sensors

Article
A New Logging-While-Drilling Method for
Resistivity Measurement in Oil-Based Mud †
Yongkang Wu 1 , Baoping Lu 2 , Wei Zhang 2,3 , Yandan Jiang 1 , Baoliang Wang 1, * and
Zhiyao Huang 1
1 State Key Laboratory of Industrial Control Technology, College of Control Science and Engineering,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China; yk.wu@zju.edu.cn (Y.W.); ydjiang@zju.edu.cn (Y.J.);
zy_huang@zju.edu.cn (Z.H.)
2 Sinopec Research Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Beijing 100101, China; lubp.sripe@sinopec.com (B.L.);
zhangwei.sripe@sinopec.com (W.Z.)
3 State Key Laboratory of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment Mechanisms and Effective Development,
Beijing 100101, China
* Correspondence: wangbl@zju.edu.cn
† This paper is an extended version of an earlier conference paper: “Wu, Y.K.; Ni, W.N.; Li, X.; Zhang, W.;
Wang, B.L.; Jiang, Y.D. and Huang, Z.Y. Research on characteristics of a new oil-based logging-while-drilling
instrument. In Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Measurement Techniques for
Multiphase Flow, Zhenjiang, China, 3–7 November 2019.”




Received: 21 December 2019; Accepted: 11 February 2020; Published: 16 February 2020


Abstract: Resistivity logging is an important technique for identifying and estimating reservoirs.
Oil-based mud (OBM) can improve drilling efficiency and decrease operation risks, and has been
widely used in the well logging field. However, the non-conductive OBM makes the traditional
logging-while-drilling (LWD) method with low frequency ineffective. In this work, a new oil-based
LWD method is proposed by combining the capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection
(C4 D) technique and the inductive coupling principle. The C4 D technique is to overcome the electrical
insulation problem of the OBM and construct an effective alternating current (AC) measurement
path. Based on the inductive coupling principle, an induced voltage can be formed to be the indirect
excitation voltage of the AC measurement path. Based on the proposed method, a corresponding
logging instrument is developed. Numerical simulation was carried out and results show that the
logging instrument has good measurement accuracy, deep detection depth and high vertical resolution.
Practical experiments were also carried out, including the resistance box experiment and the well
logging experiment. The results of the resistance box experiment show that the logging instrument
has good resistance measurement accuracy. Lastly, the results of the well logging experiment indicate
that the logging instrument can accurately reflect the positions of different patterns on the wellbore of
the experimental well. Both numerical simulation and practical experiments verify the feasibility and
effectiveness of the new method.

Keywords: resistivity logging; oil-based mud (OBM); logging-while-drilling (LWD); capacitively

coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4 D) technique; inductive coupling principle

1. Introduction
Reservoir evaluation plays an important role in the exploration and development of oil and gas.
With the increase of unconventional wells in the drilling operations such as high angle wells and
horizontal wells, logging-while-drilling (LWD) technology has become an important research aspect in
the well logging field. LWD technology enables practitioners to measure the formation parameters for
geological analysis while drilling.

Sensors 2020, 20, 1075; doi:10.3390/s20041075 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 2 of 16

Reservoir drilling is generally carried out in water-based mud (WBM) due to its convenience,
low cost and little pollution to the environment [1]. However, with the development of LWD, WBM
is no longer a good choice [1,2]. On the one hand, to achieve the fine reservoir evaluation in WBM
environment, the expensive and quite time-consuming full-hole coring has to be adopted [1]. On the
other hand, with the increase of deepwater wells and unconventional wells, WBM is no longer
applicable because of the high temperature and high pressure resulted from these kinds of wells [2].
Due to the advantages of high temperature resistance, good lubricity and low reservoir damage,
oil-based mud (OBM) is more suitable for most of deepwater wells and unconventional wells than
WBM [3]. It can improve drilling efficiency and decrease operation risks. Thus, it has been widely used
in the well logging field [4]. However, because the continuous phase of the OBM is oil, the resistivity
of the OBM is usually million times the resistivity of the WBM resistivity [5]. It means the traditional
measurement method with low frequency is no longer feasible in the OBM environment.
In view of the non-conductive OBM, new methods for solving the electrical insulation problem
of the OBM have been proposed [2,4,6–19]. There are four main categories. The first method is to
research and develop a conductive OBM system that possesses not only good lubricity and stability
as the conventional OBM has, but also low resistivity comparable to that of WBM [7]. To increase
the conductivity of the OBM significantly, additives such as conductive solid particles [8], polar base
oil [9], oil soluble ionic salts [10], specified ionic liquids [11], nanomaterials [12–15] are required to be
added into the OBM. With the conductive OBM, the traditional LWD method becomes still effective.
However, this method is limited by the high cost of early research-development and the environmental
consideration on the toxic additives. The second method is to make a knife-like electrode which is
sharp enough to cut through the mud cake, so that a conductive path will be established between
the electrode and the formation, and the conventional low-frequency measurement method becomes
still applicable [16,17]. However, this method becomes infeasible in the complex wellbore conditions
including the thick mud attachment, irregular wall, spiral and deviated well. The third method is called
the four-terminal measurement, which is to utilize the potential difference between the two vertical
offset voltage electrodes for calibrating the formation resistivity in an alternating current field [18].
This method has the advantages of large measurement range and good adaptability of the mud cake
thickness. However, there are several disadvantages accompanying this method, such as low resolution
and limited pad structure. The fourth method is based on the capacitive coupling principle [2,4,6,19].
In this method, a current-carrying electrode is used to emit a high-frequency current to the formation
and then the resistivity information of the formation can be obtained by measuring the voltage of the
voltage-sensing electrode. However, the structure and the control process of the electrodes are complex,
and the electrodes wear easily while drilling. Besides, this method is still in the stage of simulation
research. Thus, more research work on resistivity measurement in OBM should be undertaken.
Capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4 D) technique is proposed as a
contactless method for conductivity detection [20–22], which provides an effective approach for
solving the blocking problem of non-conductive mediums. It has the advantages of low cost, simple
construction, and good real-time performance [23–28]. Currently, C4 D technique is mainly applied
in the research field of analytical chemistry [20–22]. The inductive coupling principle is an indirect
excitation method, which is generating an induced voltage in the secondary coil by applying an AC
excitation signal to the primary coil [29–31].
By referring to the idea of the C4 D technique and the inductive coupling principle, a new oil-based
LWD method is proposed in this work [32]. On the one hand, the C4 D technique is introduced to the
well logging field to solve the electrical insulation problem of the OBM. In detail, the C4 D technique
is used to construct an effective alternating current (AC) measurement path for the measurement
signal to go through the non-conductive OBM, so the influence of the electrical insulation problem
of the OBM on formation resistivity measurement is overcome. On the other hand, the inductive
coupling principle is used to form an induced voltage signal and implement indirect excitation of
the AC measurement path. Based on the proposed method, a corresponding logging instrument will
 Sensors2019,
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2020,19,
2019, 19, FORPEER
FOR PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 333of
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logging instrument
logging instrument will
will be
be developed,
developed, and
and numerical
numerical simulation
simulation and
and practical
practical experiments
experiments will
will be
be
be developed,
carried outto and numerical
toverify
verify simulation
thefeasibility
feasibility and practical
andeffectiveness
effectiveness experiments
ofthe
the will be carried out to verify the
proposedmethod.
method.
carried out the and of proposed
feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method.
2.Methods
2. Methods
2. Methods
2.1.Application
2.1. ApplicationofofCC44D
DTechnique
TechniqueininLWD
LWD
2.1. Application of C4 D Technique in LWD
Thebasic
The basicstructure
structureof ofthe
theCC44D
Dsensor
sensor[33]
[33]isisshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure1.
1.The
TheCC44D
Dsensor
sensorincludes
includesananAC
AC
The basic structure of the C4 D sensor [33] is shown in Figure 1. The C4 D sensor includes an AC
source, two
source, two metal
metal electrodes
electrodes (the
(the excitation
excitation electrode
electrode and
and the
the pick-up
pick-up electrode),
electrode), an
an insulating
insulating
source, two metal electrodes (the excitation electrode and the pick-up electrode), an insulating channel
channeland
channel andaacurrent
currentdetection
detectionunit.
unit.
and a current detection unit.

Excitation Themeasured
channel Excitation The
Insulatingchannel
Insulating
measured Pick-up
Pick-up
electrode
electrode fluid
fluid electrode
electrode

uui i IIout
out

ACsource
AC source

Currentdetection
Current detectionunit
unit

Figure1.1. Basicstructure
1.Basic structureof
ofthe
theCC 4 D sensor.
C44D
Figure
Figure Basic structure of the Dsensor.
sensor.

The simplified
The simplified equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit of
of the
the measurement
measurement path path of the C4DDsensor
of the sensor isshown
shownin inFigure
Figure2.2.
The simplified equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the CC44D sensor isisshown in Figure 2.
CC11isisthe
the coupling
coupling capacitance
capacitanceformed
formedby by the
the excitation
excitation electrode,
electrode, the the insulating
insulating channel,
channel, andand the
the
C1 is the coupling capacitance formed by the excitation electrode, the insulating channel, and the
measured conductive
measured fluid. CC2 2isisthe
conductive fluid. thecoupling
couplingcapacitance
capacitanceformed formedby by the
the pick-up
pick-up electrode,
electrode, thethe
measured conductive fluid. C2 is the coupling capacitance formed by the pick-up electrode, the
insulating channel,
insulatingchannel,
channel,and and
andthethe measured
themeasured conductive
measuredconductive fluid.
conductivefluid. R is
fluid.RRisisthe the equivalent
theequivalent resistance
equivalentresistance
resistanceofof the
ofthe measured
themeasured
measured
insulating
fluid between
fluid between the
between the
the twotwo electrodes.
two electrodes.
electrodes. WhenWhen
When an an
an ACAC voltage
AC voltage u i is applied
voltage uui i isis applied
applied to to the
to the excitation
the excitation electrode,
excitation electrode,
electrode, an an
an
fluid
output current
output current I out
current IIout will
will bebe obtained
be obtained
obtained on on the
on the pick-up
the pick-up electrode
pick-up electrode
electrode by by
by thethe current
the current detection
current detection unit.
detection unit. With
unit. With the
With the
the
output out will
obtained output
obtained output current,
current, the
the conductivity
conductivity of of the
the measured
measured fluid fluid can can be
be obtained.
obtained.
obtained output current, the conductivity of the measured fluid can be obtained.

CC11 RR CC22
uui i IIout
out Current
Current
detectionunit
detection unit
Measurementpath
Measurement path

Figure
Figure2.2.
Figure Simplified
2.Simplified equivalent
Simplifiedequivalent circuit
equivalentcircuit of
circuitof the
ofthe measurement
themeasurement path
measurementpath of
pathof the
theCC
ofthe 4D
C44D sensor.
Dsensor.
sensor.

The characteristic
Thecharacteristic of
characteristicof the
theCC
ofthe 4D
C44D technique
techniqueisisisto
Dtechnique to measure
tomeasure
measurethethe conductivity
theconductivity
conductivityof of the
ofthe measured
themeasured object
measuredobject when
objectwhen
when
The
an
an insulating
insulating medium
medium exists
exists between
between the
the electrode
electrode and
and the
the object.
object. The
The measurement
measurement
an insulating medium exists between the electrode and the object. The measurement approach of the approach
approach of
of the
the
4
CC
CD
44DDtechnique
technique has
techniquehas provided
hasprovided
providedan an alternative
analternative solution
alternativesolution
solutionto to solve
tosolve the
solvethe problem
theproblem
problemof of blocking
ofblocking the
blockingthe low-frequency
thelow-frequency
low-frequency
measurement
measurementpath
measurement path between
pathbetween electrodes
betweenelectrodes and
electrodesand the
andthe the formation
formation
formation caused
caused
caused byby
by the
the non-conductive
the non-conductive
non-conductive OBM.
OBM.
OBM.
The diagram of the application of the C4 D technique in LWD is shown in Figure 3. Cd1 is the
coupling capacitance formed by the drill collar, the non-conductive OBM and the formation. Cd2 is the
coupling capacitance formed by the pick-up electrode, the non-conductive OBM and the formation. Rf
is the equivalent resistance of the formation. The application of the C4 D technique can overcome the
electrical insulation problem of the OBM and construct an effective AC measurement path.
 Drill collar
Wellbore
Cd1

Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 4 of 16

Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Formation Rf 4 of 16
Io
Io
The AC
measurement Cd2
Drill collar
Wellbore
path Pick-up
Cd1 electrode
Oil-based mud

Formation Rf
Io Drill bit
Io
The AC
measurement Cd2
Figure 3. Diagram
pathof the application of the C D technique
4
Pick-up
in LWD.
electrode
Oil-based
The diagram of the application ofmud
the C4D technique in LWD is shown in Figure 3. Cd1 is the
coupling capacitance formed by the drill collar, the non-conductive OBM and the formation. Cd2 is
the coupling capacitance formed by the pick-up electrode, the non-conductive
Drill bit OBM and the formation.
Rf is the equivalent resistance of the formation. The application of the C D technique can overcome the
4

electrical insulation problem

Figure 3.of the OBM
Diagram andapplication
of the construct of
anthe
effective AC measurement
C44D technique in LWD. path.
Figure 3. Diagram of the application of the C D technique in LWD.

2.2. Application
2.2. Application
The diagramof
of Inductive
Inductive Coupling Principle
Coupling Principle
of the application in
of the in
C4DLWD
LWDtechnique in LWD is shown in Figure 3. Cd1 is the
coupling capacitance
Originally,
Originally, formed byexcitation
aalow-frequency
low-frequency the drill voltage
excitationcollar, the
voltage non-conductive
is directly
is directly toOBM
applied
applied and electrode
the formation.
to electrode
the the system systemCd2inis
in LWD.
the coupling
LWD. However,
However, capacitance formed
the manufacturing
the manufacturing by the
process of pick-up
process electrode,
of electrodes
electrodes the non-conductive
is difficultisand
difficult OBM
and the are
the electrodes and
electrodes the formation.
are easy
easy to wear to
while
R f is the
wear equivalent
while drilling, resistance
limiting of
the the formation.
application of The
the application
direct of
excitation the C 4D technique can overcome the
method. In 1967, researcher
drilling, limiting the application of the direct excitation method. In 1967, researcher ARPS, J.J. applied ARPS,
electrical
J.J.
the appliedinsulation
inductive the
coupling problem
inductive of the
coupling
principle OBM
to LWD and The
principle
[29]. construct
tobasic an[29].
effective
LWDprinciple The AC
basic
of the measurement
principle
inductive ofpath.
couplingtheprinciple
inductiveis
coupling
shown principle
in Figure is shown
4. Take in Figure 4.asTake
the transformer the transformer
an example. As can beasseen
an example. As 4,
from Figure can
thebetransformer
seen from
2.2. Application
Figure 4, the of Inductive
transformer is Coupling
composed Principle
of a in LWDcoil, a secondary coil and a core. The number of
primary
is composed of a primary coil, a secondary coil and a core. The number of turns of the primary coil is
turns
N 1 and
ofthe
thenumber
primary
Originally, ofcoil is Nof
a low-frequency
turns 1 and the numbercoil
excitation
the secondary of is
turns
voltage . ofdirectly
N2is the secondary
appliedcoil
to is
theN2electrode
. system in
LWD. However, the manufacturing process of electrodes is difficult and the electrodes are easy to
wear while drilling, limiting the application of theCore direct excitation method. In 1967, researcher ARPS,
J.J. applied the inductive coupling principle to LWD [29]. The basic principle of the inductive
coupling principle is shown in Figure 4. Take the transformer as an example. As can be seen from
U1 N1 U2
Figure 4, the transformer is composed of a primary coil, Na2secondary coil and a core. The number of
turns of the primary coil is N1 and the number of turns of the secondary coil is N2.

Primary coil Secondary coil

Core
Figure
Figure 4. Basic principle
4. Basic principle of
of the
the inductive
inductive coupling
coupling principle.
principle.

By applying an AC voltage UU11 to the primary

N1 coil, an induced
N2 Uvoltage
2 U will be generated in the
By applying an AC voltage U1 to the primary coil, an induced voltage2 U2 will be generated in
secondary coil. The induced voltage U2 is determined by the following equation:
the secondary coil. The induced voltage U2 is determined by the following equation:
UNN
Primary == 11 22Secondary coil
UU2 coil2 (1)
(1)
N11
Figure 4. Basic principle of the inductive coupling principle.
Based on the inductive coupling principle, a stable induced voltage can be generated in the
secondary coil
secondary coilofof
thethe transformer,
transformer, whichwhich
can be can beasused
used as the excitation
the excitation voltage ofvoltage of the
the logging logging
instrument.
By applying an AC voltage U1 to the primary coil, an induced voltage U2 will be generated in
instrument.
The diagramThe diagram
of the of the application
application of the coupling
of the inductive inductiveprinciple
coupling in principle
LWD isinshown
LWD is in shown
Figure in5.
the secondary coil. The induced voltage U2 is determined by the following equation:
Figure 5. An excitation coil is introduced as the primary coil. The measurement path consisted
An excitation coil is introduced as the primary coil. The measurement path consisted of the drill collar, of the
U1formation
N2
drillpick-up
the collar, the pick-upthe
electrodes, electrodes,
OBM and the OBM
the U2 =
and
formation theis regarded is the
as regarded as the
secondary secondary
coil. coil. (1)
By applying By
an
applying
AC voltageantoACthevoltage to coil,
excitation the excitation
an induced coil,
voltage N
an induced voltageatuthe
1 generated
u is is generated
upper andat the upper
lower and
drill collar
to provide
Basedanonindirect excitation
the inductive voltageprinciple,
coupling for the logging
a stableinstrument. Z is the can
induced voltage impedance of the OBM
be generated in the
and the formation.
secondary coil of the transformer, which can be used as the excitation voltage of the logging
instrument. The diagram of the application of the inductive coupling principle in LWD is shown in
Figure 5. An excitation coil is introduced as the primary coil. The measurement path consisted of the
drill collar, the pick-up electrodes, the OBM and the formation is regarded as the secondary coil. By
applying an AC voltage to the excitation coil, an induced voltage u is generated at the upper and
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

lower2020,
Sensors drill
20,collar
to provide an indirect excitation voltage for the logging instrument. Z 5isofthe
1075 16
impedance of the OBM and the formation.

Drill collar
ui AC source
Z Excitaion coil
u

Figure5.5. Diagram
Figure Diagram of
of the
the application
applicationof
ofthe
theinductive
inductivecoupling
couplingprinciple
principlein
inLWD.
LWD.

Themeasurement
The measurement path including the the drill
drillcollar,
collar,the
theOBM
OBMand andthe theformation
formationcan canbeberegarded
regarded as
thethe
as secondary
secondary side
sideofofa atransformer
transformerwith withone one turn.
turn. TheThe induced
induced voltage
voltage u is determined
determined by by the
the
followingequation:
following equation:
u
u = uii (2)
u = Nt (2)
Nt
where ui is the voltage of the AC source, Nt is the number of turns of the excitation coil.
where ui is the voltage of the AC source, Nt is the number of turns of the excitation coil.
2.3. The New Oil-Based LWD Method
2.3. The New Oil-based LWD Method
In order to describe the new oil-based LWD method clearly, the proposed method is applied to
In order to describe
the development of a loggingthe new oil-based The
instrument. LWDbasicmethod clearly,
structure of the
theproposed method is applied
logging instrument is shown to
the
in development
Figure of a logging
6. The logging instrument.
instrument consistsTheof basic
an AC structure
source, anof the loggingcoil,
excitation instrument
a currentisdetection
shown in
Figure
unit, 6. The logging
a pick-up electrode,instrument
a drill consists
collar andof an AC source,
a drill bit. The anapplication
excitation coil, C4 D technique
a current
of the detection unit,
can
a pick-up the
overcome electrode,
electricala drill collar and
insulation a drillofbit.
problem theThe
OBM application
and constructof theanCeffective
4 D technique can overcome
AC measurement
the electrical
path. The ACinsulation
measurement problem
path of the OBM
includes theand
drillconstruct
collar, theanOBM,
effectivethe AC measurement
formation and thepath. The
pick-up
AC measurement
electrode. According pathto includes the drill collar,
the measurement principle theofOBM, 4
the Cthe formation and
D technique, the pick-up
the pick-up electrode.
electrode, the
According to the
non-conductive OBM measurement
and the conductive principle of the can
formation C4Dformtechnique,
a coupling thecapacitance,
pick-up electrode, the non-
which constitutes
conductive
an AC circuit OBM pathand for the
theconductive
measurement formation
signal to cangoform a coupling
through the OBM. capacitance, which
In this way, theconstitutes
electrical
an AC circuit
insulation problempath of forthetheOBM
measurement
is overcome. signal
The toinductive
go through the OBM.
coupling In thisisway,
principle usedthe electrical
to generate
insulation
an indirect problem
excitationofsourcethe OBM for is
theovercome. The inductive
AC measurement path.coupling principle
For the whole is used measurement
resistivity to generate an
indirect firstly,
process, excitation sourcetofor
according thethe AC measurement
inductive path. Forwhen
coupling principle, the whole
an AC resistivity measurement
source is applied to the
process, firstly,
excitation coil, an according
induced to the inductive
voltage coupling
can be formed principle,
above when the
and below an AC source coil,
excitation is applied
whichtois theto
excitation coil, an induced voltage can be formed above and below
be the excitation voltage of the AC measurement path. Secondly, the signal goes through the ACthe excitation coil, which is to be
the excitationpath,
measurement voltage
and thenof the AC measurement
a current which carriespath. Secondly,information
the resistivity the signal ofgoes through the
the formation can AC be
measurement
measured on the path, and then
pick-up a current
electrode which
by the carries
current the resistivity
detection information
unit. Lastly, of the resistivity
the formation formationcan can
beobtained
be measured
Sensors xon
with
2019, 19, FORthePEER
pick-up
measured
REVIEW electrode
current.by the current detection unit. Lastly, the formation resistivity 6 of 16
can be obtained with the measured current.
The equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 7.
Cd1 is the coupling capacitance formed by the drill collar, the OBM and the formation. Cd2 is the
coupling capacitance formed by the pick-up electrode, the OBM and the formation. Rf is the
equivalent resistance of the formation, which is the measurement target. The simplified equivalent
circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 8. Cd is the combined
capacitance of Cd1 and Cd2.

Figure6.6. Basic
Figure Basic structure
structureof
ofthe
thelogging
logginginstrument.
instrument.

Cd1 Rf Cd2
u Io Current
detection unit

Figure 7. Equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument.

Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 6 of 16

The equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 7.
Cd1 is the coupling capacitance formed by the drill collar, the OBM and the formation. Cd2 is the
coupling capacitance formed by the pick-up electrode, the OBM and the formation. Rf is the equivalent
resistance of the formation, which is the measurement target. The simplified equivalent circuit of the
measurement path of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 8. Cd is the combined capacitance of
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Basic
Basic structure
structure of
of the
the logging
logging instrument.
instrument.
Cd1 and Cd2 .

C
Cd1 R
Rff C
Cd2
d1 d2
uu IIo Current
o Current
detection
detection unit
unit
Figure
Figure 7. Equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument.
Figure7.7.Equivalent
Equivalentcircuit
circuitof
ofthe
themeasurement
measurementpath
pathof
ofthe
thelogging
logginginstrument.
instrument.

C
Cdd R
Rff
uu IIo
o Current
Current
detection
detection unit
unit
Figure
Figure8.
Figure 8.8.Simplified
Simplifiedequivalent
Simplified equivalentcircuit
equivalent circuitof
circuit ofthe
of themeasurement
the measurementpath
measurement pathof
path ofthe
of thelogging
the logging instrument.
logging instrument.
instrument.

The equivalent
The equivalent
The resistance
resistanceof of
equivalentresistance thethe
of formation
formation
the R
Rff,, termed
Rf , also
formation also
also termed the
the apparent
the apparent
termed resistance
resistance
apparent of
of the
of the formation,
resistance the
formation,
can be can be
determineddetermined
by the by
followingthe following
equation: equation:
formation, can be determined by the following equation:
uuu
RR =
= I cos
Rff = cos((ψ
cos ψ(ψ))) (3)
(3)(3)
IIoo o

where
where u
where uu is
is the
is theinduced
the induced voltage, IIIooois
induced voltage,
voltage, isisthe
themeasured
the measuredcurrent,
measured current,ψ
current, ψψis
isisthe
theimpedance
the impedanceangle
impedance angleof
angle ofthe
of theimpedance
the impedance
impedance
of
of the
ofthe formation
the formation
formation and and the
and the OBM.
the OBM.
OBM.
The
Theapparent
The apparent resistivity
apparent resistivity of
resistivity of the
of theformation
the formationR
formation RRaaais
isisthe
themeasured
the measuredresistivity
measured resistivityof
resistivity ofofthe
thelogging
the logginginstrument,
logging instrument,
instrument,
which
which
which cancan
can bebe determined
be determined
determined by by the
by the following
the following equation:
following equation:
equation:
u
Ra = k uu cos cos(((ψ
RRaa == kk II o cos ψ)))=
ψ =kR
= kR f
kRf f
(4)
(4)(4)
Ioo
where
where kk isis the
the instrument
instrument constant.
constant. ItIt is
is determined
determined by by the
the following
following equation:
equation:
where k is the instrument constant. It is determined by the following equation:
R I R
Raa I oo = Rtt I oo I
kk =
= u cos = (5)
a I(oψ ) u cos R(tψIo ) (5)
k = u cos (ψ ) =u cos (ψ )
R
(5)
where R u cos(ψ) u cos(ψ)
t is the real resistivity of the formation. The instrument constant k is a key parameter of the
where Rt is the real resistivity of the formation. The instrument constant k is a key parameter of the
logging
where Rinstrument
logging instrument and is
is affected by the
the size
size ofof the Thepick-up electrode. Generally, kk is used
used toto convert
t is the realand affected
resistivity by formation.
of the the pick-up
instrument electrode. Generally,
constant k is a key isparameter convert
of the
the
the measured
measured
logging apparent
apparent
instrument resistance
andresistance
is affectedof the
ofby
thetheformation
formation
size of the to the
to the apparent
apparent
pick-up resistivity
resistivity
electrode. of the formation.
k is used toIt
of the formation.
Generally, can
can be
Itconvert
be
obtained
obtained
the measuredby assuming
by assuming that
apparentthat the apparent
the apparent
resistance resistivity
resistivitytoRthe
of the formation R a is equal to the real resistivity Rt when the
a isapparent
equal toresistivity
the real resistivity Rt whenIt the
of the formation. can
parameters
be obtainedsuch
parameters such as
as the
the wellbore
by assumingwellbore diameter,
diameter,
that the apparent the OBM
OBM resistivity
the resistivity resistivity and
and the
Ra is equal toformation
the formation resistivity
resistivityRare
the real resistivity are known.
known.
t when the
parameters such as the wellbore diameter, the OBM resistivity and the formation resistivity are known.
3.
3. Results
Results
3. Results
3.1.
3.1. Numerical
Numerical Simulation
Simulation
3.1. Numerical Simulation
In
In order
order toto verify
verify the
the feasibility
feasibility of
of the
the proposed
proposed method, method, numerical
numerical simulation
simulation of of the
the developed
developed
logging instrument was carried out. In this part, various instrument parametersthe
loggingIn order to
instrumentverify the
was feasibility
carried of
out. the
In proposed
this part, method,
various numerical
instrument simulation
parameters of developed
such
such as
as the
the
logging instrument was carried out. In this part, various instrument parameters such as the
measurement accuracy of formation resistivity, the detection depth and invasion radius, the influence
of surrounding rock and the vertical resolution were examined to test the performance of the
logging instrument.
 Sensors
Sensors 2019,
2019, 19,19, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 7 of7 16
of 16

measurement
measurement accuracy
accuracy of of formation
formation resistivity,
resistivity, thethe detection
detection depth
depth andand invasion
invasion radius,
radius, thethe influence
influence
of of surrounding
surrounding rock
rock and
and thethe vertical
vertical resolution
resolution were
were examined
examined to to test
test thethe performance
performance of of
thethe logging
logging
instrument.
instrument.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 7 of 16

3.1.1.
3.1.1. Numerical
Numerical Simulation
Simulation Setup
Setup
3.1.1.InNumerical
In
thethe
wellwell Simulation
logging
logging field,Setup
field, logging
logging response
response is is generally
generally analyzed
analyzed byby numerical
numerical methods
methods rather
rather
than
than analytical
Inanalytical
the methods,
methods,
well logging because
field,because
logging thethelogging
response logging environment
environment
is generally analyzedis byisextremely
extremely
numerical complex,
complex,
methods and
rather and allall
than
environmental
environmental
analytical methods, factors
factors such
such as
because as wellbore,
thewellbore, invasion
invasion zone,
logging environment zone, surrounding
is surrounding
extremely complex, rock,
rock, mud mud cake,
and cake, temperature
temperature
all environmental
andand pressure
pressure will
will allall affect
affect thethe logging
logging results
results [34,35].
[34,35]. In In this
this
factors such as wellbore, invasion zone, surrounding rock, mud cake, temperature and pressure work,
work, thethe software
software COMSOL
COMSOL
will all
Multiphysics
Multiphysics (COMSOL,
(COMSOL, Inc.,
Inc., Stockholm,
Stockholm, Sweden)
Sweden) is is used
used to to
affect the logging results [34,35]. In this work, the software COMSOL Multiphysics (COMSOL, analyze
analyze thethe logging
logging response
response of
thethe
ofInc.,
instrument,
instrument, which is
which isisa used
Stockholm, Sweden) a commercial
commercial
to analyze finite
finite element
theelement modeling
modelingofsoftware
logging response software in the
in the well
the instrument, well
which logging
logging field.
field. The
is a commercial The
logging
logging
finite instrument
instrument
element modelingis is developed
developed
software in in
in the COMSOL
COMSOL software
software
well logging and
field. and
The the AC/DC
thelogging
AC/DC module
module
instrument ofisof
thethe COMSOL
COMSOL
developed in
software
software
COMSOLissoftwareis used
used toand to carry
carrytheout out
AC/DC the numerical
the numerical
module of the simulation.
simulation.
COMSOLThe The diagram
diagram
software of
of the
is used the logging
logging
to carry instrument
out instrument
the numerical is is
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure
simulation. 9. As
9. As is of
The diagram is shown
shown in Figure
in Figure
the logging 9, the
9, the logging
instrument logging
is shown instrument
instrument consists
in Figure consists of the
of the drill
9. As is shown drill collar,
collar,
in Figure thethe
9, the
excitation
excitation
logging coil
coil and
instrument andthethe detection
detection
consists of the electrode
electrode
drill array.
array.
collar, the excitation coil and the detection electrode array.

Figure
Figure 9.
Figure Diagram
9. of of
Diagram
9. Diagram of thethe
the logging instrument.
logging
logging instrument.
instrument.

The
Thesimulation
simulation setup
setupis is
shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure10.10.
There
Thereare mainly two parts, one is thethe
wellbore and
The simulation setup is shown in Figure 10. There areare mainly
mainly two
two parts,
parts, oneone
is is wellbore
the wellbore and
and
thethe
logging
logginginstrument,
instrument,and
and the other is the measured formation. The logging instrument is situated
the logging instrument, and thethe other
other is is
thethe measured
measured formation.
formation. The
The logging
logging instrument
instrument is is situated
situated
inside the wellbore
inside and there is oil-based mud between the logging instrument and the wellbore.
inside thethe wellbore
wellbore and
and there
there is is oil-based
oil-based mudmud between
between thethe logging
logging instrument
instrument andand thethe wellbore.
wellbore.
Figure 10b
Figure shows
10b showsthethe
meshing
meshing diagram
diagram of of
the whole area.
Figure 10b shows the meshing diagram of thethe whole
whole area.
area.

(a)(a) (b)(b)
Figure
Figure 10.10. Simulation
Simulation setup
setup of of
thethe logging
logging instrument:
instrument: (a)(a) setup;
setup; (b)(b) meshing
meshing diagram.
diagram.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 8 of 16

In COMSOL software, the finite element method (FEM) is used to analyze the logging response.
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
The logging model needs to satisfy quasi-static electromagnetic field conditions, i.e.
In COMSOL software,

 ∇ · ((σ(the
x, y,finite
z) + element
jωε(x, y, method
z))∇ν(x,(FEM) y, z)) = is 0used (x,toy,analyze
z) ⊆ Π the logging response.

The logging modelneeds to satisfy quasi-static electromagnetic field (x, conditions,
y, z) ⊆ Γ1 i.e.,

 ν1 (x, y, z) = U



 ∇z⋅)((=
ν2 (x, y, σ (0x, y, z ) + jωε ( x, y, z ))∇ν ( x, y, z )) = 0 ( x,(yx,, zy,) ⊆z)Π⊆ Γ2 (6)



 ∂ν(x,y,z)ν1 ( x, y, z ) = U ( x, y, z ) ⊆ Γ1

(x, y, z) ⊆ Γ0

→  = 0


∂ n ν 2 ( x, y , z ) = 0 ( x, y , z ) ⊆ Γ 2 (6)

∂ν ( x, y , z )
where σ(x, y, z) is the spaceconductivity,
 = 0 ε(x, y, z)is the dielectric( xconstant,
, y, z ) ⊆ Γ 0 v(x, y, z) is the potential
 ∂n
distribution, ω is the angle frequency of the AC voltage, Π is the sensing field, Γ1 is the space location
ofwhere
upperσ(x, y, collar,
drill z) is theΓ2space
is theconductivity,
space location ε(x,ofy,lower
z)is the dielectric
drill collar, Γconstant, v(x, y, z) is the potential
0 is the surrounding formation
distribution, →is the angle frequency of the AC voltage, Π is the sensing field, Γ1 is the space location
ω
boundary and n is the unit normal vector of the surrounding formation boundary.
of upper drill collar, Γ2 is the space location of lower drill collar, Γ0 is the surrounding formation

boundary
3.1.2. and nSimulation
Numerical is the unitResults
normal vector of the surrounding formation boundary.
1. Measurement Accuracy of Formation Resistivity
3.1.2. Numerical Simulation Results
According to the relevant published literatures, the range of oil-based logging instrument is
1. Measurement Accuracy of Formation Resistivity
generally between 0.2 Ω·m and 10,000 Ω·m [6,17,18]. In the numerical simulation, the formation
According to the relevant published literatures, the range of oil-based logging instrument is
resistivity is set between 0.2 Ω·m and 10,000 Ω·m. The relative dielectric constant of OBM is set
generally between 0.2 Ω·m and 10,000 Ω·m [6,17,18]. In the numerical simulation, the formation
to 3 and the resistivity of OBM is set to 1e11 Ω·m.
resistivity is set between 0.2 Ω·m and 10,000 Ω·m. The relative dielectric constant of OBM is set
tothis
In 3 and the the
work, resistivity
relativeoferror
OBM is is set to 1e11
introduced toΩ·m.
evaluate the measurement accuracy of the logging
In this work,The
instrument. therelative errorσisRintroduced
relativeerror to evaluate
can be determined by the measurement accuracy of the logging
following equation:
instrument. The relative error σR can be determined by the following equation:
RRa−−RRt
σσRR == a Rt t × ×100%
100% (7)
(7)
Rt
whereRRa aisisthe
where themeasured
measuredapparent
apparentresistivity
resistivityofofthe
thelogging instrument,RR
logginginstrument, t tisisthe
thereal
realresistivity
resistivity
of the measured formation.
of the measured formation.
The resistivity measurement result of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 11.
The resistivity measurement result of the logging instrument is shown in Figure 11.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Resistivity
Resistivitymeasurement
measurementresult
resultofofthe
thelogging
logginginstrument.
instrument.

As is shown in Figure 11, the measured apparent formation resistivity is very close to the real
As is shown in Figure 11, the measured apparent formation resistivity is very close to the real
formation resistivity. For the range of 0.2 Ω·m to 2000 Ω·m, the maximum relative error σR is ±
formation resistivity. For the range of 0.2 Ω·m to 2000 Ω·m, the maximum relative error σR is
0.56% and for the range of 2000 Ω·m to 10,000 Ω·m, the maximum relative error σR is ± 6.37%.
± 0.56% and for the range of 2000 Ω·m to 10,000 Ω·m, the maximum relative error σR is ± 6.37%.
The simulation result shows that the logging instrument has good measurement accuracy in the
The simulation result shows that the logging instrument has good measurement accuracy in the
common range of 0.2 Ω·m to 10,000 Ω·m.
common range of 0.2 Ω·m to 10,000 Ω·m.
2. Detection Depth and Invasion Radius
2. Detection Depth and Invasion Radius
In the well logging field, detection depth refers to the horizontal range of the detectable
formation that affects the measurement results, while invasion radius means the invasion degree
of the OBM into the formation while drilling [36,37]. The detection depth of the logging
instrument is generally determined by the pseudo geometric factor, i.e. the detection depth
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 9 of 16

In the well logging field, detection depth refers to the horizontal range of the detectable formation
that affects the measurement results, while invasion radius means the invasion degree of the
OBM into the formation while drilling [36,37]. The detection depth of the logging instrument
Sensors
is 2019, 19, x FOR
generally PEER REVIEW
determined by the pseudo geometric factor, i.e. the detection depth equals to9the of 16
Sensorsinvasion
2019, 19, xradius
FOR PEER REVIEW
where the pseudo geometric factor is 0.5 [36,37]. The pseudo geometric factor 9 of G
16
equals to the invasion radius
is determined by the following equation: where the pseudo geometric factor is 0.5 [36,37]. The pseudo
equals
geometric to the invasion
factor radius where
G is determined thefollowing
by the pseudo geometric
equation: factor is 0.5 [36,37]. The pseudo
geometric factor G is determined by the following R −R a Rt t
− R
equation:
GG == a (8)
(8)
−
RRa R −
xR−
R Rt
G= x tt (8)
whereRRa aisisthe theapparent
apparentresistivity
resistivityofofthe Rx − Rt Rt is the real resistivity of the formation, Rx
theformation,
formation,
where Rt is the real resistivity of the formation, Rx
where
isisthe R a is the apparent
theapparent
apparent resistivity
resistivity
resistivity ofofthe of the formation,
theformation
formation whenthe
when Rinvasion
t is the real
theinvasion resistivity
radius
radius of the formation, Rx
isisinfinite.
infinite.
isAs theisapparent
shown in resistivity
Figure 12, of the
the formation when the factor
pseudo geometric invasion radius is infinite.
G increases with the increase of the
As
As is
is shown
invasionshown ininFigure
radius. Figure
When12,12,
the pseudo
thethe geometric
pseudo
invasion isfactor
geometric
radius large Genough,
increases
factor with
G increases
the the
pseudo increase
with of thefactor
the increase
geometric invasion
of the
G is
radius.
invasion When
radius. the invasion
When the radius
invasion is large
radius enough,
is large the
enough,pseudo
the geometric
pseudo
almost unchanged. At G = 0.5, the invasion radius is 0.35 m, so the detection depth of the logging factor
geometric G is almost
factor G is
unchanged.
almost unchanged.
instrument At G = 0.5, the invasion radius is 0.35 m, so the detection depth
At G = 0.5, the invasion radius is 0.35 m, so the detection depth of the logging
is 0.35 m. of the logging
instrument is
instrument is 0.35
0.35 m.
m.

Figure 12.Detection
Figure12. Detectiondepth
depthand
andinvasion
invasionradius.
radius.
Figure 12. Detection depth and invasion radius.
3.3. Influence
InfluenceofofSurrounding
SurroundingRockRockand andVertical
VerticalResolution
Resolution
3. Influence
Influence of
ofSurrounding
surrounding Rock
rockand Vertical
refers to Resolution
the
Influence of surrounding rock refers to the influence influenceofofupper
upperand
andlower
lowersurrounding
surroundingrock
rock
Influence
resistivityof(Rsurrounding rock
s) on the target refers resistivity
formation to the influence
(Rt). Theof upper and
three-layer lower surrounding
formation model is rockin
shown
resistivity (Rs ) on the target formation resistivity (Rt ). The three-layer formation model is shown
resistivity
Figure (Rs) on the target formation resistivity (Rt). The three-layer formation model is shown in
13.13.
in Figure
Figure 13.

Figure 13. Three-layer formation model.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Three-layer
Three-layer formation
formation model.
model.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 10 of 16
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Correction coefficient Rt /Ra is generally used to describe the influence of surrounding rock [36,37].
The closer Rt /Ra is to 1, the smaller the influence of surrounding rock is. As is shown in Figure 14,
correction coefficient Rt /Ra is negatively correlated with the thickness of the target formation and
Sensors 2019, 19, x correlated
positively FOR PEER REVIEW
with Rt /Rs , which is consistent with the theory of well logging [36,37].10 of 16

Figure 14. Influence of surrounding rock.

Correction coefficient Rt/Ra is generally used to describe the influence of surrounding rock
[36,37]. The closer Rt/Ra is to 1, the smaller the influence of surrounding rock is. As is shown in
Figure 14, correction coefficient Rt/Ra is negatively correlated with the thickness of the target
formation and positively correlated Figure14.
Figure with Rtof
14.Influence
Influence /R ,surrounding
which is rock.
ofssurrounding consistent
rock. with the theory of well
logging [36,37].
Correction coefficient
Oklahoma Rt/Ra isisagenerally used tomodel describe
usedthe influence of surrounding rock
Oklahomaformation
formationmodel model isclassic isotropic
a classic isotropic model toused
test electric
to test logging
electric methods
logging
[36,37]. The
[36,38,39]. It closer
has a Rt/Rchange
large a is to 1,inthe smaller and
resistivity the influence
thickness, ofand
surrounding
the thinnestrock is. As isthickness
formation shown in
methods [36,38,39]. It has a large change in resistivity and thickness, and the thinnest formation
Figure
isthickness14,m,correction
only 0.2 which coefficient Rtthe
/Ra complex
is negatively correlated withformation
the thickness of the target
is only 0.2can
m, fully
which reflect
can fully reflect the situation
complex of the real
situation and
of the real evaluate
formation the
and
formation and
performance of positively
the logging correlated
instrument. withAs Rist/Rshown
s, which in is consistent
Figure 15, thewith the theory
vertical depth of well
the
evaluate the performance of the logging instrument. As is shown in Figure 15, the vertical depth
logging [36,37].
Oklahoma formation is 80 m and the diameter of the Oklahoma formation is 30 m. In the
of the Oklahoma formation is 80 m and the diameter of the Oklahoma formation is 30 m. In the
Oklahomaformation
Oklahoma formation model,
model is a classic isotropic modelthe used to test electric
of the logging methods
Oklahoma formation model, thethe gridgrid density
density reflects reflects
the thicknessthickness
of the formation.formation. The
The thickness
[36,38,39].ofItformation
thickness has a largechanges
change in resistivity
greatly, whichandcan thickness,
test the and the thinnest
vertical formation
resolution of the thickness
logging
of formation changes greatly, which can test the vertical resolution of the logging instrument.
is only 0.2 m, which can fully reflect the complex situation of the real formation and evaluate the
instrument.
performance of the logging instrument. As is shown in Figure 15, the vertical depth of the
Oklahoma formation is 80 m and the diameter of the Oklahoma formation is 30 m. In the
Oklahoma formation model, the grid density reflects the thickness of the formation. The
thickness of formation changes greatly, which can test the vertical resolution of the logging
instrument.

Oklahoma formation
Figure 15. Oklahoma formation model.
model.

Figure 16 shows the logging response of the logging instrument to the Oklahoma formation. As is
shown in Figure 16, the measured apparent resistivity of the logging instrument is close to the real
formation resistivity. Further, the variation trend of the apparent resistivity is basically consistent
Figure
with that of the real formation 15. Oklahoma
resistivity, formation
indicating model.
that the logging instrument can accurately
reflect the resistivity change of the Oklahoma formation. Besides, the logging instrument can
reflect the thickness change of the Oklahoma formation and even detect the formation with
the thickness of 0.2 m at the vertical depth range of 68 m to 68.2 m, showing that the logging
instrument has a high vertical resolution of thin formation layers.
Sensors 2019,20,
Sensors2020, 19,1075
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1111ofof1616

Figure16.
Figure 16.Logging
Loggingresponse
responseofofthe
thelogging
logginginstrument
instrumenttotothe
theOklahoma
Oklahomaformation.
formation.

Figure 16 shows the logging response of the logging instrument to the Oklahoma formation. As
3.2. Practical
is shownExperiments
in Figure 16, the measured apparent resistivity of the logging instrument is close to the
Inreal formation
order resistivity.
to further test the Further, the variation
performance trend of
of the logging the apparent
instrument, resistivity
resistance boxisandbasically
well
logging consistent with that
experiments wereofcarried
the realout.
formation resistivity,
The resistance indicating
box that is
experiment thea logging
principleinstrument can
verification
accurately reflect the resistivity change of the Oklahoma formation. Besides,
experiment. The well logging experiment is carried out to evaluate the performance of the developed the logging
logging instrument
instrument.can reflect the thickness change of the Oklahoma formation and even detect the
formation with the thickness of 0.2 m at the vertical depth range of 68 m to 68.2 m, showing that
3.2.1. Resistance
the loggingBox Experiment
instrument has a high vertical resolution of thin formation layers.
As the resistance box experiment is a principle verification experiment, the parameters of the
3.2. Practical
logging Experiments
instrument such as the excitation frequency, electrode shape and size are not optimized. In
this part, a resistance
In order box
to further is the
test chosen to simulate
performance thelogging
of the formation and diesel
instrument, oil is used
resistance box to
andsimulate the
well logging
OBM. In order
experiments to obtain
were carriedaout.
larger
Thecurrent, a circular
resistance pick-up iselectrode
box experiment is used
a principle without
verification considering
experiment. The
the azimuth recognition ability. The experimental setup of resistance box experiment
well logging experiment is carried out to evaluate the performance of the developed logging instrument.is shown in
Figure 17. The experimental setup includes the developed logging instrument, a resistance box and a
3.2.1. Resistance
computer. Box Experiment
The equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument is the same as
that of Figure
Sensors 2019, 7.
19, xresistance
FOR PEER REVIEW
As the box experiment is a principle verification experiment, the parameters12of of 16
the
logging instrument such as the excitation frequency, electrode shape and size are not optimized. In this
part, a resistance box is chosen to simulate the formation and diesel oil is used to simulate the OBM. In
order to obtain a larger current, a circular pick-up electrode is used without considering the azimuth
recognition ability. The experimental setup of resistance box experiment is shown in Figure 17. The
experimental setup includes the developed logging instrument, a resistance box and a computer. The
equivalent circuit of the measurement path of the logging instrument is the same as that of Figure 7.

(a) (b)
Figure 17. Experimental setup of resistance box experiment: (a) schematic; (b) photo.

The excitation frequency is set to 20 kHz. The resistance of the resistance box ranges from 2 kΩ
to 30 kΩ. Again, the relative error of resistance measurement is used to present the results. The
relative error σr can be determined by the following equation:
ra − rt
σr = × 100% (9)
rt
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 12 of 16

The excitation frequency

(a) is set to 20 kHz. The resistance of the resistance (b)box ranges from 2 kΩ to
30 kΩ. Again, the relative error of resistance measurement is used to present the results. The relative
Figure 17. Experimental setup of resistance box experiment: (a) schematic; (b) photo.
error σr can be determined by the following equation:
The excitation frequency is set to 20 kHz. ra The
− rt resistance of the resistance box ranges from 2 kΩ
σr = × 100% (9)
to 30 kΩ. Again, the relative error of resistance rt measurement is used to present the results. The
relative error σr can be determined by the following equation:
where ra is the measured apparent resistance by the logging instrument, rt is the value of the
r −r
resistance box. σ r = a t × 100% (9)
rt
Figure 18 shows the results of the resistance box experiment. As is shown in Figure 18, the relative
errors is the measured
whereσrr aof apparent resistance
resistance measurement by theby the logging
developed instrument,
instrument rt is the
are less thanvalue of theThis
± 1.67%. resistance
result
box.
indicates that the logging instrument has good resistance measurement accuracy.

(a) (b)

Figure 18.Results
Figure18. Resultsof
ofresistance
resistancebox
boxexperiment:
experiment:(a)
(a)measured
measuredresistance;
resistance;(b)
(b)relative
relativeerrors.
errors.

3.2.2. Well Logging Experiment

Figure 18 shows the results of the resistance box experiment. As is shown in Figure 18, the
relative errors σrthe
Considering of real
the resistance measurement
logging conditions, by the developed
an experimental instrument
well is built to simulate arethe
lessreal
than ± 1.67%.
formation.
This
The result indicates
experimental wellthat the logging
is composed instrument
of sandstone, has good
which is oneresistance measurement
of the common rocks in the accuracy.
real formation.
The sandstones are provided by the Huiyu stone company, Hangzhou, China and the origin of the
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
3.2.2. Well is
sandstones Logging
Chengdu, China. The resistivity of the sandstones is about 4000 Ω·m. There are several
Experiment
artificial
are patterns
Considering
several onthe
artificial thereal
wellbore
patterns logging
on theof wellbore
the experimental
conditions,of the well. In addition,
anexperimental
experimental well
well. silicone
In is builtoiltois
addition, used tooilsimulate
simulate
silicone the real
is used
the OBM
toformation.instead
simulate theTheOBMof diesel
experimental oil, because
instead ofwell it is
is composed
diesel more
oil, because environmentally
of it
sandstone, friendly than
which is one of the
is more environmentally diesel
common
friendly oil. Though
thanrocks the
dieselinoil.
the
excitation
Though thefrequency
real formation.excitation should
The sandstones be as
frequency high
areshould as be
provided possibletheinHuiyu
by high
as order to reduce
stone
as possible the capacitive
company,
in order reducereactance
Hangzhou,
to China
the of the
and
capacitivethe
OBM,
originthe
reactance excitation
of the
of the OBM, frequency
sandstones is set frequency
theisexcitation
Chengdu, to 50 kHz
China. The due settotothe
isresistivity50limitation
of the
kHz ofthe
thelimitation
sandstones
due to excitation
is aboutof coil.
theIn
4000 order
Ω·m. to
There
excitation
test the
coil. In azimuth
order torecognition ability of
test the azimuth the loggingability
recognition instrument,
of the alogging
button pick-up
instrument,electrode is used
a button in the
pick-up
experiment instead of the circular electrode. The developed experimental well
electrode is used in the experiment instead of the circular electrode. The developed experimental well is shown in Figure 19
and
is the experimental
shown in Figure 19 setup
and the is experimental
shown in Figure 20. is shown in Figure 20.
setup

Figure
Figure 19.
19. Experimental
Experimental well.
well.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 13 of 16
Figure 19. Experimental well.

Figure
Figure 20.
20. Experimental
Experimental setup
setup of
of well
well logging
logging experiment.
experiment.

In this work, part of the experimental well with the length of 26 cm is tested and three patterns
on the wellbore are to be be measured
measured within
within this
this range.
range. This experiment is to investigate the logging
response of the instrument concerning the measured patterns, patterns, which
which is shown in the dotted box in
Figure 19.
19. The
Thethree
threepatterns
patterns are rectangular with the same length
are rectangular with the same length and different and different
widths,widths,
and areand are
placed
placed at different
at different positions positions
along thealong
axialthe axial direction
direction of the
of the drill drillThe
collar. collar. The diagram
diagram of the measured
of the measured patterns
patterns
is shownisinshown
Figurein 21.Figure 21. Different
Different patterns introduce
patterns introduce air gaps of airdifferent
gaps of sizes
different sizes at positions.
at different different
positions.
Due to theDue to the
air gap, theair gap, theofresistivity
resistivity the patternof areas
the pattern areas
is higher thanis other
higher thaninother
areas areas in the
the experimental
experimental
well. well. Duringthe
During experiment, experiment, the pick-up
pick-up electrode electrode
is moved is moved
by moving theby moving
drill collar.the drill
The collar. The
experimental
experimental
result is shown result
in is
Figureshown
21.
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW in Figure 21. 14 of 16
As is shown in Figure 21, the measured resistance increases when the pick-up electrode moves
toward the patterns, and decreases when the electrode moves away from the patterns. It is found that
there are three peaks at the movement distances of 6 cm, 12 cm and 24 cm, which are consistent with
the center positions of the three patterns. Besides, as the three patterns have different widths, the
widths of the three peaks are also different. The experimental result shows that the logging
instrument can accurately reflect the positions of the three patterns, further indicating the feasibility
of the proposed logging method.

Figure 21.
Figure Logging response
21. Logging response of
of the
the instrument
instrument in
in well
well logging
logging experiment.
experiment.

As is shown in Figure 21, the measured resistance increases when the pick-up electrode moves
4. Conclusions
toward the patterns, and decreases when the electrode moves away from the patterns. It is found that
Our study focuses on the measurement of the formation resistivity in the oil-based mud
environment. A new oil-based LWD method is proposed by referring to the idea of the C4D technique
and combining with the inductive coupling principle, which can solve the electrical insulation
problem of the OBM and make the measurement of the formation resistivity feasible. Based on the
proposed method, a corresponding logging instrument is developed and its performance is
Sensors 2020, 20, 1075 14 of 16

there are three peaks at the movement distances of 6 cm, 12 cm and 24 cm, which are consistent with the
center positions of the three patterns. Besides, as the three patterns have different widths, the widths
of the three peaks are also different. The experimental result shows that the logging instrument can
accurately reflect the positions of the three patterns, further indicating the feasibility of the proposed
logging method.

4. Conclusions
Our study focuses on the measurement of the formation resistivity in the oil-based mud
environment. A new oil-based LWD method is proposed by referring to the idea of the C4 D technique
and combining with the inductive coupling principle, which can solve the electrical insulation problem
of the OBM and make the measurement of the formation resistivity feasible. Based on the proposed
method, a corresponding logging instrument is developed and its performance is investigated by both
numerical simulation and practical experiments. Numerical simulation results show that the logging
instrument has good measurement accuracy in a wide measurement range of the formation resistivity.
The maximum relative error of resistivity measurement in the common range of 0.2 Ω·m to 2000 Ω·m
is ± 0.56%. Moreover, the logging instrument has deep detection depth and high vertical resolution,
and can accurately reflect the resistivity change of the Oklahoma formation. The results of resistance
box experiment show that the logging instrument has good resistance measurement accuracy and the
maximum relative error is ± 1.67%. The results of well logging experiment show that the logging
instrument can accurately reflect the positions of the patterns on the wellbore of the experimental well.
Both numerical simulation and practical experiments verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the
new method.
Compared with the conventional methods, such as making OBM conductive, using a knife-like
electrode to cut through the mud cake and four-terminal measurement, the proposed method has the
advantages of low cost, simple construction, and good real-time performance.
Useful knowledge and experience concerning the oil-based LWD have been obtained in this
work. The research results can provide useful reference and guidance for further lateral resistivity
measurement of oil-based LWD and design of logging instruments. However, the proposed method
also has some limitations at the current stage. According to the measurement principle of C4 D, the
existence of the two coupling capacitances makes the measurement possible, but only the resistance of
the formation is the useful information and the coupling capacitances are the background signal. In
further research, the influence of the coupling capacitances needs to be either reduced by increasing
the excitation frequency or canceled by introducing effective methods like the impedance elimination
method and the series resonance method. In addition, the resistivity measurement is easily affected by
the experimental temperature. Thus, temperature compensation should be considered in the future to
overcome the influence of environmental temperature on the resistivity measurement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.W.; methodology, B.W. and Z.H.; software, Y.W.; validation, Y.W.,
W.Z. and Y.J.; formal analysis, Y.W. and Y.J.; investigation, Y.W. and Y.J.; resources, B.L., B.W. and Z.H.; data
curation, Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, B.L., Y.J., B.W. and Z.H.;
visualization, Y.W.; supervision, W.Z. and B.W.; project administration, W.Z. and B.W.; funding acquisition, B.L.
and B.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the National Science and Technology Major Program of China
(2016ZX05021-002).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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