L1-1: Introduction: BITS Pilani

ME F314: Design of Machine Elements
L1-1: Introduction
BITS Pilani Dr. Srinivasa Prakash Regalla

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hyderabad Campus
Scope & Objectives of the
Course
 Application of solid mechanics principles to design of
machine elements as per ASTM/ISO/ASME standards
 Mechanical design for both static and dynamic loading
 Design of most common machine elements such as:

Shafts, screw fasteners, welded joints, springs, belt drives,
brakes & clutches, bearings & gears.
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Textbook & References:
Textbook:
TB: Budynas R. G. and Nisbett J. K., “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design" Tata–McGraw Hill, 9th SI Edition, New Delhi, 2011.
Reference books:
Spotts M. F., Shoup T.E., Hornberger L.E., “Design of Machine Elements”,
8th Edition, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2008.
Juvinall R.C., Marshek K.M., “Fundamentals of Machine Component
Design”, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2017.
Schmid S.R., Hamrock B.J., Jacobson B.O., “Fundamentals of Machine
Elements”, 3rd Edition, SI Version, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2014.

Course Plan:
 Design methodology
 Fundamental principles, Materials,
 Design for static failure,
 Design for fatigue failure,
 Design and selection of machine elements such as:
 shafts, screw fasteners, welded joints
 springs
 belt drive, brakes & clutches
 bearings & gears.

Evaluation Scheme:

What is Mechanical Engineering Design?
• To design is to either formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a
specified product need or to solve a specific problem
• Design is an innovative and highly iterative process
• Design is a communication-intensive activity
3i
The Mechanical Design Process: Different
phases and iterations Whose need?
In terms of what?
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
READ: “DESIGN FOR X”
When we design a specific machine component, some of these

criteria may become obvious.
Primary considerations are (1) Strength, (2) Stiffness.
Remaining are secondary considerations, but not unimportant.
BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
Design for Strength:

 Force and Moment Equillibrium; Free-body diagrams
 General Tri-axial State of Stress; Critical Point in the
component
 Estimation of Principal Stresses for Tri-axial State of Stress
Equillibrium of a Solid Body under the
Action of a Set of External Forces
1) If a set of particles is in equilibrium, the vector sum of the
external forces must be zero
2) If a set of particles is in
equilibrium the total moment
of all the external forces
about an arbitrary point O
must be zero

Free-body Diagrams
 Free-body
diagram of
component and
equilibrium
equation
Here M=0
can be used
for bending
moments as
well as torques

General Tri-axial State of
Stress in a Body
 ij 

Critical Point: y
F
Solution:
First find the “critical cross-section” and z
“critical point(s) in the critical cross-
section” l x
We will design the entire beam for the

“critical point(s)” state of stress; rest T
of the beam will be automatically
safe

Principal Stresses in General
Triaxial State of Stress
For equillibrium:
and so on.

(contd)
For non-trivial solution for ni, of this

homogeneous set of 3 equations,
the determinant must vanish.
 3p  I1 p2  I 2 p  I 3  0 Here I1, I2, I3 are the stress invariants.

Example:
• At the critical point in a component the state of
stress is given as below. Estimate the principal
stresses.
 3p  I1 p2  I 2 p  I 3  0
How to solve the cubic equation?
• Since the cubic term already has coefficient as 1,

the next step is to find the factors of constant term.
• Factors of 8 are: 2, -2, 1 -1, 4, -4
• Try the factor -2: (-2)^3-3*(-2)^2 - 6*(-2)+8=0.

Thus -2 is a root and (p+2) is a factor of cubic
equation. We need to find the other roots.
1, -3, -6, 8 | -2
-2, 10, -8
------------------
1, -5, 4, 0
The required remaining quadratic equation is:
 p2  5 p  4  0
Thus we reduced the cubic equation to:
 p
 2  2
p
 5 p  4  0
The quadratic term can be factorized to give
 p
 2  2
p
 4 p   p  4   p  2 p  1 p  4  0
Exercise:
Find the principal stresses for the following state of stress.

Mohr’s Circle of
stress
The transformation equations of Mohr’s
circle y
P*=(x*,y*)
x*  R. cos( )
y *  R. sin( ) R
x  R. cos(   )  R. cos( ) cos( )  R. sin( ) sin( )
y  R. sin(   )  R. sin( ) cos( )  R. cos( ) sin( ) 
P=(x,y)
R
substituting 
x  x* cos( )  y * sin( ) x
y  y cos( )  x sin( )
* *
Matrix form :
 x   cos( ) sin( )   x*  * x 
 
*
   *   T  * 
  
y  sin(  ) cos( )  y  y 
 
Inverting T * :
 x  AdjT   x  Cofactor Matrix of T  
T
* * *
x
   
 
y*
Det T   y
*
Det T  *  
 y
 x*  cos( )  sin( )  x  x
 *     T  
 y   sin( ) cos( )   y   y
ny
90o
180o
nx
Loading Case-1: Simple
Tension & Compression

Loading Case-2: Bending of
Beams
Euler-Bernoulli Beam: Simple Bending Formula:
a a
How to produce pure M?

Transverse Shear Stress in
Bending

Exercise-LE1-1: Cantilever
Beam
Describe the meaning of design for y
strength for the beam shown. F
Use Shear Force and Bending
Moment Diagram. It is subjected
to transverse load of F=1 kN z
only. The diameter D = 40 mm.
l x

Solution-Exercise-LE1-1:
y
F
l x
Solution:

Exercise-LE1-2: Simply
Supported Beam
Describe the meaning of design for strength for the beam
shown. Use Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram. It
is subjected to transverse load of F=1 kN only. The
diameter D = 40 mm.

Solution-Exercise-LE1-2:
Solution:

Loading Case-3: Torsion
G T 
 
l J r

Loading Case-4: Combined
Loading
y
Axial stress F
z
Bending stress
l
x
Torsional shear stress P
T
How to combine the effect of all these different types of stress on the possibility of
failure of the component?

Exercise-LE1-3: Cantilever
Beam Stresses
Find the stresses in the the beam y
shown. Use Shear Force and F
Bending Moment Diagram. It is
subjected to transverse load of
F=0.25 kN and T=50 kN-mm. z
The diameter D = 40 mm. The
l x
length is 1 m.

Solution-Exercise-LE1-1: y
A F
Solution:
(i) Second moment of area = Izz = Iyy = *D^4/64 =
*40^4/64 z
= *64000*40/64 = *1000*4 = 12.56*1000 = 12560
mm^4. l x
(ii) Polar second moment of area =Ixx= Izz + Iyy =
*D^4/32 = 2*12560 = 25120 mm^4. T
At the critical point A:

xx = (M*c/I) = (F*l)*(D/2)/I = (0.25)(1000)(1000)(40/2)/12560 = 398.1 MPa
xz = (T*r/J) = (50)(1000)(40/2)/25120 = 39.75 MPa.
1,2 = (xx/2)  sqrt((xx/2)^2+xz^2) = (398.1 /2)  sqrt((398.1 /2)^2+ 39.75 ^2)
1 = 402 MPa; 2 = -4 MPa; 3 = 0; max = (1 - 3)/2 = (402+4)/2 = 203 MPa.
Thus we see that the principal stresses are a way of combining the effect of various
stress components at the critical point.
But which principal stress or whether maximum shear stresses causes failure?
How to combine the effect of the principal stresses to predict failure?
Exercise-LE1-2:
If a = L/3, and L = 120 mm, describe the
meaning of design for stiffness for the
simply supported beam shown if F=1.2 A B
kN.
The beam is made of steel with E=210
GPa. The beam has a rectangular Mb
cross-section with B=12 mm, D=10
mm.
Solution:
The reaction forces are RA=2F/3 and RB=F/3.
Izz = b*h^3/12 = 12*10^3/12 = 1000 mm^4.
The maximum bending moment is: Mb=(2F/3)*L/3=2LF/9.
 = Mb*c/Izz = (2*120*1200/9)*5/1000=160 MPa.
Exercise-LE1-3:
Two identical circular rods of the same diameter
and length are subjected to the same
magnitude of axial tensile force. One of the
rods is made out of mild steel having the
modulus of elasticity of 206 GPa. The other
rod is made out of cast iron having the
modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa. Assume
both the materials to be homogeneous and
isotropic and the axial force causes the same
amount of uniform stress in both the rods. The
stresses developed are within the proportional
limit of the respective materials. Which
elongates more?
Solution: This is a stiffness based design problem.

Deflection in a rod with axial load = PL/AE.
st=PL/AEst and CI=PL/AECI; st/CI= ECI/Est=100/206 <1.
Exercise-4:
Two beams, one having square cross-section
and another circular cross-section, are
subjected to the same amount of bending
moment. If the crosssectional area as well as M
the material of the both the beams are the
same, then prove that the circular beam
experiences more bending stress that the
square one.
Solution: If a is the size of the square (s) section
and d is the diameter of circular (c) section,
then: a^2 = (pi/4)*d^2 => a = sqrt(pi)*d/2
M
Ratio of section moduli Zs/Zc = (pi*d^3/32)/(a^3/6)
=1.18164.
Bending stress =  =M/Z; Materials are same. Ratio of
stresses = c/ s = Zs/Zc = 1.18164.
Hence c> s .
Exercise: F
For the cantilever beam shown plot the distribution of

bending stress and transverse shear stress along the
depth of the cross-section and argue on practical
considerations.
Solution: Stress/Strength Based:
Bending Stress
Transverse
Shear Stress
• Since maximum transverse shear stress occurs at

the neutral plane where bending stress is zero, the
design for transverse shear stress must be done
separately.
ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, DRAWING &
DOCUMENTATION TOOLS (1/5)
ANALYSIS
MECHANICAL
DOCUMENTATION DESIGN
SYNTHESIS
DRAWING
PRODUCT DESIGN & DRAWING &
PROTOTYPING TOOLS:
• Computer Aided Design (CAD)
– CREO (ProEngineer)
– AutoCAD Each platform has its own
advantages and hence all of
– Unigraphics (or NT) them have users
– Solidworks
• Rapid Prototyping
– also called 3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing
– Different processes - SLA, LOM, SLS, FDM, LENS,
Objet-Polyjet
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) Tools:
• Stress Analysis
– Algor, Ansys, MSC/Nastran,
Each platform has its own
LS-DYNA, Hyperworks, advantages and hence all of
them have users
COMSOL, ABAQUS, Adams
– They all use the popular Finite Element Method
(FEM)
• Drawing & Documentation
– CREO, SolidWorks, CAT
• Sharing & Management (PLM)
– Windchill, TeamCenter
• Analysis using Numerical Methods on
Mathematical Solvers
– MATLAB,
– MathCad,
Each platform has its own advantages and hence
– Maple, all of them have users
– Mathematica,
– TKSolver
– MS Excel
• Documentation of text and mathematical equations
using Non-engineering-specific computer tools:
– Word processing using WORD, Lotus, OpenOffice
DESIGN ENGINEERS RESPONSIBILITY
• PLEDGE (From National Society of Professional Engineers, USA):
STANDARDS AND CODES
Safety and Product Liability
• The concept of strict liability (used in the USA)
• Design engineers should review the

advertisements, make suitable amendments with
warnings, instructions etc.
Design Engineer’s Professional
Responsibilities: As important as anything
else in this course
• Understand the problem
• Identify the knowns
• Identify the unknowns and formulate the solution
strategy
• State all assumptions and decisions
• Analyze the problem
• Evaluate your solution
• Present your solution
PRESENT YOUR SOLUTION
• Your communication skills are important here
• Here you are selling your technical abilities
• All your work may be misunderstood unless you

skillfully present
• Know you audience

The Designer’s Communication Skills
• How to develop?
• Keep a neat and clean log book of your activities of
the project/course
• Enter frequently in the log book with dates
• Separate logbooks should be used for different
projects/courses
• Logbook is the only reference you have to explain
when questioned about your decisions
Srinivasa Prakash 56
Regalla@BITS, Pilani
ME F314: Design of Machine Elements
L-2-1: Design of Machine

Elements against Failure Due
to Static Loading
Hyderabad Campus
Static Strength of Material
 Static strength of material is determined on UTM in

laboratory
 Strength is a statistical parameter; it has a mean value
and some uncertainty
 The static load is a stationary force or couple applied to
a member. Stationary means, the load should be
unchanging in…
 magnitude
 point or points of application
 direction
 Or in any other manner
 A stationary force may cause
 axial tension or compression, shear load or bending moment or
a torsional load or any combination of these
Static and Dynamic Loading
 Static loading is due to a load whose magnitude, director

or point of application does not change with respect to time
 Dynamic loading at least changes in magnitude with
respect to time cyclically – also called as fatigue loading
What is Failure of a Component?
• Failure means a part has had:
– separted into two or more pieces
– become permanently distorted and thus ruined its geometry
– its reliability downgaded
– its function compromised
• Static strength data of various materials may be available in two
forms
– Data obtained in tests conducted in the similar conditions as the actual
service life
– Data collected in tests conducted in certain ideal conditions that may not
necessary simulate the exact service conditions
• The first type of data is always desirable but difficult to produce
• When second type of data is used, then the engineer must be
clever enough to apply suitable factors
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Uncertainty – Design Factor – Factor

of Safety
Uncertainty
• It may be due to the limited resolution or accuracy of
the measuring instruments
• Expressed in x% on the measured value of loss-of-
function load/strength (measured in tensile test)
• Expressed as y% on allowable load/stress (actually
may be applied on component)
• To account for the uncertainty:
– The loss of function load in simple tension/strength must
be decreased by (1-|x|) times, x taken in fraction
– The stress due to load must be increased by (1+|y|) times;
y taken in fraction
Uncertainty – Design Factor
Thus failure occurs when:
  1  y   S yt  1  x 
S yt S yt
  
 1  y  nd
 
 1  x  
nd 
1  y  nd 
1  x 
Design factor
 The design factor is always a specified value by experienced senior

engineers.
 The design factor is always greater than or equal to 1.
Uncertainty & Design Factor (nd)
Design Factor:
It may be used for strength (MPa) also.
When yielding is treated as failure:

Maximum allowable stress = Yield strength/nd = Syt/nd
When rupture or fracture is treated as failure:
Maximum allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength/nd
= Sut/nd
Example:
Problem: Consider that the maximum load acting on
a structure is known with an uncertainty of 12% and
the laboratory tested load at failure is known within
uncertainty of 25%. Estimate the design factor. If
the tensile test gives a yield strength of 270 MPa, find
the allowable stress.
Solution: Here y = 0.12; x = 0.25.
nd 
1 y 
1  x 
Design factor = nd = [(1+0.12)/(1-0.25)]=1.49.
Allowable stress =Syt/nd = 270/1.49= 181.2 MPa.
Factor of Safety (fos) (n)
• Factor of safety, n, is another number calculated using
the same equation
• Estimated after the preferred numbers are chosen for

dimensions, hence n may differ from nd
• Estimation of factor of safety is generally associated

with a chosen failure criterion as well as nature of
loading (static or fatigue)
• If the estimated factor of safety is n>1, then the

component is considered to be safe from failure
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Design for Static Loading

Selection of Failure Criterion; MSS,
DE, DCM, BCM and MM criteria
Failure & Failure Criteria
 Failure is the loss-of-function
 Need for failure criteria - general

state of stress in machine
components due to combined loading
 Different failure criteria for ductile and

brittle materials
 Ductile material:
fracture strain f  0.05
Given Material is Ductile or Brittle?
• How do we know that the given material is ductile?
The judgement is based on the fracture strain.
• For a ductile material,
Fracture strain  f  0.05
and
S yt  S yc or S yt  S yc
• For a brittle material,

Fracture strain  f  0.05
and
Sut  Suc
FOUR DIFFERENT DESIGN
CATEGORIES
1) Mass production or the product can endanger human
life: You must generate the strength data in real service
life conditions and use in the design. Examples are
refrigerators and aero planes, respectively.
2) Medium quantity of production and does not endanger
lives: moderately accurate tests are ok
3) The part is made in very small quantities: no testing is
required; use the published mean data in handbook
4) The part is already designed, manufactured but proved
defective; needs analysis to find the problem
FAILURE THEORIES
• There is no general theory that is sacrosanct and unique; hence we
call them “failure theories”
• Rather it is a choice based on the design requirement and nature of
material, whether ductile or brittle
• For ductile materials, the failure theories can be called as “yield
criteria”, they are:
– Maximum shear stress (MSS) criterion
– Distortional Energy (DE) criterion
– Ductile Coulomb Mohr (DCM) criterion
• For brittle materials, they can not be termed as “yield criteria”
because brittle materials do not yield but directly “break”, they
are:
– Maximum normal stress (MNS) theory
– Brittle Coulomb Mohr (BCM) theory and its modifications
– Modified Mohr (MM) criterion
Static Failure Criteria for
Ductile and Brittle Materials

Maximum Shear Stress
Criterion (MSS)

Exercise:
Prove that the shear yield strength of a ductile material is

equal to half of the tensile yield strength.
Solution: The shear yield strength (Ssy) of a material is the
maximum shear stress at which yielding occurs in pure
shear loading, for example, in pure torsion.
In pure torsion, from Mohr’s circle or from the transformation
equations we know that 1 = Ssy; 3 = -Ssy.
max = (1- 3)/2
Thus at yielding, max = (Ssy-(-Ssy))/2 = Ssy.
In simple tension, 1 = Syt; 3 = 0. At yielding,
max = Ssy = (syt-0)/2 = Syt/2

2D PLANE STRESS
3-D: Hexagonal prism
?  A   B  0,
2-D: Irregular hexagon
1   A ,  2   B ,  3  0
1   3  S y ,  A  S y
0   A  B,
 1  0,
 2   A,
3   B  A  0  B,
1   3  S y ,  1   A ,  2  0,  3   B
  B  S y 1   3  S y ,  A   B  S y
Demo Exercise-LE2-1: y
Find the safe diameter of the cantilever W

beam of length 1 m under the transverse
loading according to the MSS criterion. It
is subjected to transverse load of W=1 z
kN and is made of AISI-1015 CD Steel.
Use a design factor of 1.2. Is the rod
with the diameter recommended by you x
purchasable in the market? If not ensure
it.

Solution:
y
Find the safe diameter of the cantilever W

beam of length 1 m under the transverse
loading according to the MSS criterion. It
is subjected to transverse load of W=1 z
kN and is made of AISI-1015 CD Steel.
Use a design factor of 1.2. Is the rod
with the diameter recommended by you x
purchasable in the market? If not ensure
it.

Solution (contd)
Let us now design for the second critical point O, at which

the maximum shear stress is acting and is equal to (slide
number 32 of previous module PPT deck):

Solution (contd)
Design for critical point “A” gives a safe diameter of D = 35 mm

Design for critical point “O” gives a safe dimeter of D = 4 mm.
Which must be selected?
If we select D = 4 mm, the component will fail at the point “A”
because 4 mm is insufficient.
If we select D = 35 mm, the component will not fail anywhere in
this entire volume.
Hence the conclusion is D = 35 mm.
Another conclusion is that in most occasions the transverse
shear is hardly serious enough to contribute to failure,
except when the breadth of the cross-section is very high
compared to depth in rectangular cross-section, b>>d.
Table A-20 From Appendix-A
of the Textbook
The Appendix-A of
the textbook
gives the
material
properties of
most commonly
used materials
and alloys; Keep
the textbook
always beside.

PREFERRED
NUMBERS
• Standard sizes
– Preferred numbers
Demo Exercise-LE2-2: y
Determine whether the given cantilever W

beam of length 1 m and made of AISI-
1030 CD Steel is safe under the
transverse loading according to the z
MSS criterion. It is subjected to
transverse load of W=1 kN. The
diameter D = 40 mm. x

Practice Exercise-LE-2-1:
y
For the shaft shown, estimate the factor
of safety and pronounce whether
safe according to the MSS criterion..
The shaft cross-section has a F
diameter D = 20 mm. AISI-1006 CD
(cold-drawn) steel (E=207 GPa). P=4 z
kN, F=0.5 kN, and T=20 kN-mm.
P
L=100 mm. Critical
xx element x
Solution:
xy
xx
It is a two-dimensional plane state of stress.
Practice Exercise-LE-2-2:
y
For the shaft shown, find the safe
diameter against failure according to
the MSS criterion. The shaft is made
of AISI-1020 CD (cold-drawn) steel. F
P=4 kN, F=0.5 kN, and T=20 kN-mm.
L=100 mm. Use a design factor of nd z
= 1.5.
P
Critical
xx element x
Solution:
xy
xx
It is a two-dimensional plane state of stress.
Demo Exercise-LE-3:
A steel bar of rectangular cross-section

10 mm×50 mm is attached to a support
by means of a round pin of diameter 20
mm as shown in the figure.
The yield strength in tension Syt for the bar
in tension and the pin in shear are 225 10 mm
MPa and 120 MPa, respectively. With a
design factor of 1.5 for both the bar and
pin, what is the maximum permissible F
value of tensile load that the bar can
carry according to the MSS criterion?

10 mm

Solution:
For bar: The width of the minimum cross section of the bar
is 50−20 = 30 mm. The normal stress in the direction of
the load is the maximum principal stress 1 .
1=F1/(30*10); 2=3=0.
MSS criterion is (1-3)/2=Syt/(2nd) F1/(30*10)=225/1.5 10 mm
Thus, the allowable tensile load for safe stress of bar is
F1 = 150×30×10= 45 kN.
For pin: The direct shear is resisted by two cross-sections
F
of the pin. This is maximum shear stress. The
allowable load for safe shear stress in the pin is
F2/(2×π×202/4)=(120/1.5)  F2 = 50.26 kN.
Thus, the safest option is lesser of F1 and F2 and is 45 kN.

Derivation of DE Criterion
Total elastic strain energy = U
Strain-stress relations in principal stresses.
U in terms of principal stresses.
Hydrostatic pressure is average of principal stresses.
Uvol is the energy of volumetric compression.
Udist = U – Uvol
UdistST is the Udist in simple tension.
Equate: Udist=UdistST
Derivation of DE criterion
For the element shown, strain energy/unit volume is:
(1)
Strain-stress relations:
(2)
Substituting:
(3)

Contd.
(4)
The strain energy for producing only volume change uv can

be obtained by substituting σav for σ1, σ2, and σ3 in
equation (3):
(5)
If we now substitute the square of Eq. (4) in Eq. (5) and simplify
the expression, we get
(6)

Cond.
Then the distortion energy is obtained by subtracting Eq. (6)
from Eq. (3).
(7)
The distortion energy in simple tension is given by substituting

1=Syt, 2=3=0:
(8)
Equating Eq. (7) and Eq. (8), the statement of distortional

energy criterion in principal stresses is given by:
(9)

The concept of “von-Mises
Stress”
The left-hand side of the eq. (9) is called as the von-Mises
stress or the equivalent stress, e or ’:
Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von-

Mises stress can be written as
The operating factor of safety thus as per DE criterion is given

by Sy
nDE 
'
Exercise-1:
The non-zero principal stresses at the critical point in the

component made of AISI-1018 HR Steel are given by A=-
45 MPa;B=-75 MPa and B = 120 MPa. Estimate the von-
Mises stress. What is the operating factor of safety? Is the
component safe or failing?
Solution: The ordered principal stresses are given by 2= A=-
45 MPa; 3=B=-75 MPa and 1 = B = 120 MPa. Estimate
1
the von-Mises stress.                 2
2 2 2
 '  1 2 2 3 3 1

 2 
’=sqrt((120+45)^2+(-45+75)^2+(-75-120)^2)/sqrt(2)=181.7
MPa.
Operating factor of safety, nDE=Syt/’=220/181.7=1.2. Safe.

Exercise-2:
In a component made of AISI-1006 HR Steel the state of stress
at a point is given by the following tensor. Estimate the von-
Mises at that point and the operating factor of safety.
Solution:  ' 
1
2
 
 x   y 2   y   z 2   z   x 2  6  xy2   yz2   zx2 
1
2
’=(1/sqrt(2))*sqrt((3-0)^2+(0-0)^2+(0-3)^2+6*(1^2+2^2+1^2))
= 5.2 MPa.
Operating factor of safety = Syt/’=170/5.2=32.7. Safe.

Exercise:
Prove that the von-Mises stress for plane state of stress

reduces to:

 '   x    x y    y   3
2 2 2
xy 
1
2
Solution:
 '
1
2
 2 2 2

 x   y    y   z    z   x   6  xy2   yz2   zx2 
1
2

Plane stress :  '   x    x y    y   3 
2 2
 
2
xy
1
2

OTHER NAMES OF DISTORTIONAL
ENERGY CRITERION
• The von Mises or von Mises-Hencky theory
• The shear energy theory
• The octahedral shear stress theory
• What is meant by Octahedral shear stress? It is the shear

stress acting on the so-called ‘octahedral planes’ which
are the eight planes that are normal to the equi-inclined
directions in the eight quadrants formed by the principal
stresses.
Example:
• At the critical point in a component the state of
stress is given as below. If the material is made of
AISI-1006 HR steel, estimate the factor of safety
using MSS criterion. Compare it with factor of
safety as per DE criterion and comment. From
Table A-20, for AISI-1006 HR steel, Syt=170.
MPa.
• We previously found the principal stress for this
state of stress:
• Factor of safety as per MSS is:
nMSS = Syt/(1-3) = 170/(4-(-2))=170/6=28.33.
nDE: 1
  1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2  2
 '  
 2 
 4  1  1  2   2  4  2
1
2 2 2
 '    27 1
2
 3 3 MPa.
 2 
nDE  170 / 3 3  32.72.
Conclusion, MSS is more conservative than DE.

Superimposed
Graphical of MSS and
DE failure surfaces
MSS
MSS
Comparison of MSS and DE in DE contour fully encloses the MSS
2-Dimensions contour. Hence MSS criterion is
more conservative for many states of
Pure Shear : stress. At times they are equivalent.
 A   B  
 
THE OCTAHEDRAL PLANES: Octahedral shear stress theory
Failure occurs when the octahedral

shear stress in the given state of
stress reaches the octahedral shear
stress in simple tension at yield.
 oct
3

  1   2    2   3    3   1 
1 2 2 2

1
2
1
2   1   2    2   3    3   1  
2 2 2 2
 oct  Sy     Sy
3  2 
Maximum Shear Stress Criterion (MSS) FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS
 max 
Sy
In simple tension
2
1   3
 max   1   2   3
Sy
2 if
2
 1   3   S y
S sy  0.5S y Useful for cases involving only shear stresses
For design purposes we incorporate a factor of safety
1   3  1   2   3
Sy
nMSS if
SHEAR YIELD STRENGH
• According to DE (von Mises) criterion, substituting

the pure shear state of stress in the 2-D DE
criterion, the two normal stresses being zero,
Sy
3 2
xy  S y  xy   0.577 S y
3
At yield , S sy  0.577 S y
According to the MSS criterion,

Ssy  0.5S y
DE criterion predicts the shear yield strength to be 15 percent more than
that predicted by the MSS criterion. Hence MSS is more conservative.
DCM:
Mohr’s
Circle of
stress
Mohr’s Circle for 3-D Stress
DUCTILE COULOMB-MOHR (DCM) THEORY OR INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY
To be applied when the material has unequal strength in tension and
compression,
S yt  S yc
Examples of such materials are magnesium alloys, for which S yc  0.5S yt
DCM is a simplification of the old Mohr’s theory of failure.
Pure shear Failure occurs when the Mohr
Pure tension circle of actual state of stress
touches the non-linear tangent
curve.
Actual state
of stress
Pure compression
Simplified to straight
line tangent by
knocking out the pure
torsion Mohr’s circle
DUCTILE COULOMB-MOHR (DCM) THEORY OR INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY
Canceling the 2 in each term, cross-

multiplying, and simplifying reduces
this equation to   1
1
 3

S yt S yc nDCM
A 1
B

A

1 
S yt S yc nDCM S yt nDCM
A B 1
 
S yt S yc nDCM
BRITTLE COULOMB-MOHR THEORY
1 3 1
  Sut
Sut Suc nBCM
BCM
-Suc Sut
BCM
-Suc
BCM
MODIFIED MOHR CRITERION
Suc  Sut  1   3  1
Suc Sut Suc nMM
 A B  0
A 1 
 ,  B
Sut nMM   0   & 1
 A B
A

Suc  Sut  A   B 
1
Suc Sut Suc nMM
Stress concentration
• The single most influential factor leading to
high possibility of crack initiation
• Stress concentration can be due to
– Function of geometry (sudden change in

size/diameter; holes in the structure etc.
– Surface texture (surface finish, presence of

disintegrations etc.)
58
STRESS
CONCENTRATION
 max  K t nom
 max  Kts nom
 max , max  maximum normal and shear stresses due to presence
of stress concentration
 nom , nom  nominal normal and shear stresses due to presence
of stress concentration
K t , K ts  Theoretical stress concentration factor (SCF)
for normal and shear stresses
Exercise:
In a symmetrical stepped
Aluminium bracket of
dimensions shown estimate the
maximum stress including the
stress concentration. Thickness
t=10mm. Estimate factor of
safety if the material has Syt=70
MPa. t=10 mm
Solution: r=5 mm
D/d=60/40=1.5; r/d=5/40=0.125. F=10 kN
60mm
From the chart: Kt=2.0. 40mm
nom= xx=F/A=F/(t*d)
=10000/(10*40)=25 MPa.
max=Kt*nom =2.0*25 = 50 MPa.
DE: n=Syt/’=Syt/nom=70/50=1.4.
What is Kt?
Kt=Theoretical stress concentration factor
Maximum stress
Kt 
Nominal stress w d
P
Nominal stress 
w  d t
 max  K t   nom
K t  Determined through experiment s or
numerical simulation such as FEM
61
What is Kt?: Determination from FEA
Determination of Kt through FEM
Maximum stress
Kt 
Nominal stress
62
Nominal stress refers to the stress in the continuous and the shortest cross-
sectional portion of the component, say at A or B. The point C is the failure
stress.
Exercise: How do we determine the safe diameter for this
shaft to give fairly long life? At O and C there are bearings
and A and B are pulleys with the belt tensions, fairly
steady, as shown. Shaft is to be made of AISI 1-35 CD
Steel and design factor has to be 2.
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Material Selection
Static Strength of Material:
• Static strength of material is determined on UTM in
laboratory
• Strength is a statistical parameter; it has a mean value and

some uncertainty
Stress and Strength
• Strength is a property of the material of a
mechanical component
– Material strength (MPa) is a constant and independent
of the shape and dimensions of the product; measured
in standard testing method, i.e., tensile test
– Component strength (N) is function of shape and
dimensions of the component
• Stress is a state property at a specific point within a
body, which is a function of:
– Load
– Geometry
– Temperature
– Manufacturing processing
Material Strength and Stiffness
Material Strength and Stiffness
• Simple tension test to
determine E, y, u
fracture strain (f) and
percentage elongation.
The point “a” corresponds to the
0.2 percent permanent
deformation. The strength is called
as proof strength.
True stress-strain diagram
Comparative Stiffness of Most
Commonly Used Engineering Materials
Alloying elements do not change the E
of steel, but do change the Y of steels!
Hardness
• The resistance to penetration/indentation is called

as hardness
• Hardness Tests: Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Knoop
• All tests involve indentation but with different
types of indenters with different loads
• For steels, minimum Sut for BHN between 200 and
450 is:
Sut = 3.41(BHN) MPa
• For cast irons, minimum Sut is:
Sut = 1.58(BHN) – 86
Impact Testing for Toughness
• Charpy and Izod Tests
• Toughness is desirable for taking tensile and

bending loads
Effect of strain rate on mechanical
properties
Temperature effect on Strength
Effect of Manufacturing Process on
Strength
Materials
• Material selection for a component while designing

is governed by:
– Stress and deflection
– Aesthetics
– Merely to fill up the space
– Corrosion resistance
– Temperature concerns
MATERIAL FAMILIES AND CLASSES
MATERIAL
FAMILIES
AND
CLASSES
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF VARIOUS
MATERIALS
Ashby Plots
• These are charts that enable selection of material
for components for given application
• The charts give the comparison of

(a) stiffness/weight ratio, E/
(b) strength/weight ratio, and
(c) material index of different materials
1
2
E
Material Index: M

Ashby’s Stiffness/weight ratio chart
Ashby’s strength/weight ratio
MATERIA
L INDEX
1
2
E
M

MATERIAL Search Region
INDEX
1
2
E
M

MATERIAL
INDEX
1
2
E
M

Using the CES-Edupack software of Granta Design

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Distortional Energy Criterion:

Optimum Failure Criterion for Ductile
Materials having equal Syt and Syc
DISTORTIONAL ENERGY (DE) THEORY FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS
 ij  ij p a.k.a Deviatoric component
S ij or  '
ij
1, i  j
kronecker delta   ij  
0, i  j
 ij   ij p  Sij
ECONOMICS: cost of manufacturing
• Breakeven points
Exercise-1:
Choose the best answer. What is the responsibility of the mechanical

designer in designing a component from the point of view of the
breakeven point?
(A) Choose the best strength existing material and highest quality of
finish & tolerance without regard to the volume of production
(B) Based on the volume of production, assess the optimum strength
existing or new material and just the necessary quality
(C) Leave the selection of material and quality to the manufacturing
department
(D) Choose the best strength existing material and highest quality of
finish & tolerance and demand procurement of automatic machine
without regard to the volume of production

TOLERANCE
S&
ECONOMICS
• Prefer Large
(wide) tolerance
zones
• Small tolerance
zones only if
necessary
Exercise-2:
Choose the best answer:

What should be the objective of the mechanical designer
with respect to the design of fits between components
with manufacturing tolerances on dimensions?
(A) Always design with minimum deviation tolerances with
highest quality
(B) Always design rough surfaces without any finishing
operation required
(C) Design the fits and tolerances based on the functional
aspects of dimension with widest possible tolerances
(D) Leave the design of tolerances ot the manufacturing

Conceptual Exercise:
Is equivalent stress a dimensioned or dimensionless

number?

Conceptual Exercise:
Is equivalent stress a scalar or vector?

THANK YOU! ANY QUESTIONS!
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

MEF314: DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Design for failure by

variable/fatigue/cyclic
loading
Hyderabad Campus
Fatigue Failure: Crack initiation,
propagation and final rupture
Fatigue failure in a bolt
Crack initiation at the
thread root at A
Beach marks showing the
nature of crack propagation
Maximum stress   max
Final rupture occurs over a Minimum stress   min
limited area C, characterizing  max   min
Mean stress   m 
2
a very small load required to  max   min
Amplitude stress   a 
cause it 2
R.R. Moore Fatigue Test

Demo Exercise-1:
On a machine component subjected to axial loading, the
maximum stress max = 200 MPa and min = 80 MPa.
Estimate the mean stress (m), amplitude stress (a) and the
range of stress (r).
Solution:
 max   min
Mean stress   m 
2
200  80
  140 MPa
2
 max   min
Amplitude stress   a 
2
200  80
  60 MPa
2
Range of stress   r  2 *  a  2 * 60  120 MPa
Demo Exercise-2:
On a machine component subjected to axial loading, the
maximum stress max = 200 MPa and min = -480 MPa. (a)
Draw the stress variation diagram. (b) Estimate the mean
stress (m), amplitude stress (a) and the range of stress (r),
stress ratio (R= min / max) and amplitude ratio (A=a / m)

Difference between S-N diagrams
of Steels and Non-ferrous alloys
5*108
Se  ka kb kc kd ke k f Se' For Steels(only) :

S e'  Unadjusted endurance limit from R. R. Moore Test
k a  surface condition modification factor; kb  size factor
 0.5Sut for Sut  1400 MPa
S e'  
k c  load modification factor; k d  temperature modification factor 700 MPa for Sut  1400 MPa
k e  reliability factor; k f  miscellaneous effectsfactor

Relating a, m and Se: Criteria for
Design Against Fatigue Failure
a m 1
   Soderberg line
Se S yt nSB
a m 1
   Modified Goodman line
Se S ut nMGM
2
nG a  nG m 
    1  Gerber line

Se  S ut 
2
  n AE m 
2
 n AE a   1  ASME Elliptic line
  
 S   S 
 e   yt 

Demo Exercise:
On a AISI-1020 HR Steel specimen of diameter 10 mm a varying

bending moment of 3 kN-mm to 12 kN-mm is applied as shown in
the figure. For infinite life, estimate the operating factor of safety as
per all the four Fatigue failure criteria. Assume all the endurance
limit modifying factors to be equal to unity. Neglect the effect of
stress concentration.
M
Solution:
From Table A-20, For AISI-1020 HR Steel, Syt =210 MPa;
Sut = 380 MPa.
Since Sut <1400 MPa, Se’ = 0.5*Sut = 0.5*380 =
190MPa.
Since ka = kb = kc = kd = ke = kf = 1, Se = Se’ =190 MPa.
Mmax = 12 kN-mm; Mmin = 3 kN-mm. For Steels(only) :
max = (Mmax)*(c)/I = 32*Mmax/[pi*(10)3] S e'  

 0.5Sut for Sut  1400 MPa
700 MPa for Sut  1400 MPa
3
=(32)(12)(1000)/[pi*(10) ] = 122.23 MPa.
  1
  a m
min = (Mmin)*(c)/I = 32*Mmin/[pi*(10) ] 3  Soderberg line

S S n
e yt SB
  1
  a m
=(32)(3)(1000)/[pi*(10)3] = 30.56 MPa. S S n
e
 Modified Goodman line
ut MGM
a = (max - min)/2 = (122.23 - 30.56)/2 = 46 MPa. n S   n S   1  Gerber line

2
G a G m
 
e ut
m = (max + min)/2 = (122.23+30.56)/2 = 76 MPa.  n     n    1  ASME Elliptic line

AE a
2
AE m
2
 S   S 
Stress ratio, R = min / max = 30.56/122.23 = 0.25.    
e yt
Amplitude ratio, A = a / m = 46/76 = 0.61.

Solution (contd):
Soderberg Criterion: a m
 
1
 Soderberg line
S e S yt nSB
a/Se + m/Syt =1/nSB a m 1
   Modified Goodman line
46/190 + 76/210 = 1/nSB  nSB = 1.66. Safe. S e S ut nMGM
2
nG a  nG m 
Modified Goodman Criterion:     1  Gerber line

Se  S ut 
a/Se + m/Sut =1  46/190 + 76/380 =1/nMGM  n AE a  2  n AE m  2
    1  ASME Elliptic line
 S   S 
 nMGM = 2.26. Safe.  e   yt 
ASME Elliptic Criterion:

[(nAE)a/Se]^2 + [(nAE)m/Syt]^2 =1
[nAE*46/190]^2 + [nAE*76/210]^2 =1
 nAE = 2.3. Safe.
Gerber Criterion:
(nG)a/Se + [(nG)m/Sut]^2 =1
nG*46/190 + [nG*76/380]^2 = 1
 0.04*nG^2+0.242*nG -1 = 0 Solving, nG = 2.82. Not Safe.
Endurance limit ≠ Endurance
strength for design! Why?
 Endurance limit (S’e) is only for
rotational bending of round bar of
R.R. Moore test
 Endurance strength (Se) is for all RR Moore Test Specimen

other types of finish, size, loading,
temperature, reliability and other
operating conditions
 How to find Se? We need to modify

the S’e by applying various
modifying factors Actual machine element

Endurance limit modifying
factors
S e  k a kb k c k d k e k f S '
e
'
Se  Unadjuste d endurance limit from R. R. Moore Test
k a  surface condition modificati on factor
k b  size factor
k c  load modificati on factor
k d  temperature modificati on factor
k e  reliabilit y factor
k f  miscellane ous effects factor
factors (contd)
Surface finish modifying factor:
Surface finish Sut in (MPa)
bs
k a  as Sut obtained through as bs
Ground 1.38 -0.067
where Sut is the ultimate Machined or Cold-rolled 3.04 -0.217
tensile strength Hot rolled 38.6 -0.650
As forged 54.9 -0.758
Size modifying factor for rotating circular cross-section shaft:
For bending & torsional loading for circular CS rotating shaft of diameter d :
1 if 0  d  7.62 mm

kb  1.24d 0.107 if 7.62  d  51 mm
 1.51d 0.157 if 51  d  254 mm

For axial loading, kb  1.
factors (contd)
Size modifying factor for non-rotating shafts:
For bending and torsional loading :

d / 7.620.107  1.24d 0.107 if 2.79  d  51 mm
kb  e e e
 0.859  0.000837d e if 51  d e  254 mm
de  equivalent diameter of cross - section of non - rotating shaft

de for non-rotating circular
shaft
=M*y/I
de
Case 1 : Non - rotating circular CS machine elements
A0.95 

4
d 2
e 
 0.95d e 2  0.0766d e2  (1), for rotating circular CS bars
A0.95  0.01046d 2  (2), for non - rotating circular CS bars

Equation (1) and (2) d e  0.37d

de for non-rotating rectangular
shaft
Case 2 : Non - rotating rectangular cross- section bars
A0.95 

4
d 2
e
2

 0.95d e   0.0766d e2  (1), for rotating circular CS bars
A0.95  0.05hb  (2), for non - rotating rectangular CS bars

Equating (1) and (2) d e  0.808 hb

de for non-rotating I-section
shaft
Case 3 : Non - rotating I cross - section bars :
A0.95 

4
d 2
e
2

 0.10at f , axis 1  1
A0.95   (2), for I - CS bars
0.05ba, t f  0.025a axis 2  2
Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.
de for non-rotating Channel
shaft
Case 4 : Non - rotating Channel CS bars :
A0.95 

4
d 2
e
2

 0.05ab, axis 1  1
A0.95   (2), for Channel - CS bars
0.052xa  0.1t f b  x , axis 2  2
Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.
factors (contd)
Load modifying factor:  1, bending

kc   0.85, axial
0.59, torsion

Temperature modifying factor:
where
Reliability modifying factor: ke  1 0.08za

Fatigue stress concentration
factors, Kf and Kfs
 Also called as fatigue strength
reduction factor
 A fillet, hole, diametric step etc. all
quality to be notches
K f  1  qK t  1
K fs  1  q s K ts  1
K f , K fs  for normal and shear stresses,respectively
q, q s  notch sensitivity value for normal and shear
stresses,respectively (from charts or Neuber equation)
K t , K ts  Theoretical stressconcentration factor, for
normal and shear stresses,respectively
How to get Kt, q, Kts, and qs?

Kt , Kts values for some cases:
Use the values of Kt & Kts from the table below if they are not
specified or information is not sufficient to extract from the
charts in Appendix-A.

How to estimate the notch
sensitivity values?
 Use the Neuber equation for all types of notches (alternatively
charts may be used)
1 K f  1  qK t  1
q or q s 
K fs  1  q s K ts  1
and
a
1
r
where r  notch radius

Some points on estimation of
Kf and Kfs
 Kf = 1+q(Kt -1).
 When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches, and
hence Kf=1.
 When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q is
almost equal to 1, the material has full notch sensitivity, and
hence Kf = Kt.. Remember, Kt Kf and hence more
conservative design results.
 In most practical cases the notch sensitivity is partial
rendering 0<q<1. Hence use Kf = 1+q(Kt -1).
 For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20.
 Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for
bending/axial and torsional loading.
How to apply Kf and Kfs
 If there is no notch, there is also no notch sensitivity,

q=0, and Kf=1. Hence m= m0 and a= a0. In other
words no stress concentration needs to be applied.
 When there is notch, 0<q<1, Kf>1, and:
 If localized plastic strain at the notch is to be avoided,
then apply Kf to both mean and range stresses.
m= Kf m0 and a= Kf a0.
 If localized plastic strain is not a concern or can not
be avoided by incorporating Kf, then apply Kf only to
the range stress.
m= m0 and a= Kf a0.

Demo Exercise:
For the plate with sudden change in dimensions as

below, for pure axial tensile load (a) find the
theoretical and fatigue stress concentration factors.
The fillet radius is r=3.84 mm and sizes of steps are
d=32 mm and D = 35.2 mm. (b) Repeat your
calculations by using Neuber equation for notch
sensitivity.

Solution:
For AISI  1030 HR, Table A  20, S ut  470MPa  0.470 GPa
r  3.84 mm, d  32 mm, D  35.2 mm
r/d  3.84 / 32  0.12; D/d  35.2 / 32  1.1
From chart (see next to next slide), K t  1.6
From chart (see the next slide), for S ut and r given, q  0.82
K f  1  qK t - 1  1  0.821.6  1  1.492
Using Table and Neuber equation:
S ut  470 MPa  68.2 kpsi

a  0.246-(3.08)(10-3)(68.2)+(1.51)(10-5)(68.2)2-(2.67)(10-8)(68.2)3=0.098 (inches)
= 0.492

q  1/ 1  a  
r  1 / 1  0.492 
3.84  0.8
K f  1  qKt - 1  1  0.81.6  1  1.48
Extracting q from the chart
r=3.84 mm
q = 0.82

Extracting Kt from the chart
Kt=1.6
0.12

Demo Exercise-2:
Solve the previous problem if the annealed steel plate is subjected

to a torque.

Solution:
For AISI  1030 HR, Table A  20, S ut  470MPa  0.470 GPa
r  3.84 mm, d  32 mm, D  35.2 mm
r/d  3.84 / 32  0.12; D/d  35.2 / 32  1.1
From chart (see next to next slide), K ts  1.18
From chart (see the next slide), for S ut and r given, q s  0.96
K fs  1  q s K ts - 1  1  0.961.18  1  1.1728
Using Table and Neuber equation:
S ut  470 MPa  68.2 kpsi

a  0.190-(2.51)(10-3)(68.2)+(1.35)(10-5)(68.2)2-(2.67)(10-8)(68.2)3=0.073 (inches)
= 0.369

q  1/ 1  a  
r  1 / 1  0.369 
3.84  0.842
K fs  1  qs K ts - 1  1  0.8421.18  1  1.152
Extracting Kts from Chart
Kts=1.18
0.12

Extracting q from the chart
r=3.84 mm
q = 0.96

Demo Exercise-2:
On a AISI-1020 HR Steel specimen of diameter 10 mm a varying bending moment of 3
kN-mm to 12 kN-mm is applied as shown in the figure. For infinite life, estimate the
operating factor of safety as per all the four Fatigue failure criteria. Take all the
endurance limit modifying factors into account except the miscellaneous effects
factor, which may be assumed to be unity. Apply the effect of stress concentration
at the fillet avoiding localized plastic strain using theoretical stress concentration
factor of 1.5 and Neuber’s equation for notch sensitivity. The shaft is to be used at a
temperature of 250 C and with a reliability of 95%.
2 mm fillet
radius
M

Solution:
From Table A-20, For AISI-1020 HR Steel, Syt =210 MPa; Sut = 380 MPa.
Since Sut <1400 MPa, Se’ = 0.5*Sut = 0.5*380 = 190MPa.
Estimation of Endurance Limit Modifying Factors:
Surface finish factor: k  a S bs
a s ut
=57.7*380^(-0.718) = 0.811.
Size modifying factor:
d / 7.620.107  1.24d 0.107 if 2.79  d  51 mm

kb  

 0.859  0.000837d if 51  d  254 mm
kb = 1.24*d^(-0.107) = 1.24*(10)^(-0.107) = 0.9692.
Load modifying factor: kc = 1 for bending load.
Temperature modifying factor: T = 250 C = 482 F
       
k d  0.975  0.432 10 3 (482)  0.115 10 5 (482) 2  0.104 10 8 (482) 3  0.595 10 12 (482) 4
= 1.0004

Solution (contd):
Reliability modifying factor:
ke  1 0.08za
For 95% reliability, ke = 1-0.08*1.165 = 0.9068.
Miscellaneous effects factor, kf = 1
Se = ka*kb*kc*kd*ke*kf*Se’
=(0.811)*(0.9692)*(1)*(1.0004)*(0.9068)*(1)*190
= 135.5 MPa
Mmax = 12 kN-mm; Mmin = 3 kN-mm.
a = 32*[(12000 - 3000)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 46 MPa.
m = 32*[(12000 + 3000)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 76 MPa.
Fatigue stress concentration factor:
= 0.1175 inches = 0.592 mm.

Solution (contd)
1
q =1/(1+ 0.592/sqrt(2)) =0.7049
a
1
r
K f  1  qKt  1 =1+0.7049*(1.5-1) = 1.3525.
Since the localized plastic strain has to be avoided, apply the
Kf to both mean stress and amplitude stress.
K fa K fm 1 K fa K fm 1
  ;  
Se S yt nSB Se S ut nMGM
2 2 2
nG K f  a  nG K f  m   n AE K f  a   n AE K f  m 
    1;     1
Se S ut   Se   S yt 
     
Solution (contd):
Soderberg Criterion:
Kf*a/Se + Kf*m/Syt =1/nSB
1.3525*46/135.5 + 1.3525*76/210 = 1/nSB  nSB = 1.05. Just Safe.
Modified Goodman Criterion:
Kf*a/Se + Kf*m/Sut =1  1.3525*46/135.5 + 1.3525*76/380 =1/nMGM
 nMGM = 1.37. Safe.
ASME Elliptic Criterion:
[Kf*(nAE)a/Se]^2 + [Kf*(nAE)m/Syt]^2 =1
 [nAE*1.3525*46/135.5]^2 + [nAE*1.3525*76/210]^2 =1  nAE = 1.5.
Safe.
Gerber Criterion:
Kf*(nG)a/Se + [Kf*(nG)m/Sut]^2 =1
 nG*1.3525*46/135.5 + [nG*1.3525*76/380]^2 = 1
 Solving, nG = 1.71. Safe.
Demo Exercise-2: Pure
Torsional Fatigue Loading
The shaft A, made of AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel, is welded to a fixed support and is subjected to
loading by equal and opposite forces F via shaft B. A theoretical stress-concentration factor
Kts of 1.6 is induced by the 3.175 mm fillet. The load F cycles from 667 to 2224 N.
(a) For shaft A, find the factor of safety for infinite life using the modified Goodman fatigue
failure criterion. (b) Repeat part (a) using the Gerber fatigue failure criterion.

Solution:
For AISI 2010 HR Steel:
Sut = 379 MPa; Kts = 1.6;
Fmin = 667 N; Fmax =2224 N.
From Neuber equation, qs = 0.8.
Kfs = 1+qs(Kts -1) = 1+0.8*(1.6-1) = 1.48.
Based on the principle of couple of forces, T = F*lB:
Tmax = 2224*(2*25.4) = 112979.2 N-mm
Tmin = 667*(2*25.4) = 33883.6 N-mm
max = 16*Kfs*Tmax/(d^3)= (16)(1.48)(112979.2)/(*22.3^3)
=77.5 MPa
min = 16*Kfs*Tmin/(d^3)= (16)(1.48)(33883.6)/(*22.3^3)
=23.3 MPa
Solution (contd):
Mean shear stress:
m = (max + min)/2 =(77.5+23.3)/2 = 50.4 MPa.
a = (max - min)/2 =(77.5-23.3)/2 = 27.1 MPa.
Endurance limit: For steel with Sut < 1400 MPa,
S’e = 0.5*Sut = 0.5*379 = 189.5 MPa.
For HR steel, ka = 57.7*379^(-0.178) = 0.81
Size factor: Since the shaft is welded, it is non-rotating. We
need equivalent diameter de = 0.37(22.3) = 8.23 mm.
kb = 1.24(8.23)^(-0.107) = 0.99
Since this is pure torsion, kc = 0.59; kd = ke = kf =1.
Sse = ka*kb*kc*kd*ke*kf*S’e = 0.81*0.99*0.59*1*1*1*189.5
= 89.6 MPa
Solution (contd):
Convert the ultimate tensile strength into
the ultimate shear strength:
Ssu = 0.67*Sut = 0.67*379 = 254 MPa.
(a) Modified Goodman criterion:
a m 1 27.1 57.4 1
    nMGM = 1.99
S se S su nMGM 89.6 254 nMGM
(b) Gerber criterion: nG
2  2
1  S su  a  1  1   2 m S se  
nG   
 S  S 
 = 2.49
 
2  m 
 se   su a  

Combined Loading: Bending Moment,
Torsion Axial Load In-phase
 Different types of cyclic loads

may be applied in combination,
for example, bending, axial and
torsional on machine
components.
P
 When the loads and in-phase, T
the maximum values of loads M
occurs at the same time and so M
are the minimum values. So
estimate the amplitude and T
mean values of each of bending,
axial and torsional stresses from P
that data. The fatigue SCF is
applied as appropriate on each
of them.

Design for Combined Fatigue Loading:
Bending, Torsion and Axial
 Applicable when the bending, axial and torsional
loads are in-phase
 Estimate the “amplitude” and “mean” values of
von-Mises equivalent stress
 For Se estimation use kc =1 and the remaining ki
as applicable
 'a  'm 1
And then, for example, Modified Goodman criterion:  
Se S ut nMGM
Demo Exercise: Combined
Loading
On a AISI-1212 HR Steel specimen of diameter 10 mm a
varying bending moment of 300 N-mm to 1200 N-mm, a
torque varying from 200 N-mm to 800 N-mm and an
axial load varying from -300 N to 300 N are applied in-
phase, estimate the fatigue factor of safety for infinite life
using Modified Goodman criterion. The notch radius is 2
mm. Kt = Kts = 1.6.

Solution:
Sut = 424 MPa. (a)bending = 32*[(1200 - 300)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 4.5837

MPa.
(m)bending = 32*[(1200 + 300)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 7.6395 MPa.
a=16*[(800-200)/2]/ [pi*(10)3]=1.528 MPa. m=16*[(800+200)/2]/
[pi*(10)3]=2.133 MPa.
(a)axial = 4*[(300 + 300)/2]/[pi*(10)2] = 3.819 MPa. (m)axial =0.
(a)bending/axial = 0.1074 inch. q= 1/[1+a/r] = 1/[1+
0.1074/(2/25.4)] = 0.7232.
Kf = 1+q (Kt-1) = 1+0.7232*(1.6 – 1) = 1.434.
(a)torsion=0.0804 inch. qs = 1/[1+a/r] = 1/[1+ 0.0804/(2/25.4)] =
0.7773.
Kfs = 1+qs (Kt-1) = 1+0. 7773*(1.6 – 1) = 1.4664.

Solution (contd):
={1.434*4.5837+1.434*3.819/0.85}2+3*{1.4664*1.528}2]1/2
=13.58 MPa.
=((1.434*7.6395+1.434*0/0.85)2+3*(1.4664*2.133)2)1/2
=12.22 MPa.
S’e=212 MPa; ka=57.7*(424)^(-0.718)=0.7494
kb=1.24de^(-0.107) =1.24*(3.7)^(-0.107) =1.078.
Se = (0.7494)*(1.078)*212 = 171.27 MPa.
Modified Goodman Criterion:
(13.58/171.27)+(12.22/424) = 1/nMGM.
nMGM =9.25.

Exercise: Combined Loading
in Fatigue
varying bending moment of 3 kN-mm to 12 kN-mm, a
torque varying from 2 kN-mm to 8 kN-mm and an axial
load varying from -3 kN to 3 kN are applied in-phase.
Estimate the fatigue factor of safety for infinite life using
Modified Goodman criterion. Neglect all the endurance
limit modifying factors and effect of stress concentration.

Exercise:

varying bending moment of 3 kN-mm to 12 kN-mm, a
torque varying from 2 kN-mm to 8 kN-mm and an axial
load varying from -3 kN to 3 kN are applied in-phase.
Estimate the fatigue factor of safety for infinite life using
Modified Goodman criterion. Neglect all the endurance
limit modifying factors.

Exercise-2: Combined
Loading in Fatigue
The shaft A, made of AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel, is welded to a fixed support and is subjected to
loading by equal and opposite forces F via shaft B. A theoretical stress-concentration factor
Kt s of 1.6 is induced by the 3.175 mm fillet. The length of shaft A from the fixed support to
the connection at shaft B is 610 mm. The load F cycles from 667 to 2224 N. The load P
varies between -1 kN to 3 kN. The load W varies between -0.5kN to 1.2 kN.
(a) For shaft A, find the factor of safety for infinite life using the modified Goodman fatigue
failure criterion.
(b) Repeat part (a) using the Gerber fatigue failure criterion.

Design for Finite Fatigue Life: Model
for HCF portion of S-N diagram
 Many times we need machine components to take higher loads and last
for a finite life
 In that case, we cannot use S’e itself as fatigue strength; we need to find
the fatigue strength from S-N diagram model
log( S f )  log( a)  b log( N )
We can find the constant a and b using

the BCs of the end points. Doing so
results in:
a

fSut 2 
Se
where f is the ratio of Sf at N=103 cycles to
the Sut of the material.
f =0.9 if Sut 490 MPa. For Sut > 490 MPa:
 
f  1.422107 Sut2  0.0003917Sut  1.049
Derivation Exercise:
Derive the expressions for the constants, a and b, in the model
for finite life zone of HCF. Also derive f.
Solution: ---(1)
Apply the two end conditions of finite life zone as two BCs:
At N=10^3, Sf = f*Sut ---(2)
At N = Ne = 10^6, Sf = S’e --- (3)
Substituting:
f*Sut =a*(10^3)^b ----(4)
Se’= a*(10^6)^b ---(5)
Equations (4)/(5) -> (f*Sut/Se’) = [a*(10^3)^b]/[a*(10^6)^b]=10^(-3b)
Applying log10 both sides: log(f*Sut/Se’) = log[10^(-3b)]=-3b*log10(10)=-3b, leading to:
b= -(1/3)log(f*Sut/Se’)
Finally, Square (4) both sides: (f*Sut)^2 =[a*(10^3)^b]^2 ---(6)
Equations (6)/(5) gives: a=(f*Sut)^2/S’e

Demo Exercise: Design for
finite life
varying bending moment of 300 N-mm to 1200 N-mm is
applied for 104 cycles. Estimate using the Modified
Goodman Criterion the maximum life of the component
for this load in number of cycles and the percentage of
damage accumulated.

Solution:
Sut = 424 MPa. a = 32*[(1200 - 300)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 4.5837 MPa.

m = 32*[(1200 + 300)/2]/[pi*(10)3] = 7.6395 MPa.
a/Sf + m/Sut =1; 4.5837/Sf + 7.6395/424 =1; Sf=4.6678 MPa.
S’e=212 MPa; Ka=57.7*(424)^(-0.718)=0.7494
kb=1.24de^(-0.107) =1.24*(3.7)^(-0.107) =1.078.
Se = (0.7494)*(1.078)*212 = 171.27 MPa.
a=(0.9*424)^2/171.27=850.22.
b=(-1/3)*log(f*Sut/Se) = (-1/3)*log(0.9*424/171.27)=-0.116.
Sf=4.6678=aNb = 850.22(N) -0.116; N =3.06*1019.
Damage accumulated = n/N =10000/3.06*1019=0.33*10-15.

Cumulative Fatigue Damage: Miner’s Rule
• In many applications, instead of a single stage of one combination of max &
min, several stages of different combinations of max & min are applied over
the life-time of the component; some damage is accumulated in each stage
• We use Miner’s rule to estimate the Cumulative fatigue damage for design
Stage Maximum stress Minimum stress No. of Cycles

1 360 160 8*(104)
2 320 -200 ?
… … … …
Stage k (max)k (min)k nk

ni
 c, 0.7  c  2.2 we take c  1 always.
Ni
where
ni is the number of cycles applied at stress level σ i
N i is the number of cycle to failure at stress level σ i
Exercise:
A flat leaf spring has fluctuating stress of σmax = 360

MPa and σmin = 160 MPa applied for 8*(104) cycles.
If the load changes to σmax = 320 MPa and σmin =
−200 MPa, how many cycles should the spring
survive? The material is AISI 1020 CD and has a
fully corrected endurance strength of Se = 175 MPa.
Assume that f = 0.9. Use Modified Goodman
Criterion.
(a) Use Miner’s method.
(b) Use Manson’s method.
Solution:
For AISI 1020 CD, From Table A-20, Sy = 390 MPa, Sut
= 470 MPa. Given: Se = 175 MPa.
Stage Maximum stress Minimum stress No. of Cycles
1 360 160 8*(104)
2 320 -200 ?
Since the mean stress is not

zero, we need to find the
equivalent fatigue strength
from the Modified
Goodman criterion.
As expected, the equivalent fatigue strength is less than the endurance limit
because the number cycles in the first stage are less than 1 million.
Problems on Combined Loading:
(1)
(2)
Problem on Miner’s Rule:

(S’f)infinite life for Cast-irons
(S’f)infinite life for Aluminium Alloys
S 
'
f N 103
 Sut (103 ) (log f ) / 3  Sut (10) 3(log f ) / 3  Sut (10) (log f )
Applying log both sides :
 
log S 'f
N 10 3
 
 log Sut (10) (log f )  log Sut  log f log10
 log Sut  log f  log fSut 
or
S 'f  fSut
Exercise:
Prove that the model for LCF satisfies
the boundary condition at 1000 cycles.
Solution:
S 
'
f N 103
 Sut (103 ) (log f ) / 3  Sut (10) 3(log f ) / 3  Sut (10) (log f )
Applying log both sides :
 
log S 'f
N 103
 
 log Sut (10) (log f )  log Sut  log f log10
 log Sut  log f  log fSut 
or
S 'f  fSut
62
Exercise:
Estimate the fatigue strength of a material with

Sut = 560 MPa for a finite life of 550 cycles.
Solution:
This is is LCF because N < 1000 cycles.
 
f  1.422107 Sut2  0.0003917Sut  1.049
Four specific types of cyclic loading identified in mechanical
systems:
• Reversed (completely reversed) – mean stress is

zero; equal reversals on both sides
• Repeated – minimum stress is zero; mean stress
equal to the range stress
• Fluctuating – maximum, minimum and mean
stress are all non-zero and arbitrary
• Alternating – minimum stress is zero; mean
stress is always compressive and is equal in
magnitude to range stress
Two important of those four types of cyclic (fatigue) loading
• Completely reversed cyclic loading

– The mean load is zero
– Normally has a well defined mathematical variation
such harmonic, square etc.
– Used for testing and measurement of endurance limit
of a given material
• Fluctuating loading
– The mean load is not zero
– The actual loading may not readily be given by a
mathematical function but needs to be approximated
– More critical and realistic than completely reversed
loading
Exercise:
The rotating solid steel shaft

is supported by long
journal bearings at points
B and C and is driven by a
gear (not shown) which
meshes with the spur gear
at D, which has a 150-mm
pitch diameter.
The force F from the drive gear acts at a pressure angle of 20°. The shaft
transmits a torque to point A of TA = 340 N · m. The shaft is machined
from steel with Sy = 420 MPa and Sut = 560 MPa. Using a design factor
of 2.5, determine the minimum allowable diameter of the 250-mm
section of the shaft based on (a) a static yield analysis using the
distortion energy theory and (b) a fatigue-failure analysis. The fillet radii
at the bearing shoulders for estimating stress-concentration factors.
Solution:
F cos20(d / 2) = TA ;
F = 2 TA / ( d cos 20)
= 2(340*1000) / (150 cos 20) = 4824 N.
The maximum bending moment will be at point C.

MC = 4824(100) = 482400 N-mm = 482.4 N·m.
(a) Static Design:
(b) Fatigue Design:
Due to the rotation, the bending is completely reversed, while the torsion is constant.
Thus, Ma = 482.4 N·m, Tm = 340 N·m, Mm = Ta = 0.
For sharp fillet radii at the shoulders, from Table 7-1, Kt = 2.7, and Kts = 2.2. Examining
Figs. 6-20 and 6-21 (pp. 295 and 296 respectively) with 560 MPa, ut S conservatively
estimate q = 0.8 and These estimates can be checked once a specific fillet radius
is determined.


M4-1-
Fundamentals of
Screw Threads
Hyderabad Campus
Scope:
Introduction
Thread Standards and Definitions
Design of Power Screws
The Mechanics of Power Screws
Body stresses and failure prediction
Design of Non-permanent fasteners
Threaded Fasteners (Bolts and Bolted Joints)
Joints – Fastener Stiffness
Member Stiffness
Bolt Strength
Tension Joints – External Load
Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
Gasketed Joints
Tension Joints in Dynamic Loading
Adequacy Assessment, Specification Set, Decision Set and Design
Shear Joints
Non-threaded fasteners
Pins and Keys
Omitted:
Section 8-9 and statistical treatment and formulae throughout the chapter 8

Introduction
 Design of machine elements needs geometry and joints; single

integral parts will not do
 Joints may be permanent, semi-permanent and non-permanent

joints
 Helical screw is an non-permanent joint
 Helical screw was a very important invention
 The biggest challenge in designing a joint made up of screws is to

enable the total product retain its shape and functionality without
“coming apart” under external load

Thread Standards and
Definitions
2
3
4
1
5
8
6
LEAD AND MULTI-THREADED
SCREWS
 Linear distance moved by the
screw for one rotation of nut is the
1 rotation
lead,
l = p * multiplicity of threading
p
Double threaded, l=2p

l=p
Triple-threaded, l=3p

Demo Exercise:
Question:
A screw is to be used to advance the carriage
of machine tool. Two screws having equal 1 rotation
pitch (1.5 mm) but one having multiplicity
of threading of 2 (double threaded) and the
second 3 (triple-threaded) are being used.
Assuming the automated screw speed to
be same in both cases, which screw’s use p
will introduce greater surface roughness
on turned part?
Answer: The lead for the first screw is l=t*p

2*1.5 = 3 mm and that for second screw
is 3*1.5=4.5 mm. Since the second
screw gives higher feed rate, cut will be
rougher in second case.

TWO APPLICATIONS OF
THREADED SCREWS
Power screw applications
 Square threads
 Acme threads
Electric screw jack
 Used in machine tools, screw operated lift table
compressors etc.
The Joyce worm-

Fasteners Bench Vice / Work Vise gear screw jack.
 Metric threaded (triangular)

 Used for bolts, screws etc.

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Design of Power Screws

Demo Exercise: Geometric
Parameters of Power Screws
A power screw is to
be 23 mm in major
diameter and has a
recommended thread
pitch of 7 mm. It has
to be single-threaded. dm dm
(a) Square thread; (b) ACME thread.
(a) Find the thread depth, the thread width, the mean and root diameters, and the lead,
provided square threads are used.
(b) Repeat part-a for Acme threads Will using Acme thread make any difference?

Solution:
(p/2)/2
(p/2)/2

Design of Power Screw for
Raising a Load
 Our goal is to estimate the Raising (TR) and Lowering (TL)
torque required for a power screw
F=Weight
to be dm = mean diameter
Lifted
p = pitch
λ= lead angle
ψ=helix angle
How F=axial compressive force

much
TR & TL?

Raising Torque
PR
  f 
F  l 
  d   d m Fdm  l  fd m 
tan=(l / dm)
PR 
m
TR  PR    
1   f .l 
 2 2  d m  fl 
 d m 
Lowering Torque
PL
For tan=(l / dm),
 
F  f   l   fdm  l  d m Fdm  fd m  l 
  d m   PL  F    TL  PL    
PL 
 d m  fl  2 2  d m  fl 
1   f .l 

 d m  BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Collar Friction and Self-
locking condition
Ff c d c
Tc  TR  TR  TC TL  TL  TC
2
 Whenever, the load does NOT lower by
itself unless a positive TL is applied, the
screw is said to be self-locking
 The condition for self-locking is found
without collar friction torque
Fdm  fd m  l  TL  0   f d m  l
TL   
2  d m  fl 
Divide both sides by dm. Since l/ dm =tan, we get f  tan 
Thus the screw is self locking whenever the coefficient of friction is greater
than the tangent of the lead angle.To enable this use limited lead angles.

Thread friction and collar
friction data
 Use these friction coefficient values if not specified

Efficiency of Power Screws
 It is the ratio of raising torque without friction to the

raising torque with friction
Fd m  l  fd m  To Fl
To  TR f  f 0  


 
Fl
e 
c 2  d m  fl  2
f  f c 0
TR 2TR
Raising Torque for ACME Screws:
Fdm  l  fd m sec  

TR   
2  d m  fl sec  

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Design for Static Loading of Power

Screws
State of Stress in Power Screw
16TR
Body torsional Shear Stress=  yz  , TR  TL
d r3
F 4F
Body axial compressive stress=  y  
A d r2
Thread friction force induced shear stress:
Thread bending stress:

M  p  d r ( p / 2) 3  p / 2  6F
 x  b   F   nt 
I c  4  12 2  d r nt p
 '
1
2
 x  y    y   z 
2 2
  z   x  2

 6  xy
2
  2yz   zx
2

1
2 
Sy
n DE
In estimating thread stresses (b and zx) use 0.38F for F and set nt= 1 for largest level
of stresses.
Demo Exercise:
In the Fig-Q1, the screw jack is shown working with a square-
threaded double-start power screw. Determine the (a) lifting
torque, (b) lowering torque, and (c) efficiency of the power
screw. (d) Is it self-locking? Justify your answer. The sliding
friction between the threads as well as collar is 0.15. The
load on the screw jack is 4.45 kN. The mean collar
diameter is 45 mm. The power screw has a major diameter
of 35 mm and pitch of 5 mm. (e) If everything else remains
same but square-threaded screw is replaced by ACME
threaded screw, what is the percentage increase/decrease
in lifting efficiency? (f) If the square-threaded power screw
in the above question is made of AISI-1020 CD steel,
estimate the operating factor of safety against failure by
yielding at the root of the thread according to the DE
criterion.

Solution:
(a) d = 35 mm; p = 5 mm; f=fc=0.15; dc = 45 mm; F=4.45 kN
dm = d – p/2 = 35 – 5/2 = 32.5 mm; dr = d – p = 35 – 5 =30 mm.
Lead l = 2*p =2*5 = 10 mm;
Fd m  l  fd m  Ff c d c
TR   
 d  fl   2
2  m 
TR = (4.45)(1000)(32.5)/2)*[(10+pi*0.15*32.5)/(pi*32.5 –
0.15*10)]+((4.45)(1000)*0.15*45/2)
= 72312.5*(25.3/100.6)+15018.75=18096 + 15019 = 33115 N-mm.
(b) Fd m  fd m  l  Ff c d c
TL    
2  d m  fl  2
TL = (4.45)(1000)*32.5/2)*((pi*0.15*32.5 – 10)/(pi*32.5+0.15*10))
=3710 + 15019 =18729 N-mm.
Solution (contd):
(c) e = F*l/(2*pi*TR)
= (445)(1000)*10/(2*pi*33115) = 0.214 or 21.4%.
Efficiency without collar friction
=(445)(1000)*10/(2*pi*18096)=0.39 or 39%.
(d) For self-locking, the condition is that the thread

coefficient of friction (f) should be greater than
l/(pi*dm) = 10/(pi*32.5) = 0.098.
Since f=0.15, It is self locking because f > 0.098.

Solution (contd):
(e) For ACME thread, 2 = 29;  = 29/2 = 14.5
Fd m  l  fd m sec   Ff c d c
TR   
 d  fl sec    2
2  m 
TR = ((445)(1000)*32.5/2)*[(10+pi*0.15*32.5*sec(14.5))/(pi*32.5 -
0.15*10*sec(14.5))] + ((445)(1000)*0.15*45/2)
=72312.5*(25.82/100.55)+15019 = 18569 + 15019 = 33588 N-mm.
e*= (445)(1000)*10/(2*pi*33588) = 0.21 or 21%.
Percentage decrease in efficiency is 100*(21.4 - 21)/21.4 = 1.87%.
Without collar friction, e*= (445)(1000)*10/(2*pi*18569)
= 0.3814 or 38.14%.
Without collar friction, percentage decrease in efficiency is:
100*(39 - 38.14)/39 = 2.21%.
Solution (contd)
(f) For AISI-1020 CD steel, from Table A-20, Syt =Syc= 390 MPa.
Body torsional shear stress:
yz =16*TR/(pi*dr^3) = 16*33115/(pi*30^3) = 6.25 MPa.
Body axial stress: y=-4*445*1000/(pi*30^2) = -6.3 MPa.
Thread bending stress:
x=6F/(pi*dr*nt*p)=6*(0.38)*4450)/(pi*30*(1)*5)=21.5 MPa.
Friction force induced thread shear stress:
xz =4TR/(pi*dr^2*nt*p) =4*0.38*33115/(pi*30^2*1*5) =3.6 MPa.
     y   z   
1
 ' 1 2  x  y 2 2
  z   x 
2
 6  xy
2
  2yz   zx
2 2
’= sqrt(((21.5-(-6.3))^2+(6.3-0)^2+(0-21.5)^2+6(0+6.25^2+3.6^2))/2)
=28.2 MPa.
nDE = Syt/’ = 390/28.2 = 13.8. Safe.

Check Separately for (1) Bearing Stress,
(2) Transverse Shear, (3) Buckling
Bearing stress failure:
F 2F S yc
B   
d m nt p 2 d m nt p n DE c
Transverse shear stress :

c
3V 3 F 3F Ssy c c c
   
2 A 2 d r nt p 2 d r nt p nMSS
c
Buckling failure: For stability

By J. B. Johnson’s formula:
2 lc
F  S y lc  1 (a) Both ends rounded or pivoted;
   Sy   

 2 k  CE
 A  crit (b) both ends fixed;
(c) one end free and one end fixed;
(d) one end rounded and pivoted, and
one end fixed.
Demo Exercise:
For the previous problem, check

whether (a) bearing pressure is
tolerable as per the DE criterion. (b) lc
Check whether the transverse shear
can cause failure as per MSS. (c)
Estimate the maximum safe
extension of power screw above the
nut that will not result in buckling.
Treat the power-screw as a column
with top end free and bottom end
fixed. For AISI-1020 CD steel, use E
= 200 GPa.

Solution:
(a) F 2F S yc
B   
d m nt p 2 d m nt p n DE
B = 2*0.38*4450/(pi*32.5*1*5) = 6.62 MPa.
nDE = Syc/B = 390/6.62 = 59. Safe.
(b)   3V  3 F

3F

Ssy
2A 2 d r nt p 2 d r nt p nMSS
 = 3*0.38*4450/(pi*30*1*5) = 10.8 MPa.

Ssy = 0.5*Syt = 0.5*390 = 195 MPa.
nMSS = Ssy/ = 195/10.8 = 18.1. Safe

Solution (contd):
(c) Buckling: By J. B. Johnson’s formula lc
2
F  S y lc  1
   Sy   

 A  crit  2 k  CE
Radius of gyration = dm/2 = 32.5/2 = 16.25 mm.

Crippling stress:
(F/A)cr = F/(pi*(dm^2)/4)
= 4450/(pi*32.5^2/4) = 5.4 MPa.
cr = (Syt - (Syt*lc/(2*pi*k))^2/(C*E)
lc = sqrt((390 – 5.4)*(1/4)*200*1000*(2*pi*16.25/390)^2)
= 1148 mm.
Exercise-2:
A square-thread power screw has a major diameter of 32 mm and a

pitch of 4 mm with double threads. The given data include f = fc =
0.08, dc = 40 mm, and F = 6.4 kN.
(a) Find the thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor diameter,
and lead.
(b) Find the torque required to raise and lower the load.
(c) Find the efficiency during lifting the load.
(d) Find the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
(e) Find the bearing stress on the first thread.
( f ) Find the thread bending stress at the root of the first thread.
(g) Determine the von Mises stress at the critical stress element where
the root of the first thread interfaces with the screw body
(h) Find the safe extended length of the power screw to prevent
buckling instability


M4-2-Design of
Fasteners
Hyderabad Campus
Scope:
Design of Non-permanent fasteners
– Metric Threaded Fasteners (Bolts and Bolted Joints)
• Joints – Fastener Stiffness
• Member Stiffness
• Bolt Strength
• Tension Joints – External Load
• Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
• Gasketed Joints
• Tension Joints in Dynamic Loading
• Adequacy Assessment, Specification Set, Decision Set
and Design

Static Loading Conditions of
Threaded Fasteners
 Tension Joints
 Direct Shear Joints
 Torsion Joints (Eccentric loading)
Gasket Seal
Direct Shear Joint Torsion Joints
Tension Joints
(Eccentric loading)
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
Design of Tension Joints of

Fasteners
Tensile Stress Area
dt

d t  d r  d p  / 2 At  d t2
4
dt

Demo Exercise:
Question:
Between two screws having
same major diameter and
subjected to same load,
which will have greater
tensile member strength,
coarse-pitch screw or fine-
pitch screw?
Answer:
The one with fine-pitched
threads. (Why?)
Because, from this table, you
can see that the tensile stress
area is more for fine-pitch
series threads.
THE TWO STAGES OF LOADING
OF A BOLT IN A TENSION JOINT
 Stage 1st: Initial Loading stage
(nut tightening)
 Stage 2nd: Actual external loading
stage (for example, introduction of
gas into a pressure vessel)
Fi Fi
Fi + +
Fi
Pb Pm P
T pf
pa

Stage-1: Initial Loading (Fi)
0.75 F p : For non-permanent joints and re-used joints
Fi  
0.90 F p : For permanent connections
Fp  At S p
Initial load is
applied by
tightening
the nut

Demo Exercise:
For a pressure vessel bolted assembly

with eight bolts, The joint is subject to
occasional disassembly for
maintenance and should be preloaded
accordingly. Assume the external load
is equally distributed to all the bolts. It
has been determined to use M6 × 1
coarse pitch series class-5.8 bolts with
rolled threads. Find the initial load that
Initial load is
can be applied. applied by
tightening
the nut

Solution:
Given: M6 × 1 as the metric bolt type.
Therefore, its d = 6 mm, p = 1 mm.
Bolts used are 5.8 class.
The joint is to be dis-assembled at times.
From the Table 8-1, for d=6 mm, for coarse
Initial load is
pitch series, the tensile stress area = At applied by
tightening
=20.1 mm . 2 the nut
For class-5.8 bolts, from Table 8-11, the minimum assured proof
strength is Sp = 380 MPa.
Proof load = Fp = Sp*At = 380*20.1 = 7638 N.
For the joint to be dis-assembled occasionally, the initial load to
be applied Fi = 0.75*Fp = 0.75*7638 = 5728.5 N = 5.73 kN.

Threaded Non-permanent Fasteners:
Bolts/Screws and Design of bolted joints
 Bolt is the ubiquitous machine element; there is virtually

no machine without atleast one bolt/screw
 The purpose of a bolt is to clamp two or more parts
together
 The clamping load stretches or elongates the bolt
 The load is obtained by twisting the nut until the bolt has
elongated almost to the elastic limit; this load acts as
preload
 While tightening the nut the bolt head should be held
stationary, this protects the shank

Threaded Non-permanent Fasteners:
Bolts/Screws and Design of bolted joints
 Locations of stress concentration in a bolt
 At the fillet
 At the run-out (?)
 At the thread-root fillet in the plane of the nut
 The washer face and washers are meant to prevent

fatigue failure of bolt that may result when the burs on the
imperfectly drilled bolt holes cut into the bolt head

Nomenclature of bolt and
location of stress concentration
(See Tables A-29)
Washer =0.4 mm
Face
d= Major
diameter
LT chamfer
Chamfer ld
What are these L
different circles?
Total length of the bolt:

 2d  6 L  125 d  48
L =tw+t1+t2+…+tn+tw+Nut thickness+2*pitch 
LT   2d  12 125  L  200
2d  25 L  200
ld=L-LT 

Demo Exercise:
An M14 × 2 hex-head bolt with a regular sized hexagonal nut
is used to clamp together two 15-mm steel plates.
(a) Determine a suitable length for the bolt.
(b) Find the threaded length of the bolt.
(c) Find the unthreaded shank length of the bolt.

Solution:
Given that the metric bolts are M14 × 2 and
therefore they have d=14 mm; p=2 mm.
Thickness of each member is t1=t2=15 mm.
From Table A-31, for M14, for regular sized
hexagonal nut, the nut height H = 12.8 mm.
(a) Hence, bolt overall length, since no washers
are used, is:
L = t1+t2+H+2*p = 15+15+12.8+2*2 = 46.8 mm.
Rounding up, L = 47 mm.
(b) For L125 mm, LT = 2*d+6 =2*14+6 =34 mm.
(c) The unthreaded shank length of the bolt is:
ld = L-LT = 47-34 = 13 mm.

Hexagonal nut and its dimensions. See
Table A-31 (next slide) for dimensions
Jam nuts: they are thinner

(a) end view, general; (b) washer-faced regular nut; (c) regular nut chamfered on
both sides; (d) jam nut with washer face; (e) jam nut chamfered on both sides.
Caution: F has been called as W in the Table A-31.
Notice that the dimension H includes the washer face thickness which is
normally 0.4 mm.
Washers
N = narrow;
R = regular;
W = wide.
*Same as screw or bolt size.

Second Stage Loading: External
Tensile Load on Bolted Joint
 The tension bolted joint subjected to tensile load
of Ptotal may have N number of bolts
 We design one bolt joint and it applies to all other
bolts
P = External tensile load per bolt = Ptotal /N
Pb = portion of P taken by the bolt
Pm = portion of P taken by the conical frusta of
volume of members around that one bolt
Fb = Pb+Fi = resultant bolt load
Fm = Pm-Fi = resultant load on the conical frusta of
volume of members around that one bolt
Here Fi = Initial load or pre-load
Second Stage External Tensile
Loading of Bolted Joint
Fi Fi
+ +
Pb Pm P
= Stiffness Constant of the Joint

External Tensile Loading of
Bolted Joint
Thus only when Fm  0,
Fi Fi
km P
Fm  Pm  Fi   Fi  (1  C ) P  Fi + +
kb  km Pb Pm P
kb P
Fb  Pb  Fi   Fi
kb  k m
 CP  Fi
But how do we estimate kb and km?

Estimation of kb
 A bolt may be used in two different
cases of applications:
(1)with a nut ld
- All the members will have only plain holes, no lt
threading
- The bolt head and the nut grip the members
(2) without a nut Case 1: With a nut
- All the members except the last member have plain
holes, no threading
- The last member is provided with threaded hole ld
and it functions as the nut
lt
- The bolt may be only partially threaded-in or
coming out but no nut is used
 IMPORTANT: The grip length needs to
Case 2: Without a nut
be differently estimated in the two cases.
Design methodologies for the
two cases: Given “d” and “p”
Grip length= LG  t1  t2  t w Effective Grip L'  h  min t2 , d 

 2 2
G
length=
Fastener Length= L  LG  H  2 p, roundup
Fastener Length= L  h 1.5d
Length of useful unthreaded portion= Length of useful unthreaded portion=
ld  L  LT ld  L  LT
Length of the useful threaded portion: Length of the useful threaded portion:
lt  LG  ld lt  L'G  ld
Bolt Stiffness (kb) in Tension
Joint
Consider two springs in series:
1 1 1 k1 k 2
   k
k1  k 2
k k1 k 2
k d kt
Apply the same concept kb 
to the stiffness of the grip k d  kt
length of the bolt:
At E Ad E kd kt
Here: kT  kd 
lt ld
Ad At E
d kb 
2
= Cross-sectional area of the shank
Ad 
4
(unthreaded) portion
Ad lt  At ld
At = Tensile stress area from Table 8-1 for metric threads
km = Resultant stiffness of frusta of cones of
volume of members around the bolt
dw
 For members, the case of springs in series applies
k1
1 1 1 1 1 1 P.dx
     ....  d  k2 d
k m k1 k 2 k3 k 4 ki EA
 D d  
2 2
D  d  Dd 
k3

A   (ro2  ri )    x tan           x tan  
2
 x tan    k4
 2   2    2  2 
k5
Integrating:
t
P dx dw
 .E 0 x tan   D  d  2x tan   D  d  2


P
ln
2t tan   D  d D  d 
 .Ed tan  2t tan   D  d D  d 
P  .Ed tan 
k 
 ln
2t tan   D  d D  d 
2t tan   D  d D  d 
Special Case of All Members
Made of the Same Material dw
 .Ei d tan 
k mi 
 2t tan   Di  d Di  d  
If for ith member, ln  i 
 2ti tan   Di  d Di  d  
When all members are made of same material then we will use
only two identical frusta with same k and E and arranged back
to back, Hence the resultant member stiffness becomes:
dw
1 1 1 1 1 2 k
      km 
k m km1 km2 k k k 2
 .Ed tan 
km 
2 ln
2t tan   D  d D  d 
2t tan   D  d D  d 
A & B are
Taking α=30 0.577 .Ed km constants; l is
km 
and  0.577l  0.5d   A exp( Bd / l ) the grip length; d
2 ln 5  Ed is the major
D=dw=1.5d:  0.577l  2.5d  diameter of bolt.
Demo Exercise on Bolt
Stiffness :
An M14 × 2 hex-head coarse pitch series threaded bolt with a regular sized
hexagonal nut is used to clamp together two 15-mm steel plates. E
=207 GPa. One regular hexagonal nut and regular washer on the nut-
side are used.
(a) Determine the bolt stiffness.
(b) Determine the stiffness of members.
(c) Determine the stiffness constant of the tensile bolt joint.

Solution:
Bolt stiffness: Ad At E
kb 
Ad lt  At ld
Ad = pi*d^2/4 = pi*14^2/4 = 154 mm.
For M14, for coarse pitch series threads, the tensile stress
area from Table 8-1 is At=115 mm^2.
One regular sized washer is used on the nut-side. From Table
A-33, for tw = 3.5 mm.
From Table A-31, for M14, the regular size hexagonal nut
height is 12.8 mm.
L = t1+t2+tw+H+2*p = 15+15+3.5+12.8+2*2 = 50.3 = 51 mm.
LT = 2*d+6 = 2*14+6 = 34 mm.
ld = L-LT = 51-34 = 17 mm.
Solution (contd):
Grip length: LG = t1+t2+tw = 15+15+3.5 = 33.5 mm.

lt = LG-ld = 33.5-17 = 16.5 mm.
(a) Ad At E
kb 
Ad lt  At ld
kb = (154)*(115)*(207)*(1000)/(154*16.5+115*17)
= 815380 N/mm
(b) Member stiffness: Since both the members are of same
steel material, we can use the special case of two equal
conical frusta back-to-back formula.
km From Table 8-8, the constants A and B for steel are:
 A exp( Bd / l ) A = 0.78715, B = 0.62873; l = LG = 33.5 mm. Hence:
Ed
km = (207)*(1000)*(14)*(0.78715)*exp(0.62873*14/(33.5)) = 2966700 N/mm
Solution (contd)
0.577 .Ed
Using instead the formula: km 
 0.577l  0.5d 
2 ln 5 
 0.577l  2.5d 
km =
(0.577)*pi*(207)*(1000)*(14)/(2*log(5*((0.577*33.5+0.5*14)/(0.577*33.5+2.5*14))))
= 2967700 N/mm.
It is clear that both the formula are giving the same answer.
(c) The stiffness constant of the tensile bolted joint C =

kb/(kb+km)
= 815380/(815380+2967700) = 0.2155.

Gasketed Joints:
Pressure on the gasket is given by

Fm

p gasket
Ag / N 
N = Number of bolts in the joint;
Ag = Total Gasket Annular Area
Sut
p gasket 
nd
Gasket

Condition on Bolt Circle
Diameter in Gasketed Joints
 In full gasketed joints uniformity of pressure on the gasket is important.
 To maintain adequate uniformity of pressure adjacent bolts should not be placed
more than six nominal diameters apart on the bolt circle.
 Spacing between bolts= *Db/N < 6*d, where d = major diameter of the bolt
 The contradictory requirement is that to maintain wrench
clearance bolt should be placed at least three diameters apart.
 To bring these two contradictory requirements together to a
balanced status, the following rule is normally followed.
Db
3d   6d
N
Db
3 6
Nd
Db  diameter of bolt circle
N  No. of bolts
Pre-load torque
Fi = Bolt Pre-load, How much? ->
T  KFi d
 d m  tan   f sec 
K      0.625 f c
 2d  1  f sec tan  
Demo Exercise on Pre-load Torque
in Torque Wrench for Race Car:

Demo Exercise on Full
Tension Joint Design:
Use preferred numbers to round of all critical machine element dimensions.

Solution:
(b) From Table A-31, nut height for M20 bolt is H =18 mm.
L = tw+t1+t2+tw+H+2p = LG+H+2p = 48+18+2*2.5 = 71 mm. Using the preferred
numbers Table A-17, rounding off, L = 80 mm.
lt = LG-ld = 48-34 = 14 mm.

Solution (contd):
(b) Factor of safety against yielding:

The tensile stress in the bolt =  = (CP+Fi)/At = (0.228*20+132.3)*1000/245
= 558.6 MPa.
Factor of safety ny = Sp/ = 600/558.6 = 1.07. Safe.

Solution(contd)

Exercise:
Cylinder head is steel; cylinder is grade 30 cast iron.
*****Syllabus for midsem exam upto here*****

Design for Fatigue Loading of
Tension Bolt Joints
For the special case of Pmax = P and Pmin =0:
CP CP Fi
a  m  
2 At 2 At At
Goodman
a m 1
 
Se S ut nf
Gerber ASME _ elliptic
2 2
nfa  nfm 
2 a  m 
     1
   1
 S   Sp  2
Se  e    n
 S ut  f


L1-1: Introduction: BITS Pilani

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L1-1: Introduction: BITS Pilani

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ME F314: Design of Machine Elements

BITS Pilani Dr. Srinivasa Prakash Regalla

 Mechanical design for both static and dynamic loading

 Design of most common machine elements such as:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

When we design a specific machine component, some of these

Design for Strength:

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

We will design the entire beam for the

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

For non-trivial solution for ni, of this

 3p  I1 p2  I 2 p  I 3  0 Here I1, I2, I3 are the stress invariants.

• Since the cubic term already has coefficient as 1,

• Factors of 8 are: 2, -2, 1 -1, 4, -4

• Try the factor -2: (-2)^3-3*(-2)^2 - 6*(-2)+8=0.

Find the principal stresses for the following state of stress.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

How to produce pure M?

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

At the critical point A:

Solution: This is a stiffness based design problem.

For the cantilever beam shown plot the distribution of

• Since maximum transverse shear stress occurs at

• The concept of strict liability (used in the USA)

• Design engineers should review the

• Your communication skills are important here

• Here you are selling your technical abilities

• All your work may be misunderstood unless you

• Know you audience

L-2-1: Design of Machine

 Static strength of material is determined on UTM in

 Static loading is due to a load whose magnitude, director

Uncertainty – Design Factor – Factor

 The design factor is always a specified value by experienced senior

It may be used for strength (MPa) also.

When yielding is treated as failure:

• Estimated after the preferred numbers are chosen for

• Estimation of factor of safety is generally associated

• If the estimated factor of safety is n>1, then the

Design for Static Loading

 Need for failure criteria - general

 Different failure criteria for ductile and

• For a brittle material,

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Prove that the shear yield strength of a ductile material is

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Find the safe diameter of the cantilever W

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Try the factor -2: (-2)^3-3(-2)^2 - 6(-2)+8=0.

max = (Mmax)(c)/I = 32Mmax/[pi*(10)3] S e'  

min = (Mmin)(c)/I = 32Mmin/[pi*(10) ] 3  Soderberg line