A note on terms

Authority/reason Medieval arguments over institutional struc-

tures were based on a distinction between authority, citation
of some prestigious text, and reason, demonstration of a
point by formal logic, often by means of a syllogism.
Causes Aristotle's idea of four causes, material, efficient, formal,
final, was used in the analysis of institutions. These were that
out of which something was made (material), the one who
made it (efficient), the form imposed on the material (formal)
and the reason for which it was made (final).
Equity (epieikeia) Aristotle argued that equity needed to be
applied wherever the letter of the law fell short of true justice.
This doctrine was used, among other things, to get around
the canonistic idea that only a pope could summon a general
council.
Obediences The adherents of the different papal claimants in the
Great Schism were called obediences. From 1378 to 1409
there were two, those of the Roman line (Urban VI, Boniface
IX, Innocent VII and Gregory XII) and of the Avignon line
(Clement VII and Benedict XIII). After the Council of Pisa
attempted vainly to end the Schism by deposing Gregory and
Benedict and electing a new pope, there was a third, Pisan
obedience (Alexander V, John XXIII). All of these obediences
were merged into the Council of Constance (1414-18) which
disposed of all three claimants and elected Martin V as the
sole Roman pontiff.
Ordinary gloss Many of the authoritative texts taught in the

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Oxford Union Society, on 17 Aug 2021 at 17:54:47, subject to the Cambridge
Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804212.003
 A note on terms

schools, including the Bible, the collections of canon law and

most Roman law texts, had an ordinary gloss, a commentary
commonly copied along with the text, usually surrounding it
on the page. The gloss on the Bible was a compilation made
over centuries, and it included the Interlinear gloss
(annotations between lines of the text) and the Marginal gloss
(surrounding the text). The ordinary gloss to Gratian's Decre-
tum, by Johannes Teutonicus, was revised by Bartholomaeus
Brixiensis. That to the Gregorian Decretals was by Bartholo-
maeus Parmensis; those to the Liber sextus and the Clem-
entines, by Johannes Andreae. The ordinary gloss to each part
of the Justinian compilation of Roman law was by Accursius.
Perfect community A "perfect" community or political entity
possessed all powers needed for government, including the
power to punish those subject to it. The claim that a council
could be "perfect" in this sense includes the supposition that
it could punish an erring pope.
Polities According to Aristotle's classic discussion of forms of
government, there are three good constitutions: monarchy
(royal), aristocracy and timocracy (rule by a larger group
in the best interests of the whole community). In the Politics,
Aristotle uses the generic term polity for the third of these;
but medieval authors commonly followed his usage in the
Ethics, where he calls it timocracy. Correspondingly, there
are three bad constitutions, tyranny, oligarchy and democ-
racy, similar regimes used for the selfish ends of the rulers.
The mixed polity, combining elements of each good polity,
was discussed frequently by political theorists.
Power, ecclesiastical The powers of the clergy, according to a
distinction in canon law, were divided into orders and juris-
diction. The power of holy orders, one of the seven sacra-
ments, was the ability to perform sacramental acts, including
celebration of the eucharist and the absolution of sinners. Jur-
isdiction was the power of ecclesiastical government. It was
divided, in turn, into the internal forum of confession and
the external forum, which covered multiple powers, includ-
ing the decision of cases and the imposition of censures. One
of these censures, excommunication of individuals, could
be incurred through a sentence or imposed latae sententiae,

xxv
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Oxford Union Society, on 17 Aug 2021 at 17:54:47, subject to the Cambridge
Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804212.003
 A note on terms

that is from the very fact of committing a forbidden act. Cer-

tain aspects of these powers, involving binding and loosing,
including absolution of sinners and issuing authoritative
decisions, were understood as pertaining to the power of the
keys, which had been conferred by Jesus both on Peter
(Matthew 16) and on all the apostles (Matthew 18). The pope
was described, especially by papal apologists, as possessing
plenitude of power, which permitted him to act virtually
unchecked by human wills for the good of the Church and
Christendom. Other pastors, especially bishops and parish
priests, were described as having cure of souls, being
responsible for the spiritual welfare of those subject to them.
Wayfarer {viator) Christians were regarded as wayfarers or pil-
grims, passing through this world on their way to the next.

xxvi
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Oxford Union Society, on 17 Aug 2021 at 17:54:47, subject to the Cambridge
Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804212.003