex
network of fibrillar elements that forms
the structural framework or skeleton of
the cell which is known as the ?
o These fibrillar elements are also
involved in movement of organelles and
other cellular structures within the cell,
and changes in shape of the cell that
some cells assume.
They are classified according
to Diameter↓
1. microfilaments
2. intermediate filaments
3. microtubules
All three types of cytoskeleton can
only be demonstrated with the aid of→
special histologic techniques and
electron microscopy.
Microfilament
o Microfilaments are present in all cells.
o They vary in length but they average
is→5 to 7 nm in diameter.
o They are solid in cross section.
o It is made up of F-actin.
F-actin ← the filamentous form of
actin.
o It can be assembled and disassembled
very fast, and, in fact, they undergo
frequent assembly and disassembly to
 accommodate changes in cell shape
and cell movement.
o It is abundant in the peripheral areas of
most cells just beneath the cell
membrane where they are organized to
form an interconnecting network.
o It is less numerous and are scattered
haphazardly.
o It is also associated and involved in
moving about cell organelles.
o They are involved in activities that occur
in the cell membrane such as→
exocytosis and endocytosis.
o In the central area of the cell, where
microfilaments probably function simply
as→ supportive elements.
Microfilaments are also responsible for
the contraction of cells that exhibit
contractility to a marked degree, such
as→ myoepithelial cells and muscle cells.
Microfilaments likewise play a part in
the locomotion of certain cells.
Actin
comprises 10% to 15% of the total
protein in cells.
G-actin↑
▪ the soluble form of the protein.
▪ AKA globular actin
▪ o
F-actin
▪ It is formed when two strands of G-actin
coil around each other.
▪ It looks much like the fibers of a rope, to
form a filament.
▪ but only half exists of those 10% or
15%.
Intermediate Filaments
o This is a filament that have a diameter
of→10 to 12 nm
o unlike microfilaments, they do not
undergo frequent assembly and
disassembly.
o some of these filaments are in the
cytoplasm and others are in the nucleus.
Major types of cytoplasmic
intermediate filaments
Keratin filaments
o An intermediate filament that is only
present in the epithelial cells.
o They are particularly numerous in the
main cell type in the epidermis.
o The primary function of this intermediate
filaments is to protect epithelial cells
from mechanical and non-mechanical
stresses.
o It is also involved in cell-to-cell
attachment.
o The biochemical composition of keratin
filaments varies depending on cell type.
Desmin filaments
o Also known as→ Skelatin
o One of its filaments is the characteristics
of muscle cells
It is a filament that help maintain muscle
cell architecture and structure since they
connect or anchor many cytoplasmic
components.
o more numerous in muscle type of →
Striated and Cardiac
o smooth muscle → they form bundles of
the filament.
o striated and cardiac → they form as
myofibrils.

Vimentin filaments
o It is present in cells that differentiate
from mesenchyme such as fibroblasts
and muscle cells.
o Mesenchyme ↔ Fibroblast and muscles
o They are scattered all over the
cytoplasm of fibroblast and muscle cells.
o It responsible for maintaining cell shape
and integrity of the cytoplasm.
o stabilizing cytoskeletal interactions of
these cells.
o They also help support and anchor
cytoplasmic organelles.
Neurofilaments
o it is the characteristic of nerve cells
where their function is to provide internal
support.
o They are present in the cell body and all
the processes of neurons.
o In the processes, they run parallel to the
long axis of the processes.
Glial filaments↑
o Also known as→ glial fibrillary acidic
protein
o It is present in supportive cells in the
nervous system.
o glial cells (neuroglial cells)←Their main
function is to provide internal support for
the cells.
o
Lamins
o consists of type A and B.
o They form part of the nuclear lamina
(fibrous lamina) of the nucleus which
helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
o It also anchors the nucleus to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Microtubules
o It much thicker than microfilaments or
intermediate filaments.
o They are hollow pipes that are about
size of→25 nm in diameter.
o Like microfilaments, microtubules can
be assembled or disassembled rapidly
as needed.
o It is formed by 13 tubulin molecules that
are arranged around a lumen.
Tubulin
o tubulin is a microtubule that are
attached to the organelles play a role in
the movement of these organelles within
the cytoplasm.
o Microtubules that are simply scattered in
the cytoplasm lend internal support to
the cell.
o Microtubules also comprise the wall of
centrioles, the mitotic spindles that
appear during mitosis and meiosis, the
core (axoneme) of the cilia of ciliated
cells, and the flagellum (tail) of the
sperm cell (spermatozoon).
o Microtubules are surrounded by
microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs)
o Microtubule-associated proteins
(MAPs)↑
ORGANELLES
Mitochondria
o It is a cytoplasmic organelle that are
present in all cells, except of course
in the RBs and lens fibers.
 o The "powerhouses" of the cell
o They are often hotdog-shaped, but
they can alter their shape and
become rod-like, filamentous,
spherical, etc.
o They're size can range for up
to→0.5 to 1.0 um in diameter and 10
um long.
o mitochondria are not visible in H&E
preparations.
They can be distinguished and, their
morphology, appreciated with→ Electron
microscopy.
Mitochondrion ← It is seen to
consist of a wall that encloses a space or
cavity that is filled with amorphous
substance.
Two layers of Mitochondrial unit
membrane.
1. The outer membrane/leaflet delimits
the mitochondrion from the cytoplasmic
matrix.
2. the inner leaflet in in-folded to form
shelf-like tubular structures that project
into the intercristal space. also known
as the → cristae mitochondriales
proteins and enzymes that it needs
in performing its function.
o By the way, mitochondrial DNA is
the only DNA in the cell that is
found outside the nucleus.
Mitochondria are motile.
o Tend to aggregate in areas within
the cell where energy requirement
si high.
o In the sperm cell. For example, they
are concentrated in the middle
piece of the tail where they form a
sheath.
Limited life span of mitochondrion
o Mitochondria have limited life spans
but they can replicate in a manner
same as bacteria's binary fission.
o mitochondria can only be produced
or sourced from existing ones.
o the Mitochondria in all cells of the
body have been derived from the
mitochondria of the→ female
gamete (ovum)
o because the male gamete (sperm
cell) doesn’t contribute any
cytoplasmic component to the
formation of the zygote.

The outer and inner leaflets adhere

rather loosely to each other, thus, an empty Ribosomes
space (intermembranous space) exists
o It is the sites for protein synthesis.
between them, which extends into the
o Proteins that are produced in free
cristae as intracristal spaces.
ribosomes are used exclusively within
Term for space between outer the cell (e.g., proteins of the cytoplasmic
and inner membrane→ Intramembranous matrix as well as the protein subunits of
space structures that require constant renewal
such as microtubules and
Mitochondrion has its own DNA and
microfilaments).
RNA.
o Proteins that are produced in attached
o Mitochondrial genome enables the ribosomes, no the other hand, are
mitochondrion to synthesize
 further processed in the ER and Golgi
complex.
o It is in the ribosomes where amino acids
are assembled into polypeptide chains.
o They are abundant in cells that produce
a lot of proteins.
o Can only be distinguished via High
magnification electron microscopy
Its size can range from→ 15 to 30 nm
Polyribosomes/Polysomes ← Seen
in TEM as small electron-dense granules
that occur singly or in small clusters of
ribosomes are connected to each other by
a fine thread of messenger RNA (mRNA),
which they are actively translating.
Ribosomes and polyribosomes occur
free in the cytoplasm or attached to the
surfaces of the membranes of the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Two subunits of Ribosomes
o the large subunit is about twice
the size of the small subunit.
o Each ribosomal subunit, which is
otherwise referred to as
ribonucleoprotein .
o it is in the form of a dense,
globular structure that is
composed of a strand of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
associated proteins of which 80
types have already been
identified.
The ribosomal subunits are
produced in the nucleus, specifically→
nucleolus
Cytoplasm ← It is the site where
the small and large subunits come together
to form ribosomes.
Ribosomes and polyribosomes are
present in all cells but their number and
distribution vary depending on the cell type.
Cells with numerous ribosomes have
cytoplasm that is intensely→ basophilic
The basophilia is due to the
numerous phosphate groups in the RNA of
the ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
o It is the most extensive membrane-
bound structure in the cytoplasm.
o It consists of a system of
interconnecting tubules, vesicles, and
flattened sacs.
o It have a structure of tubules, vesicles,
and sacs are fluid-filled cavities or
spaces that are enclosed by unit
membranes that are much thinner than
the cell membrane.
o more importantly, it is involved in the
production of numerous substances that
are to be used within the cell or is
exported by the cell.
o
The endoplasmic reticulum serves
as a supporting structure for the
cytoplasm.
An ER is present in practically all cells.
It is not visible in routine histologic
preparations, but it can be appreciated with
the use of→ Special histologic techniques
(Fluorescent dyes) and the electron
microscope.
Contiguous regions of ER:
Rough ER↑
o It is the "rough" because there are
ribosomes and polyribosomes that
are attached to the external
surfaces of its membranes.
o It receives the proteins that are
synthesized by attached
ribosomes.
o It then processes these proteins
before passing them over in the
form of membrane- enclosed
structures called→ transfer
vesicles
o the rER is more extensive than the
sER
Smooth ER↑
o It is the “smooth" because it as no
attached ribosomes or
polyribosomes.
o It is the site of synthesis of lipids,
phospholipids, cholesterol, and
other steroids.
o its membranes have numerous
attached enzymes which are
accessible to substrates that exist
within the cytoplasm for the
production of these substances.
o It is also involved in the
metabolism of carbohydrates,
detoxification of metabolic
products, alcohol, and drugs.
o It likewise plays a role in the
transport of→ fatty acids and
lipids.
o it is merely made up of a small
number of tubules with hardly any
cisternae and vesicles.
ER differentiation
Striated muscles (myocyte)
o the sER is modified to form the
sarcoplasmic reticulum ← a
modified ER that stores and
releases the calcium ions that are
needed to initiate muscle
contraction.
Liver cell (hepatocyte)
o the sER is better developed than
the rER. In hepatocytes, the sER
serves as the site of the
detoxification of various noxious
substances.
Golgi complex
o It consists of several layers of
membrane-bound, smooth-
surfaced, and flattened tubes that
are stacked on top of each other in
a semicircular manner.
o The cisternae (vesicles) on their
lateral ends have cavities that are
filled with fluid and exhibits →
rounded dilatations
Microscopy of Golgi
Under the LM, the presence of this
organelle can be appreciated as a network
of solid strands in cells that have been
impregnated with silver salts or osmium.
Not distinguishable in H&E
preparations
in cells with intensely basophilic
cytoplasm, its location is often marked by a
pale region adjacent to the nucleus→
Negative Golgi Image
The Golgi complex can be
distinguished with electron microscopy.
 The Golgi complex surfaces
convex surface
o forming face or cis face.
o Membrane is continually being
added by the transfer vesicles that
it receives from the rER.
concave surface
o maturing face or trans face.
o membrane is continually being
removed as the secretory vesicles
get pinched off from the organelle.
Secretory vesicles
o The Golgi complex processes,
concentrates, sorts, and
packages the proteins that it
receives from the rER.
o Then, it releases the proteins
into the cytoplasmic matrix in
the form of membrane-wrapped
structure called?
o Some of the proteins in the
secretory vesicles are utilized
within the cell which can be:
o developing lysosomes and
integral membrane proteins
o some are exported by the cell.
Lysosomes
o it is a chemical-containing pouch that
float free in the cytoplasmic matrix.
o It is an intracellular digestive system
that can degrade nearly all organic
substances found in cells.
o The pouches are made up of unit
membranes and the chemicals they
contain are hydrolytic enzymes of
which more than 40 have already
been identified, including a variety of
proteases, lipases, carbohydrases,
esterases, and nucleases.
Lysosomes are present in all cells
but their numbers vary from a few
hundred to thousands, from cell type to
cell type, and from cell to cell within the
same cell type.
cells utilize lysosomes for intracellular
digestion only.
However, there are some cell types
that release their lysosomal enzymes
extracellularly.
Osteoclast is the cell responsible for
bone resorption.
The lysosomal enzymes come from the
Golgi complex.
Microscopy of Lysosomes
Lysosomes vary in size and shape.
In general, they are spherical or
ovoid bodies whose diameter ranges
from→0.05 to 0.8 nanometer
Under the LM, lysosomes cannot be
distinguished in H&E preparations.
The best way to make them
distinguishable is by utilizing histochemical
method which identify their hydrolytic
enzymes.
Activity of Lysosomes
o Fortunately, its hydrolytic
enzymes act only in an acidic
environment about the pH level
of 5
o inactive at the pH of the cytosol,
which is about 7.2
 o Hence, the enzymes do not
harm the cell even when they
leak into the cytoplasm.
Heterophagy
It refers to lysosomal digestion of
particulate materials within the cells that
have been brought from the extracellular
environment into the cell.
Phagocytosis
o Receptors on the cell surface of
the phagocyte bind the material
to be ingested.
o This binding serves as trigger
for the cell membrane of the
phagocyte to form cell
protrusions at the area of
binding. this cell protrusions are
called Pseudopodia
o These pseudopodia slowly
elongate until their ends meet at
the distal pole of the material
being engulfed.
o The membranes of the
pseudopodia then fuse to
completely envelop the
phagocytic material.
o The resulting membrane-bound
structure is then pinched off
from the cell membrane and
drawn into the cytoplasm. this
membrane is
called?→Phagosome/Phagocyti
c vacuole
o Phagocytosis is not common in
all cells.
Cells that are capable of
phagocytosis, such as neutrophils and
macrophages, are referred to as →
Phagocytes which understandably possess
numerous lysosomes.
o Lysosomal Digestion of foreign
substances
o Inside the cell, the phagosome is
approached by a primary lysosome
which fuses its membrane with that of
the phagosome. Primary lysosome ←a
lysosome that has not digested anything
yet. Then, with its hydrolytic enzymes,
digests the particulate material the
phagosome contains. The resulting
membrane-bound structure that consists
of the primary lysosome and its digested
material is referred to as→ Secondary
lysosome/Phagolysosome. Nutrients
derived from the Iysosomal digestion of
bacteria and other particulate materials
diffuse out of the phagolysosomal
membrane and are recycled either used
within or outside the cell. while
undigested materials are kept enclosed
within the phagolysosomal membrane
and are called → Residual bodies.
Autophagy
o It refers to digestion of
unneeded or senescent cell
organelles.
o There are various autophagic
processes but very often,
autophagy involves wrapping
the target cell structure with a
unit membrane.
o The resulting vesicle is then
attacked by primary lysosome
which fuses its membrane with
the vesicle.
Accordingly, lysosomes are also
numerous in cells with high turnover of
organelles such as exocrine gland cells and
neurons. As same as heterophagy, the
digested material that results from
autophagy diffuses out of the lysosomal
membrane and is recycled. Through
autophagy, lysosomes play an important
role in the structural renewal of the cell,
which is a continuous process.
Peroxisomes
o It is a membrane-bound spherical
bodies that contain chemicals. but unlike
lysosomes, peroxisomes do not have
hydrolases. Instead, they contain
oxidases and catalase.
o The enzymes of peroxisomes came
from the Cytoplasmic matrix which are
probably synthesized in the free
ribosomes.
o It is present in all cells but they are
particularly numerous in cells that are
metabolically active such as
hepatocytes
o AKA → Microbodies
Microscopy of Peroxisomes
• peroxisomes resemble
lysosomes by its
morphologically, and are difficult
to differentiate from the latter
even under the electron
microscope.
• But they can be distinguished
from lysosomes by employing
the appropriate→ histochemical
techniques.
• Its diameter ca ranges from→0.5
to 12. um
Hydrogen peroxide
o It is involved in some metabolic
reactions and is utilized by phagocytes
in destroying invading microorganisms .
o It is also a potentially cytotoxic
substance.
o Hydrogen peroxide has some beneficial
uses within the cell.
o To prevent hydrogen peroxide from
reaching cytotoxic levels, cells use the
catalase in their peroxisomes to
catalyze the conversion of hydrogen
peroxide into→ oxygen and water.
Oxidation
o Oxidases is the content of peroxisomes
that are important in the process of
oxidation that is needed in the
detoxification and catabolism of various
substances taken into or produced in
the cell including phospholipids, fatty
acids, ethanol and formaldehyde.
o
Centrosome
o AKA→ Microtubule Organizing Center;
MTOC
o It is a dense, spherical area in the
cytoplasm, usually located near the
nucleus and many times surrounded by
the Golgi complex that is present in all
cells.
o Typically, it consists of a pair of minute,
short, cylindrical bodies called
centrioles.
o centrioles are surrounded by proteins
that form granular structures called
Centriolar satellites.
o It is where microtubules are assembled
or produced.
Structures of Centriole
o A centriole is seen in TEM as a
tubular structure that is made up
of an electron-dense wall that
surrounds an electron-lucent
(hollow) space.
 o Its wall is formed by nine groups
of microtubules, each group is
called triplet.
Triplet
▪ It consists of three
microtubules.
▪ When seen in cross section,
the innermost microtubule in
each triplet is circular while the
outer two microtubules are C-
shaped.
▪ The triplets are obliquely set,
but within each triplet, the
microtubules are arranged
parallel to each other.
▪ The inner most microtubule of
each triplet is connected to the
outermost microtubule of the
triplet adjacent to it by a fine
filament.
Diplosome
▪ It is the term for the two
centrioles in the centrosome.
▪ They lie perpendicular to each
other.
▪ each centrioles size can range
from→0.2 um in diameter and
0.5 to 0.7 um in length.
Microtubules
o It is the fibrillar structures that form part
of the cytoskeleton.
o They also comprise the wall of
centrioles, mitotic spindles, and the core
of the structures that are derived from
centrioles.
Axoneme ← the core of the
structures that are derived from centrioles,
ex. cilia and flagella
Cilia and Flagella
o centrioles are also the sources
of the cilia of ciliated cells and
the flagellum (tail) of the sperm
cell or spermatozoon.
o Every cilium and flagellum is
formed by growing out of a
centriole.
o Even when already fully formed,
a cilium or flagellum remains
attached to its parent centriole.
o Parent centriole is also known
as→ basal body
Cell Division and Centriole
Procentrioles
o Centrioles do not replicate by
dividing; instead, a bud grows
out of the lateral surface of each
centriole.
o the bud is known as the
Procentriole
o The procentrioles subsequently
elongate to form daughter
centrioles that are set
perpendicular to their
corresponding mother centrioles.
o When fully formed, the daughter
centrioles separate from their
mother centrioles and
henceforth, each mother-and-
daughter centriole makes up a
diplosome that soon acquires its
own centriolar satellites to form a
centrosome.
o The centrioles are the sources of
the mitotic spindles that appear
during→ cell division
Mitotic spindle
o At the start of mitosis (i.e., prophase
stage), one centrosome migrates to one
pole of the cell while the other
centrosome moves to the opposite pole.
o Mitotic spindles ←which are made up
of microtubules and some associated
proteins, then grow out from the two
sets of centrioles in both centrosomes.
o The mitotic spindles pull the sister
chromatids apart during mitosis. They
disintegrate and disappear during
telophase (i.e., last stage of mitosis.
o At completion of mitosis, each daughter
cell receives one centrosome.
NUCLEUS
Nucleus
o It is often the one who occupies the
central region of the cell.
o It is the largest structure inside the cell
with a diameter that ranges from→3 to
10 um
o It is commonly round or spherical, but it
occurs in various other shapes and
sometimes even forms lobes, as in
some white blood cells (WBCs).
o It is present in all cells. except in the
RBCs and the lens fibers, of course.
o Most cells have only one nucleus, but
there are some that have two or more.
o In nucleated cells, the nucleus is a vital
structure its removal invariably leads
to→ Cell death.
o The nucleus is delimited from the
cytoplasmic matrix (cytosol) by a
nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane).
Nucleoplasm
▪ It is the viscous, homogenous
substance similar in
composition to cytosol where
structures called chromosomes
are embedded.
▪ Contents is→ Karyolymph
and Nuclear saps
The nucleus is the data bank of the
cell.
o Its chromosomes contain the
codes (called genes) needed for
the synthesis of all proteins and
nucleic acids needed by the
body.
o It is also the site for the
production of the ribonucleic
acids (RNAs) that are needed for
protein synthesis.
Interphase
o the chromosomes are referred to
as→ chromatin (chromatin
threads).
o one or more non-membrane
bound structures called nucleoli
are also usually seen in the
nucleoplasm.
the nuclear matrix (nuclear skeleton)
o a network of proteins that is
responsible for maintaining the
shape of the nucleus and spatial
organization of chromatin.
o The framework of the nucleus.
 Nuclear Envelope o It consists of intermediate filaments
called→ lamins and nuclear lamin-
o It is like the cell membrane wherein it is
associated membrane proteins.
too thin to be appreciated under the
o Attached to fibrous lamina are→
optical microscope, but it is visible in
clumps of chromatin.
the TEM.
o These chromatin clumps are visible as
o It can be regarded as a specialized
basophilic areas and serve to outline
portion of the rough endoplasmic
the inner surface of the nuclear
reticulum (rER).
envelope in routine histologic
o It is also studded with ribosomes.
preparations.
o It consists of two-unit membranes
(outer and inner nuclear membranes
with each a thickness of→7 to 8 nm
Nuclear Pore
thick
o Outer nuclear membrane is continuous o It is the circular openings in the nuclear
with the membranes of the rER. envelope that have a diameter of→ 70
to 75 nm.
o It may vary in number from a few
perinuclear space hundred to thousands depending on cell
type.
o The It is continuous with the cavity of
o It is ringed by a complex that is made up
the rER.
of electron-dense protein molecules.
o AKA perinuclear cisterna or
o Nuclear pore complex← a complex
intermembranous space
that is made up of electron-dense
o It is the one who separated the two-unit
protein molecules.
membranes from each other
o Pore diaphragm← It is a thin film that
o space width of fluid space ranges
covers the nuclear pore that is made up
from→10 to 30 nm
of proteins of the nuclear pore complex.
o They are stabilized by the → fibrous
lamina.
Fibrous lamina o In the pores, the inner and outer nuclear
o It serves as mechanical support to the membranes are continuous with each
nucleus. other.
o It is a fibrillar protein that is closely
associated with the inner surface of the
inner nuclear membrane.
o Have a thickness of→30 to 100 nm
o It is part of the nuclear matrix.
o It also plays a major role in chromatin
organization, cell cycle regulation, DNA
replication, DNA repair, cell
differentiation and apoptosis.